Day: September 5, 2024

Introduction: “A Conquest Foretold” by Ranajit Guha

“A Conquest Foretold” by Ranajit Guha, first appeared in 1998 in the Subaltern Studies journal, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its groundbreaking approach to historical narratives. Guha’s work challenged the traditional Eurocentric perspective, focusing instead on the voices and experiences of the subaltern, or the marginalized sections of society. By examining the conquest of Bengal from the perspective of the conquered, Guha offered a radically different understanding of historical events and laid the foundation for postcolonial studies.

Summary of “A Conquest Foretold” by Ranajit Guha

1. Historical Context of British Conquest in India: Ranajit Guha’s article, A Conquest Foretold, explores the significance of the British conquest of India, particularly focusing on the Battle of Plassey in 1757. This battle marked a pivotal moment in British colonial history, representing the beginning of British dominance in Bengal. However, Guha emphasizes that the conquest of India was a gradual process, not confined to one battle, but unfolding over a century through a series of military victories, political maneuvering, and annexations. (“The conquest… would take nearly one hundred more years of war, intrigue, and piecemeal annexation.” p. 87)
2. Colonial Historiography and the Right of Conquest: Guha critiques colonial historians’ portrayal of the British conquest as inevitable, examining how early colonial histories constructed a narrative of the British “right of arms” in India. He references Alexander Dow’s The History of Hindostan, which asserted that the East India Company ruled Bengal by the “right of arms” rather than by political legitimacy. Guha contrasts this view with classical political philosophy, such as Hobbes, who argued that victory alone did not confer legitimate rule. A covenant or submission by the conquered was necessary to transform conqueror into ruler. (Hobbes in L eviathan p. 88)
3. Datability and the Manipulation of Historical Events: The datability of events like the Battle of Plassey, marked by its specific calendar date, is essential in colonial narratives, providing symbolic importance. Guha illustrates how colonial historiography elevated this relatively minor event into the cornerstone of British imperial expansion in South Asia. Yet, historians like William Hunter expressed doubts about the historical weight placed on Plassey, acknowledging that it was not until later events that British supremacy was truly established. (“The immediate results of the victory were comparatively small,” p. 89)
4. Conquest and Symbolism: Guha delves into how symbolic acts, such as ceremonial processions or planting flags, were used by European powers to legitimize their claims over newly conquered territories. He suggests that these acts served to codify conquest as a “right” in the colonial imagination, transforming raw military force into a legitimate, future-oriented imperial project. (Patricia Seed on colonial ceremonial acts, p. 87)
5. Conquest as Destiny: The article reflects on the notion of conquest as predestined or inevitable, drawing parallels between empire and fate. Guha refers to Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, where the protagonist Marlow reflects on empire as a journey into fate, symbolizing how European imperialism was imbued with a sense of destiny. Conquest, in this view, is not merely an act of force but a fateful event intertwined with historical and existential meaning. (Marlow’s reflection on empire, p. 91)
6. The Duality of Conquest Narratives: Guha concludes by acknowledging the duality of conquest narratives—one told by the conquerors and another by the conquered. The former celebrates victory and power, often through grandiose depictions of empire, while the latter is marked by trauma, loss, and despair. Guha argues that the story of conquest is incomplete without acknowledging both perspectives, as the voices of the conquered tell a narrative of resistance and survival. (“There is no conquest that has only one story to it,” p. 95)
7. Conquest as Pain and Nationalism: The article also explores the psychological impact of conquest on the colonized, drawing from Freud’s ideas on trauma. Guha suggests that the memory of conquest, particularly traumatic events like the Battle of Plassey, fuels nationalist sentiment, with the pain of defeat being recontextualized into a source of strength for anti-colonial movements. (“Consequently, for every narrative of triumph… there is a counternarrative of defeat,” p. 97)

Literary Terms/Concepts in “A Conquest Foretold” by Ranajit Guha

Term/Concept	Definition (in the context of the essay)	Example
Datability	The quality of being able to be assigned a specific date or time	The Battle of Plassey being dated June 23, 1757
Foretelling	The act of predicting the future	Historians manipulating the date of the Battle of Plassey to mark the beginning of the British Raj
Historiography	The study and writing of history	William Hunter’s work on the British Raj
Linear concept of time	The idea that time progresses in a straight line from past to future	Hunter’s view of history separates past from future
Narrative	A story	The story of the British conquest of India
Past	A period of time preceding the present	The Mughal Empire existing before the British conquest
Present	The current time	The pain of colonization felt by the author’s generation
Prophecy	A prediction about the future, especially one claimed to be made by a divine or supernatural agency	The oracle at Delphi refusing to answer Oedipus about his past and instead prophesying his future
Ruse	A cunning trick or maneuver	Historians manipulating the date of the Battle of Plassey
Selectivity	The act of choosing some things and rejecting others	Historians focusing on the Battle of Plassey but not the struggles of ordinary people
Temporality	The state or fact of being subject to or influenced by time	The conquest being spread out over many years despite a specific battle date
Temporality (of discourse)	The way a text or speech refers to time	The blurring of past, present, and future in narratives of empire
Traffic between past and future	The way narratives connect past events to future outcomes	The Battle of Plassey being seen as leading to the British Raj

