Day: September 15, 2024

Introduction: “What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o is a thought-provoking essay that examines the multifaceted relationship between Africa and Asia. Thiong’o, a distinguished Kenyan writer and intellectual, draws upon his personal experiences and scholarly insights to explore the historical, cultural, and political connections between these two continents. The essay was originally published in 2012 in the esteemed journal World Literature Today. Thiong’o’s work is widely recognized for its critical analysis of colonialism, neo-colonialism, and the significance of language and culture in shaping identity and resistance. “What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa” is a valuable contribution to the ongoing discourse on the global south and the interconnectedness of diverse cultures and histories.

Summary of “What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Literary Terms/Concepts in “What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Context in the Essay
Postcolonialism	A field of study that examines the cultural, political, and social impacts of colonialism and imperialism on formerly colonized nations.	Ngũgĩ reflects on the influence of colonialism on his intellectual formation, especially the dominance of European thought.
Global South	A term referring to countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia, often in the context of their shared historical experiences of colonization and struggle for autonomy.	Ngũgĩ discusses the importance of fostering intellectual and cultural exchanges between Global South countries.
Afro-Asian Dialogue	Refers to the cultural, political, and intellectual exchange between Africa and Asia, especially in the context of anti-colonial struggles and shared histories.	Ngũgĩ highlights Afro-Asian cooperation, such as the Bandung Conference and the Afro-Asian Writers’ Movement.
Satyagraha	Gandhi’s philosophy of nonviolent resistance, advocating for truth and civil disobedience as a means to achieve political and social change.	Ngũgĩ credits Gandhi’s role in shaping anti-colonial movements in Africa and mentions his influence in South Africa.
Neocolonialism	The continued economic and cultural dominance of former colonial powers over formerly colonized nations, even after political independence.	Ngũgĩ criticizes the neocolonial regime in Kenya for resisting efforts to decolonize the curriculum at Nairobi University.
Cultural Syncretism	The blending of different cultural elements into a new, cohesive form.	Ngũgĩ describes how Indian culinary traditions (e.g., tea, chapati) have become integrated into Kenyan daily life.
Diaspora	The dispersion of people from their homeland to various parts of the world, often due to economic or political reasons.	Ngũgĩ discusses the presence of Indian and Chinese diasporas in Africa and their roles in commerce and politics.
Comparative Literature	An academic field focused on the study of literature beyond the confines of national or linguistic borders, emphasizing cross-cultural analysis.	Ngũgĩ advocates for studying African, Asian, and Latin American literatures alongside European works, challenging Eurocentrism.
Globalectics	Ngũgĩ’s term describing a dynamic, interconnected approach to world literature that transcends cultural and geographical boundaries.	The essay promotes “Globalectics” as a framework for understanding world literature and fostering cross-cultural dialogue.
Cultural Hegemony	The dominance of one culture over others, often through ideological means, where the ruling class’s worldview is imposed and accepted as the cultural norm.	Ngũgĩ critiques the hegemony of European culture and thought, especially in Kenya’s colonial education system.

Contribution of “What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through “What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa”
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Eurocentrism and Colonial Gaze: Ngũgĩ’s critique of the European intellectual shadow can be applied to Conrad’s work. Heart of Darkness portrays Africa as a dark, uncivilized land, reflecting colonial stereotypes. Ngũgĩ would critique this work for reinforcing colonial narratives that place Europe as the “civilized” center and Africa as the “Other.” He emphasizes the need for dismantling such Eurocentric narratives.
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Reclaiming African Identity: Achebe’s novel aligns with Ngũgĩ’s postcolonial agenda of deconstructing colonialism’s impact on African identity. Things Fall Apart presents the Igbo culture before and after the arrival of European missionaries, showing the complex social and political structures that existed in Africa. Through Ngũgĩ’s lens, Achebe’s work challenges the European gaze and asserts the richness of African civilizations.
The Wretched of the Earth by Frantz Fanon	Anti-Colonial Struggles and Intellectual Resistance: Fanon’s work mirrors Ngũgĩ’s advocacy for the intellectual and cultural liberation of colonized peoples. Fanon’s call for revolutionary violence against colonial oppression in The Wretched of the Earth resonates with Ngũgĩ’s emphasis on African and Asian decolonization struggles. Ngũgĩ would see this as part of a broader Global South movement for liberation from colonial legacies.
A Grain of Wheat by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Postcolonial Struggles and Cultural Synthesis: Ngũgĩ’s own work, A Grain of Wheat, explores Kenya’s fight for independence, reflecting the themes discussed in his essay. Through the lens of What Is Asia to Me?, this novel emphasizes the interconnectedness of African and Asian struggles against colonialism. The novel’s narrative critiques the lingering effects of colonialism while highlighting the role of collective memory and resistance.