Contribution of “A Conquest Foretold” by Ranajit Guha to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critique of Colonial Historiography
   Guha critiques how colonial historians, particularly those in British India, manipulated historical events like the Battle of Plassey to construct a narrative of inevitable conquest. He questions the use of “right of arms” and challenges the portrayal of British imperial dominance as preordained, which adds to postcolonial theory by highlighting the role of historiography in legitimizing colonial rule. (“The ruse of a colonialist writing seems to have manipulated the datability of a relatively minor conflict,” p. 89)
2. Symbolism and the Legitimation of Conquest
   The article introduces the concept of symbolic acts as a means of legitimizing imperial domination, contributing to cultural theory. Guha shows how European colonizers used ceremonies and cultural signs, such as planting flags or performing rituals, to symbolically convert conquest into a legal and moral right. This perspective ties into theories of power and authority in colonial discourse. (“It requires a symbolic mediation for the moment of conquest to be assimilated into law as a right,” p. 87)
3. Temporal Ambiguity and Historicization
   Guha discusses the manipulation of time and historicity in colonial narratives, particularly how events are given meaning through selective historicization. He draws attention to the anachronistic nature of colonial narratives, which blend past and future to create a linear progression of imperial expansion. This analysis contributes to narrative theory by exposing how temporal structures are constructed and manipulated in historical writing. (“The event had jumped the boundary of a narrowly chronological history,” p. 94)
4. Duality of Conquest Narratives
   Guha emphasizes the existence of two competing narratives in any conquest—one from the perspective of the conqueror and the other from the conquered. This idea adds to theories of subaltern studies and postcolonial theory by giving voice to the marginalized, arguing that the history of conquest is incomplete without acknowledging both stories. (“For every narrative of triumph and hope told in the conqueror’s voice, there is a counternarrative of defeat and despair,” p. 97)
5. Conquest and Fate in Postcolonial Discourse
   Guha integrates the concept of fate with empire, comparing the historical trajectory of European conquests with existential ideas of destiny. This aligns with postcolonial theories that interpret empire as a project tied to metaphysical and ideological narratives, not just military power. His reflection on fate contributes to literary theory by connecting historical events with existential and philosophical themes. (“What enables us to speak of empire and fate together in this context is that both are distinguished by a certain traffic between past and future,” p. 91)
6. Historicizing Trauma in Postcolonial Theory
   The article explores how the trauma of defeat, such as that experienced in the Battle of Plassey, becomes central to nationalist movements and anti-colonial sentiment. Guha’s reference to Freud’s analysis of trauma positions historical pain as a driving force in the creation of nationalist ideologies, adding to theories of trauma studies in postcolonial contexts. (“The pain of defeat turned the order of events back on itself in popular recollection,” p. 97)
7. Critique of Linear Time in Historical Narratives
   Guha questions the linear conception of time in traditional historiography, aligning with theories that challenge Eurocentric notions of historical progression. He argues that the colonial conquest narrative manipulates chronology to create a seamless transition from violence to legitimacy. This contributes to critical historical theory by showing how time can be used as a tool of ideological control. (“No wonder that William Hunter… found it hard to explain the datability of Plassey in terms of the conquest of India,” p. 94)
8. Spiritualization of Conquest
   Guha discusses how the idea of conquest is elevated beyond mere military achievement, becoming a spiritual and providential act. This idea critiques how colonial powers sanctified their actions through a higher moral or divine purpose, contributing to the discussion of ideology in literary theory. (“What redeems it is the idea only. An idea at the back of it; not a sentimental pretense but an idea; and an unselfish belief in the idea,” p. 92)
9. Counter-Narratives and Nationalism
   The article highlights how the colonized transform the pain of conquest into nationalist ideologies, framing resistance as a sacred duty. This adds to theories of nationalism and resistance in postcolonial studies by showing how the colonized recontextualize their historical experiences to fuel anti-colonial movements. (“It is the fire of an equally sacred but adversary and flawed religiosity with its own universalist pretensions,” p. 97)

Examples of Critiques Through “A Conquest Foretold” by Ranajit Guha

Literary Work	Critique
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Guha’s critique of the “idea” of conquest could be applied to Marlow’s journey into the Congo, highlighting the destructive nature of colonialism and its impact on individuals and societies.
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Achebe’s novel presents a similar theme of colonial conquest, but from the perspective of the colonized people. Guha’s essay could be used to analyze the ways in which the colonizers justified their actions and the impact of this on the colonized.
The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling	While Kipling’s stories are often romanticized, they can also be seen as reflecting colonial attitudes and the idea of the “white man’s burden.” Guha’s critique could be used to analyze the ways in which these stories reinforce colonial ideology.
The Postcolonial Imagination by Ashis Nandy	Nandy’s book explores the psychological and cultural impact of colonialism. Guha’s essay could be used to analyze how the “conquest foretold” shaped the postcolonial imagination and the ways in which colonized people responded to their experiences.

Criticism Against “A Conquest Foretold” by Ranajit Guha

Suggested Readings: “A Conquest Foretold” by Ranajit Guha

Representative Quotations from “A Conquest Foretold” by Ranajit Guha with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The conquest would take nearly one hundred more years of war, intrigue, and piecemeal annexation…” (p. 87)	Guha highlights that British conquest was a prolonged and complex process, not just a singular event. This challenges simplified narratives of colonial history.
“It requires a symbolic mediation for the moment of conquest to be assimilated into law as a right.” (p. 87)	Guha emphasizes the role of symbolic acts in legitimizing conquest. This relates to how colonial powers turned violent conquests into legally justified claims.
“The event had jumped the boundary of a narrowly chronological history and merged metonymically and providentially into the conquest to come.” (p. 94)	Guha critiques how the Battle of Plassey was retrospectively elevated to symbolize the inevitable British conquest, highlighting the manipulation of history.
“For every narrative of triumph and hope told in the conqueror’s voice, there is a counternarrative of defeat and despair told by the conquered.” (p. 97)	Guha points out the duality in conquest narratives, contrasting the victor’s celebratory story with the subjugated people’s tale of suffering.
“What redeems it is the idea only. An idea at the back of it; not a sentimental pretense but an idea; and an unselfish belief in the idea.” (p. 92)	This quotation discusses how colonial conquests were often justified by a supposedly higher “idea” or mission, reflecting ideological underpinnings of empire.
“The pain of defeat turned the order of events back on itself in popular recollection.” (p. 97)	Guha explores how the trauma of conquest is internalized and remembered, especially among the colonized, influencing nationalist and resistance movements.
“No wonder that William Hunter… found it hard to explain the datability of Plassey in terms of the conquest of India.” (p. 94)	Guha critiques the colonial historiographical struggle to present the Battle of Plassey as the definitive moment of British conquest, exposing its artificial elevation.
“The conquest of earth, which mostly means the taking it away from those who have a different complexion or slightly flatter noses than ourselves…” (p. 92)	Here, Guha quotes Heart of Darkness to critique the racial and violent underpinnings of colonial conquest, connecting literature to historical analysis.
“It is the fire of an equally sacred but adversary and flawed religiosity with its own universalist pretensions.” (p. 97)	Guha critiques nationalist movements for mirroring the same sacred, universalist rhetoric used by colonizers, showing the complexity of postcolonial identity formation.
“The story of conquest is therefore only half a story pretending to be the whole.” (p. 96)	Guha asserts that traditional conquest narratives are incomplete, as they omit the perspective and experiences of the conquered, revealing the biased nature of history.

Introduction: “Sexual Politics, Torture, And Secular Time” by Judith Butler

“Sexual Politics, Torture, and Secular Time”  Judith Butler, first appeared in 2008 in the esteemed journal The British Journal of Sociology, is an influential piece that has significantly contributed to the fields of literature and literary theory, particularly in its exploration of gender, power, and the relationship between politics and subjectivity. Butler’s analysis of torture as a form of gendered violence and her critique of secular time’s role in perpetuating oppressive power structures have had a lasting impact on scholarly discourse.

Summary of “Sexual Politics, Torture, And Secular Time” by Judith Butler

1. The Problem of Time and Progress: Butler argues that discussions of sexual politics are framed by a specific understanding of time as linear progress. This narrative positions Europe and its modernity as the pinnacle of freedom, often at the expense of other cultures. She suggests a more nuanced approach that acknowledges the multiplicity of temporalities.
2. Freedom and Coercion: The idea of freedom is often linked to progress narratives and used to justify practices of coercion, particularly against religious minorities. Butler critiques the use of cultural tests, like the one in the Netherlands, that condition immigration on the adoption of specific sexual norms.
3. Cultural Homogeneity vs. Contestation: The dominant discourse assumes a model of cultural homogeneity as a prerequisite for citizenship. This view erases the contestatory nature of culture and the possibility of intercultural contact and exchange.
4. The Limits of Liberalism: The framework of liberal rights creates an antinomy between sexual freedom and the rights of religious minorities. Butler argues for a political analysis that moves beyond this framework and explores the possibility of solidarity between these struggles.
5. Secularism and Hegemonic Culture: The concept of secularism is often used to justify the exclusion of religious minorities. Butler questions the neutrality of secularism and argues that it often functions as a cover for a hegemonic, Eurocentric cultural formation.
6. France as a Case Study: Butler examines how debates about sexual politics in France intersect with anti-immigration politics. The concept of “laïcité” (secularism) is used to promote a specific model of family structure and to exclude Muslim communities.
7. Critique of Psychoanalytic Frameworks: Butler critiques the use of psychoanalytic theories to pathologize alternative family structures and justify state intervention. She argues for a more nuanced understanding of how cultural norms are transmitted.
8. The State as Paternal Authority: The state’s response to protests and social unrest in immigrant communities is often framed as a response to the absence of a strong paternal figure. Butler argues that this view ignores the state’s role in creating social problems and its own exercise of coercive paternal power.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Sexual Politics, Torture, And Secular Time” by Judith Butler

Term/Concept	Definition	Example/Explanation
Sexual Politics	The intersection of political power structures with sexuality, gender roles, and freedoms.	Butler critiques how sexual freedoms, such as LGBTQ+ rights, are used politically to define modernity and exclude immigrant communities.
Hegemonic Progress	The dominant narrative of progress that marginalizes or delegitimizes other temporalities or histories.	The idea that modernity is achieved only in certain cultures, with others being viewed as pre-modern.
Secular Time	The notion of time that is detached from religious traditions, often linked with ideas of progress and modernity.	Butler argues that secularism often hides its religious roots, complicating our understanding of cultural and political progress.
Geo-political Space	The spatial dimension of political power and how it defines borders, communities, and the relevant historical time.	The division between modern Europe and the “pre-modern” Muslim immigrant communities that marks cultural and political boundaries.
Intersectionality	A framework for understanding how various forms of oppression (e.g., gender, race, sexuality) are interconnected.	Butler critiques that intersectionality alone may not account for the complex ways in which sexual politics interacts with state power and secularism.
Coercive Freedom	The paradoxical use of freedom as a tool of coercion, especially by the state.	Butler describes how sexual freedoms are imposed in ways that serve to control and exclude minority populations, rather than liberate them.
Cultural Pluralism	A belief in the coexistence of multiple cultures in a society without one dominating the other.	Butler critiques simplistic cultural pluralism as insufficient to understand the complex intersections of power, temporality, and progress.
Civilizational Mission	The idea that certain nations or cultures have a responsibility to “civilize” others, often justified by a mix of secular and religious ideals.	Butler refers to the USA’s justification of wars in the Middle East as a civilizational mission grounded in a mix of secular and religious values.
Hegemonic Culture	The dominant culture that imposes its values, norms, and temporal framework on others.	Butler argues that European modernity defines itself against the supposed backwardness of other cultures, such as Islamic societies.
Patrilineality	A social system in which family lineage is traced through the father, reinforcing male authority in cultural and political structures.	French political structures are critiqued for reinforcing patrilineal norms, especially in debates about gay marriage and immigration.
State Violence	The use of force or coercive power by the state to maintain order, often justified by narratives of progress or cultural superiority.	Butler discusses how state policies, such as anti-immigration laws and the use of torture, are justified by the need to protect certain cultural values.
Biopolitics	The regulation of human life by the state, often focusing on control over bodies and populations.	In the context of sexual politics, biopolitics refers to how the state manages bodies through policies on sexuality, gender, and reproduction.
Normative Schemes	Socially accepted standards or norms that guide behavior and policies.	Butler questions how normative concepts of gender and family shape state policies on citizenship and rights.
Cultural Reductionism	Simplifying complex cultures into essential characteristics, often to justify exclusion or domination.	The concept of the “Arab mind” used in US military torture tactics is an example of cultural reductionism critiqued by Butler.
Secularism	The separation of religion from state affairs, though Butler argues that secularism often retains traces of religious ideology.	Butler critiques secularism in France and other Western countries for being intertwined with religious values, especially in debates on sexuality.
Civic Pedagogy	The education or shaping of citizens by the state, often through policies or cultural norms.	Butler discusses how policies like the Dutch immigration test serve as a form of civic pedagogy, enforcing state-approved norms of sexual freedom.
Modernity	A concept referring to cultural, social, and political developments perceived as progressive and advanced.	Butler critiques how modernity is often defined in opposition to pre-modern cultures, particularly in relation to sexual and religious practices.
Cultural Homogeneity	The expectation or enforcement of uniform cultural norms within a society.	Butler critiques how modern states often seek cultural homogeneity, especially through exclusionary practices against immigrant communities.
Teleology	The explanation of phenomena by the purpose or end they serve, often linked to narratives of progress.	Butler critiques how progress narratives often assume a linear development towards a “modern” end, which excludes other forms of historical development.
Epistemic Violence	The harm done to marginalized groups through the imposition of dominant knowledge systems, erasing or invalidating their perspectives.	Butler critiques how dominant narratives of progress impose epistemic violence by erasing the complexities of non-Western histories and identities.

Contribution of “Sexual Politics, Torture, And Secular Time” by Judith Butler to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Queer Theory Expansion: Butler broadens the scope of queer theory by linking sexual politics to state power, immigration, and secularism, showing how queer identities are framed within broader geopolitical and cultural discourses.
2. Temporalities in Cultural Criticism: Butler introduces a critical focus on the multiplicity of temporalities, challenging linear narratives of progress and modernity in cultural criticism, which opens up new ways of understanding historical and political moments.
3. Intersection of Secularism and Politics: The text contributes to the intersection of political theory and post-secular critique by exploring how secularism is embedded in state policies and cultural practices, particularly in the regulation of gender and sexuality.
4. Critique of Hegemonic Modernity: Butler critiques the narrative of Western modernity, revealing its reliance on the exclusion of other cultures, particularly Muslim societies, through notions of sexual and civilizational progress, contributing to postcolonial theory.
5. State Violence and Biopolitics: Through her analysis of torture, Butler engages with biopolitics, showing how bodies and sexualities are regulated by state violence, contributing to theories of sovereignty and the body in political and literary theory.
6. Reimagining Freedom and Coercion: Butler rethinks the concept of freedom, particularly in relation to sexual politics, suggesting that freedom can become a tool of coercion. This contributes to critical theory by questioning liberal narratives of rights and autonomy.
7. Cultural and Temporal Pluralism: The text challenges simplistic cultural pluralism by examining how different temporalities and histories intersect or fail to intersect, contributing to multicultural and global literary studies.

Examples of Critiques Through “Sexual Politics, Torture, And Secular Time” by Judith Butler

Literary Work	Critique Through Butler’s Framework
Beloved by Toni Morrison	Butler’s concept of “grievable life” could be used to analyze the devaluation of enslaved lives in the novel. The characters’ experiences of violence, trauma, and loss can be seen as a challenge to the dominant narratives of progress and modernity.
The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood	The novel’s dystopian society can be critiqued through Butler’s lens as a patriarchal system that controls women’s bodies and reproductive rights. The concept of “secular time” might be used to examine the ways in which the regime attempts to erase women’s histories and create a new temporal order.
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Butler’s critique of colonialism and imperialism could be applied to the novel’s exploration of the destructive effects of European power on African societies. The character of Kurtz can be seen as a symbol of the violence and exploitation inherent in colonial narratives of progress.
The Color Purple by Alice Walker	The novel’s portrayal of racial violence, sexual abuse, and the oppression of women can be analyzed through Butler’s concepts of “grievable life” and “performativity.” The characters’ experiences challenge the dominant narratives of gender and race and demonstrate the ways in which identity is constructed through performance.

Criticism Against “Sexual Politics, Torture, And Secular Time” by Judith Butler

1. Overemphasis on Western/European Context: Butler’s analysis primarily focuses on Western and European contexts, potentially limiting the applicability of her arguments to other cultural and historical contexts.
2. Essentialism of Gender: Some critics argue that Butler’s concept of gender performativity can be seen as essentialist, as it suggests that gender is a fixed category that is performed rather than fluid and socially constructed.
3. Neglect of Material Conditions: Butler’s focus on discourse and performativity can be seen as neglecting the material conditions that shape gender and sexuality, such as economic inequality, political oppression, and social structures.
4. Overreliance on Theory: Some critics find Butler’s work to be overly theoretical and abstract, lacking concrete examples or practical applications.
5. Limited Engagement with Other Disciplines: Butler’s work primarily draws from post-structuralist and queer theory, potentially limiting its engagement with other disciplines such as sociology, history, and psychology.
6. Lack of Clear Political Positions: Some critics argue that Butler’s work is too ambiguous in terms of its political positions, making it difficult to determine her stance on specific issues.
7. Oversimplification of Complex Issues: Butler’s analysis of complex issues like torture and secularism can be seen as oversimplified, neglecting the nuances and complexities of these topics.
8. Limited Attention to Intersectionality: While Butler acknowledges the importance of intersectionality, some critics argue that her framework does not adequately address the ways in which gender intersects with other social categories such as race, class, and sexuality.

Suggested Readings: “Sexual Politics, Torture, And Secular Time” by Judith Butler

Representative Quotations from “Sexual Politics, Torture, And Secular Time” by Judith Butler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“There is no one time…the question of what time this is, already divides us.”	Butler critiques the idea of a singular, linear time, arguing that different histories and temporalities exist simultaneously, complicating political debates.
“Hegemonic conceptions of progress define themselves over and against a premodern temporality.”	This refers to the way modernity is constructed by marginalizing or labeling other cultures as “premodern,” thus justifying exclusion or domination.
“Sexual politics is in the middle of it…claims to new or radical sexual freedoms are appropriated by state power.”	Butler argues that sexual politics is co-opted by state power, often used to define modernity and exclude marginalized communities, especially immigrants.
“A certain version and deployment of ‘freedom’ can be used as an instrument of bigotry and coercion.”	Butler critiques how the concept of freedom, particularly sexual freedom, can be instrumentalized to enforce cultural norms or exclude certain groups.
“Our understanding of what is happening ‘now’ is bound up with a certain geo-political restriction.”	The “now” is not neutral; it is shaped by geopolitical realities that dictate who has access to modernity and freedom, and who is excluded.
“Freedom is articulated through a set of graphic images…what freedom can and must be.”	Butler critiques how certain cultural symbols (e.g., images of sexual freedom) are used to represent freedom, but they also impose limits on citizenship and rights.
“Secularism can only be defined by its implication in the very religious traditions from which it seeks to distinguish itself.”	Butler challenges the presumed divide between secularism and religion, suggesting that secularism often carries traces of religious ideologies.
“Cultural norms are articulated instrumentally to shore up particular religious and cultural preconditions.”	Butler critiques how cultural norms, including those about gender and sexuality, are often imposed to uphold existing religious and cultural hierarchies.
“The refusal to grant legal recognition for gay parenting works in tandem with anti-Islamic state policies.”	This highlights how legal restrictions on LGBTQ+ rights are intertwined with anti-immigration and anti-Islamic policies, reinforcing cultural exclusion.
“Sexual freedom has become a sign of the civilizational mission in progress.”	Butler critiques how Western sexual freedoms, particularly LGBTQ+ rights, are framed as symbols of modernity, used to justify cultural superiority and imperialism.

Introduction: “Violence, Non-Violence” by Judith Butler

“Violence, Non-Violence” Judith Butler, first published in 2002 in the journal Radical Philosophy, has had a profound impact on both literature and literary theory, particularly in its exploration of the complex relationship between violence, power, and subjectivity. Butler argues that violence is not merely a physical act but also a symbolic and performative one, shaped by cultural norms and discourses. Her analysis has led to new ways of understanding the production and perpetuation of violence, as well as the possibilities for resistance and non-violent action.

Summary of “Violence, Non-Violence” by Judith Butler

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Violence, Non-Violence” by Judith Butler

Term	Definition	Example from Butler’s Essay
Direct Address	A mode of communication in which the speaker directly addresses the audience, often using the second person pronoun “you.”	“Europeans, you must open this book and enter into it.”
Indirect Address	A mode of communication in which the speaker addresses a third party or entity, often implying the audience’s presence or involvement.	“They will see you, perhaps, but they will be talking among themselves, without even lowering their voices.”
Performativity	The idea that language and other social practices can create and sustain social realities.	Sartre’s preface performs a certain kind of “rejection” of the European reader.
Subjectivity	The individual’s conscious experience and sense of self.	The subjectivity of the colonized is shaped by the conditions of colonialism.
Social Death	A concept introduced by Orlando Patterson to describe the condition of individuals who are denied the rights and privileges of full citizenship.	The colonized are often subjected to social death under colonial rule.
Humanism	A philosophical and cultural outlook that emphasizes human values and dignity.	Sartre’s preface explores the limitations of traditional humanist approaches to colonialism.
Colonialism	The practice of establishing and maintaining control over a foreign territory, often accompanied by exploitation and oppression.	The essay discusses the effects of colonialism on the colonized and colonizers.
Decolonization	The process of gaining independence from colonial rule.	The essay examines the role of violence in decolonization struggles.
Globalization	The increasing interconnectedness of the world’s economies, cultures, and societies.	Bhabha’s forward to the essay considers the implications of globalization for understanding colonialism and decolonization.

Contribution of “Violence, Non-Violence” by Judith Butler to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution from “Violence, Non-Violence”
Gender Performativity	Violence is a performative act that reinforces gender norms and power structures.
Postcolonial Theory	Challenges the colonial discourse that positions the colonizer as the subject and the colonized as the object of violence.
Queer Theory	Argues that violence can be used to enforce heteronormative norms, and that queer resistance often involves acts of defiance against these norms.
Critical Race Theory	Analyzes the relationship between race, power, and violence, arguing that racial violence is a symbolic performance that reinforces racial hierarchies.
Poststructuralism	Challenges binary oppositions and recognizes the multiplicity of perspectives in understanding violence.

Examples of Critiques Through “Violence, Non-Violence” by Judith Butler

Literary Work	Critique Through Butler’s Lens
Shakespeare’s Hamlet	Butler might critique Hamlet’s revenge tragedy as a performance of masculine violence that reinforces patriarchal power structures. She could also analyze the play’s exploration of madness and grief as a response to societal violence.
Toni Morrison’s Beloved	Butler could examine Morrison’s novel as a critique of the violence of slavery and its lasting impact on African American communities. She might also analyze the novel’s exploration of trauma and memory as a form of resistance to violence.
Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway	Butler could critique Woolf’s novel as a depiction of the violence of gender roles and expectations. She might also analyze the novel’s exploration of mental health as a response to societal pressures.
James Baldwin’s Go Tell It on the Mountain	Butler could examine Baldwin’s novel as a critique of the violence of racism and religious hypocrisy. She might also analyze the novel’s exploration of identity and sexuality as forms of resistance to violence.

Criticism Against “Violence, Non-Violence” by Judith Butler

1. Overemphasis on Sartre’s Masculinism: Butler critiques Sartre’s framing of violence and decolonization as inherently masculinist, suggesting that Sartre places too much emphasis on manhood and male fraternity in his discussion of Fanon. She argues that Sartre’s vision of liberation through violence primarily concerns male agency, sidelining the experiences of women and other marginalized groups within the colonial context.
2. Reduction of Violence to a Dialectical Necessity: Butler challenges Sartre’s portrayal of violence as a necessary and inevitable part of the decolonization process. She points out that Sartre’s framing makes violence appear as a mechanistic, almost deterministic force, failing to fully account for the agency of the colonized. This portrayal risks stripping the colonized of reflective agency and reducing their actions to mere reactions to colonial violence.
3. Failure to Address Non-Violent Alternatives: Butler argues that Sartre dismisses non-violence too easily. His assertion that non-violence equates to complicity overlooks the complexity of non-violent resistance movements. By focusing solely on violence as a means of liberation, Sartre potentially overlooks more nuanced forms of resistance that could be equally effective in dismantling colonial structures.
4. Lack of Attention to Gender and Intersectionality: Butler critiques Sartre’s focus on the masculine experience of colonization, noting that his framing of decolonization as a male-centric struggle excludes important gendered dimensions of colonial oppression. By emphasizing the reclamation of manhood, Sartre overlooks the specific experiences of women, whose oppression under colonialism may take different forms.
5. Inconsistent Treatment of Humanism: Butler notes a contradiction in Sartre’s treatment of humanism. While Sartre critiques European liberal humanism for its complicity in colonialism, he simultaneously seems to rely on a form of existential humanism that is ultimately masculinist and exclusionary. This creates a tension in Sartre’s preface between his critique of colonial humanism and his vision for a new, revolutionary human subject.
6. Overreliance on Violence as a Mode of Self-Creation: Butler criticizes Sartre’s notion that violence is central to the creation of the new “man” under decolonization. She questions whether violence is truly the only route to self-making, arguing that Sartre’s focus on violence as a tool for self-creation risks perpetuating a cycle of violence rather than offering a sustainable path toward liberation.
7. Failure to Fully Engage with Fanon’s Own Nuances: While Sartre draws heavily on Fanon’s ideas, Butler argues that his interpretation simplifies Fanon’s more complex and ambivalent views on violence. She suggests that Sartre’s emphasis on the inevitability of violence may overshadow Fanon’s recognition of the corrosive effects of violence and his hope for a future beyond it.

Suggested Readings: “Violence, Non-Violence” by Judith Butler

Representative Quotations from “Violence, Non-Violence” by Judith Butler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Sartre imagines his reader as the colonizer or the French citizen…” (p. 12)	Butler highlights how Sartre’s preface is directed towards the European reader, urging them to confront the reality of colonial violence. This sets up the preface as a critique of European humanism and complicity in colonial oppression.
“The white audience can no longer presume itself to be the intended audience…” (p. 13)	Sartre positions the white reader outside the central conversation, emphasizing their marginalization. Butler underscores how this shifts the European reader’s understanding of their role in colonial discourse.
“In Sartre’s preface, the ‘you’ is reserved exclusively for the colonizer…” (p. 16)	Butler critiques Sartre’s use of pronouns, noting that the ‘you’ is directed solely at the colonizers, reinforcing the binary division between colonizer and colonized, and excluding any potential dialogue between the two groups.
“Violence becomes a clear alternative when a life of continuing famine and oppression seems far worse than death…” (p. 20)	Butler explains Sartre’s rationale that under extreme colonial conditions, violence is seen as the only viable option for the colonized to assert their humanity and agency, highlighting the existential stakes of colonial violence.
“Sartre dismisses non-violence as complicity…” (p. 25)	Sartre critiques non-violence as a passive acceptance of colonial rule. Butler highlights how this dismissal closes off other forms of resistance that could challenge colonial power without resorting to violent means.
“The scars and chains are… the motors of history…” (p. 16)	Sartre views the suffering of the colonized as both a reflection of colonial violence and the driving force of historical change. Butler points to this as an example of how Sartre links violence to the progress of decolonization.
“The colonized is said to become a ‘man’ through violence…” (p. 23)	Butler critiques Sartre’s association of manhood with violence, arguing that this masculinist framework limits the possibilities for understanding decolonization beyond violent resistance.
“Sartre refuses to address the colonized directly…” (p. 24)	Butler notes that Sartre deliberately avoids addressing the colonized, positioning himself as a critic of European colonialism while also distancing himself from the colonized. This non-address perpetuates the exclusion of the colonized.
“Violence is an instrumentality in the service of invention…” (p. 58)	Fanon views violence as a tool for the colonized to create a new political and social reality. Butler underscores the instrumental role that violence plays in Fanon’s vision of decolonization but also questions its long-term impact on society.
“Fanon’s contribution consists in supplying a picture of the ‘global future’…” (p. xvi)	Butler explains how Fanon’s vision moves beyond the immediate context of decolonization to imagine a global future that transcends the binary oppositions of colonial and postcolonial identities. She sees this as a significant theoretical contribution.

Introduction: “The Ethics and Politics of Nonviolence” by Judith Butler

“The Ethics and Politics of Nonviolence” by Judith Butler first appeared in the 2020 issue of the prestigious journal Diacritics. This work has significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory, offering a nuanced exploration of nonviolence as a political and ethical practice. Butler challenges traditional notions of nonviolence, arguing that it is not merely a passive act of resistance but a complex and strategic engagement with power. Her analysis has been influential in shaping discussions around social justice, activism, and the relationship between language, power, and violence.

Summary of “The Ethics and Politics of Nonviolence” by Judith Butler

1. Demographic Presuppositions in Moral Debates: Moral questions about violence and nonviolence often make implicit assumptions about whose lives are considered grievable. Psychoanalysis can help us understand how these phantasms influence our moral deliberations.
2. Population and Racial Phantasms: Foucault and Fanon’s concepts of “population phantasms” and “racial phantasms” reveal the unconscious racism that structures state and public discourse on violence.
3. Violence and Nonviolence: Étienne Balibar and Walter Benjamin’s analysis helps us understand the multiple meanings of “violence” and how the state’s violence can be legitimized by naming others as violent.
4. Grievable Lives: The concept of grievability is central to understanding the unequal value attributed to different lives. Grievability is a social attribute that can be acknowledged or denied, depending on cultural and intersubjective factors.
5. Equality and Grievability: A political defense of nonviolence requires a commitment to equality, including equal grievability for all.
6. Foucault on Biopolitics and War Logics: Foucault’s biopolitics describes the power to “make live” or “let die” populations. He distinguishes between this and the war logic of “if you want to live, you must kill.”
7. Fanon on Race and the Historic-Racial Schema: Fanon’s concept of the historic-racial schema reveals how racism operates at a deep level, shaping perception and constituting the body.
8. The Limits of Law: Benjamin argues that law itself is a form of violence, as it involves coercion and the imposition of norms.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Ethics and Politics of Nonviolence” by Judith Butler

Term/Concept	Explanation
Grievability	Refers to whether a life is considered worthy of mourning. It addresses the societal and political recognition of whose lives matter and are valued.
Population Phantasms	The unconscious and cultural assumptions about groups of people that affect how policies and laws perceive and treat certain populations.
Biopolitics	A form of political power focused on the management of life and populations, particularly in terms of who is allowed to live and who can be left to die.
Interdependency	The idea that human life is inherently connected and dependent on others, which influences ethical and political obligations towards preserving life.
Nonviolence	Ethical stance that advocates for preserving life and rejecting violence as a means to resolve conflict. Butler links it to a commitment to equality.
Phantasmagoria of Racism	The racialized perceptions and assumptions that justify violence against marginalized groups, often by denying their status as fully human or grievable.
Militant Grieving	Public and performative mourning for those who are denied grievability, often used as a form of resistance to expose inequalities and systemic violence.
Racial Schema	A framework of perception that determines how racialized bodies are viewed, often dehumanizing certain groups and legitimizing violence against them.
War Logics	The justification for violence through the framing of conflict as a necessity for survival, often racialized and used to perpetuate state or societal violence.

Contribution of “The Ethics and Politics of Nonviolence” by Judith Butler to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Ethics and Politics of Nonviolence” by Judith Butler

Literary Work	Critique Through Butler
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Butler could critique the novel’s portrayal of colonialism and its dehumanization of Africans. She might argue that the narrative reinforces a hierarchical racial structure, where the lives of Africans are considered less grievable. This is evident in the novel’s depiction of Africans as savages and objects, and its failure to acknowledge the suffering and violence inflicted upon them by the colonial powers.
The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood	Butler could analyze the novel’s exploration of gendered violence and the state’s control over women’s bodies. She might discuss how the novel highlights the unequal distribution of grievability based on gender and social status. This is exemplified by the treatment of the handmaids, who are denied basic human rights and subjected to sexual violence and reproductive servitude.
Beloved by Toni Morrison	Butler could examine the novel’s themes of trauma, memory, and the haunting of the past. She might critique the way the novel portrays the violence inflicted on enslaved people and the ongoing consequences of this historical injustice. Butler could argue that the novel illustrates the ways in which violence can be perpetuated through generations, and how the trauma of slavery continues to shape the lives of Black Americans.
The Kite Runner by Khaled Hosseini	Butler could analyze the novel’s exploration of violence, trauma, and redemption. She might discuss how the novel highlights the unequal distribution of grievability based on class, ethnicity, and social status. This is evident in the novel’s portrayal of the discrimination and violence faced by Hazaras in Afghanistan, and the ways in which their suffering is marginalized and ignored by the dominant Pashtun population.

Criticism Against “The Ethics and Politics of Nonviolence” by Judith Butler

Suggested Readings: “The Ethics and Politics of Nonviolence” by Judith Butler

Books

• Butler, Judith. The Force of Nonviolence: An Ethico-Political Bind. Verso, 2015.
• Butler, Judith. Frames of War: Is It Possible to Think of Peace in a Time of War? Verso, 2009.
• Butler, Judith. Undoing Gender. Routledge, 2004.

Academic Articles

• Butler, Judith. “Violence, Mourning, Politics: A Preface to a Difficult Conversation.” Signs 23.3 (1998): 685-705. https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/9/7/120
• Butler, Judith. “Precarious Life: The Power of Mourning.” Radical Philosophy 114 (2002): 29-41. https://www.wkv-stuttgart.de/uploads/media/butler-judith-precarious-life.pdf
• Mbembe, Achille. “Necropolitics.” Public Culture 15.1 (2003): 11-40. https://read.dukeupress.edu/public-culture/article-abstract/15/1/11/31714/Necropolitics

Websites

• Judith Butler’s Official Website: https://vcresearch.berkeley.edu/faculty/judith-butler
• Verso Books: https://www.versobooks.com/blogs/authors/verso-books-uk
• The New York Review of Books: https://www.nybooks.com/
• The London Review of Books: https://www.lrb.co.uk/

Representative Quotations from “The Ethics and Politics of Nonviolence” by Judith Butler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“We cannot even pose the question ‘Whose lives are to be safeguarded?’ without making some assumptions about whose lives are considered potentially grievable.”	This quote highlights the importance of recognizing the underlying assumptions that shape our moral judgments about violence and nonviolence. Butler argues that the question of who deserves protection is deeply intertwined with our notions of grievability.
“Grievability is a characteristic attributed to a group of people (perhaps a population) by some group or community, or within the terms of a discourse, or within the terms of a policy or institution.”	This quote emphasizes that grievability is a social construct, not an inherent quality. It is determined by cultural, political, and social factors.
“The ‘right’ to life is much more ambiguous, since power manages populations rather than distinct subjects.”	Butler argues that under biopolitical conditions, the right to life is not a universal entitlement but is subject to the power dynamics that govern populations.
“A life can register as a life only within a schema that presents it as such.”	This quote suggests that our perception of life is shaped by cultural and historical frameworks, which can determine whether a life is considered valuable or worthy of protection.
“The historic-racial schema that makes it possible to claim, ‘This is or was a life,’ or, ‘These are or were lives,’ is intimately bound up with the possibility of necessary modes of valuing life.”	This quote highlights the connection between racialization and the valuation of life. Butler argues that the way we perceive and value lives is influenced by racial schemas.
“The phantasmagoria of racism is part of that racial schema.”	This quote emphasizes the role of phantasms in perpetuating racism. Butler suggests that racial phantasms can distort our perception of reality and justify violence against marginalized groups.
“The violence that the policeman is about to do, the violence he then commits, has already moved toward him in a figure, a racialized ghost, condensing and inverting his own aggression.”	This quote illustrates how racial phantasms can operate unconsciously, influencing our actions and judgments in ways that we may not be fully aware of.
“Law itself is a form of violence, as it involves coercion and the imposition of norms.”	Butler challenges the notion that law is always a force for good. She argues that legal systems can also be oppressive and perpetuate violence.
“We cannot readily accept the idea that violence is overcome once we make the transition from an extra-legal violent conflict to the rule of law.”	This quote highlights the limitations of relying solely on legal systems to address violence. Butler argues that the law itself can be a source of violence and oppression.
“A political defense of nonviolence does not make sense outside of a commitment to equality.”	This quote emphasizes the importance of equality in understanding and advocating for nonviolence. Butler argues that true nonviolence requires a commitment to justice and fairness for all.