Criticism Against “What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

• Overemphasis on Intellectual Elitism: Some critics may argue that Ngũgĩ focuses too much on intellectual and literary exchanges among elites in Africa and Asia, neglecting the everyday experiences of common people in these regions.
• Lack of Attention to Intra-African Relations: The essay emphasizes Afro-Asian connections but gives relatively little attention to intra-African dynamics and relations. Critics may argue that Ngũgĩ overlooks the significance of African unity and solidarity in the postcolonial struggle.
• Idealization of South-South Solidarity: Ngũgĩ’s portrayal of Afro-Asian solidarity could be seen as overly idealistic, as it downplays the historical tensions and conflicts between African and Asian communities in postcolonial Africa, particularly in East Africa.
• Underrepresentation of Latin America: Although Ngũgĩ advocates for Global South dialogues, his focus on Asia and Africa may seem to marginalize Latin American contributions to postcolonial and intellectual movements, which are also important in the Global South context.
• Historical Oversimplification: Critics might argue that Ngũgĩ oversimplifies the historical relations between Africa and Asia, glossing over the complexities and contradictions, such as economic competition or migration-related tensions, especially in East African countries.
• Limited Exploration of Class Struggles: While Ngũgĩ touches on postcolonial political movements, the essay does not deeply explore class struggles within African and Asian societies, which some Marxist critics might find lacking in the analysis.

Suggested Readings: “What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Sicherman, Carol M. “Ngugi Wa Thiong’o and the Writing of Kenyan History.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 20, no. 3, 1989, pp. 347–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3819170. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
2. McLaren, Joseph. “Ngugi Wa Thiong’o’s Moving the Centre and Its Relevance to Afrocentricity.” Journal of Black Studies, vol. 28, no. 3, 1998, pp. 386–97. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2784740. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
3. Loflin, Christine. “Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o’s Visions of Africa.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 26, no. 4, 1995, pp. 76–93. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3820228. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
4. Harrow, Kenneth. “Ngugi Wa Thiong’o’s ‘A Grain of Wheat’: Season of Irony.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 16, no. 2, 1985, pp. 243–63. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3819414. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
5. Rao, D. Venkat, and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. “A Conversation with Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 30, no. 1, 1999, pp. 162–68. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3820479. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.

Representative Quotations from “What Is Asia to Me? Looking East from Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“I had always assumed that my intellectual and social formation was tied to England and Europe.”	Ngũgĩ reflects on the Eurocentric education he received in colonial Kenya, where Britain was the central reference for intellectual development. This frames the essay’s postcolonial critique.
“The spices, curry, hot pepper, all so very Indian, had become so central a part of Kenyan cuisine.”	This highlights the cultural syncretism between India and Kenya, where Indian influences became deeply embedded in everyday Kenyan life, symbolizing Afro-Asian connections.
“Doing things together is the best teacher of race relations.”	Ngũgĩ argues that shared experiences, such as education, are vital in breaking down racial and ethnic barriers, promoting Afro-Asian solidarity through personal interaction.
“Mahatma Gandhi started and honed his political and organizing skills in South Africa.”	This quote underscores the deep historical connection between African and Indian struggles against colonialism, with Gandhi as a symbol of resistance and intellectual exchange.
“I have always felt the need for Africa, Asia, and South America to learn from one another.”	Ngũgĩ advocates for a South-South dialogue, emphasizing the importance of intellectual and cultural exchanges between the Global South regions to resist Eurocentric dominance.
“We had committed the crime of placing [Shakespeare] among other writers and changing the name of the department from English to Literature.”	This quotation critiques the Eurocentric literary canon, highlighting Ngũgĩ’s efforts to decolonize the curriculum by including non-European writers in Kenyan universities.
“It is time to make the invisible visible in order to create a more interesting—and ultimately more creative and meaningful—free flow of ideas in the world.”	Ngũgĩ calls for the recognition of Global South contributions to world literature, advocating for intellectual exchanges beyond European influence.
“In colonial times, in my area at least, I do not recall the tensions ever exploding into intercommunal violence.”	This reflects Ngũgĩ’s personal experience of relative harmony between African and Indian communities during colonial times, contrasting it with postcolonial tensions.
“What Gandhi started, Mandela completed.”	Ngũgĩ connects Gandhi’s nonviolent resistance to Nelson Mandela’s anti-apartheid struggle, showing the continuity of Afro-Asian influences in decolonization efforts.
“Globalectics: Theory and the Politics of Knowing.”	This quote introduces Ngũgĩ’s concept of “Globalectics,” a framework for understanding world literature through interconnected and dynamic exchanges across cultures.

Introduction: “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

“The Tension Between National and Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o first appeared in 1984 in the journal World Literature Written in English. This seminal essay explores the intricate interplay between national and imperialist cultures, particularly within the context of post-colonial Africa. Ngugi argues that the imposition of imperialist languages and cultures has had a profound impact on the development of national identities, leading to a tension between the desire to preserve indigenous cultural heritage and the pressures to conform to dominant Western norms.

Summary of “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Term/Concept	Definition	Example from Text
Cultural Imperialism	The imposition of a dominant culture, often through language, on a subordinate culture.	“The colonizing nations… imposed their languages on the colonized peoples.”
Neo-Colonialism	The continued domination of a former colony by its former colonizer, often through economic and political means.	“The tension generated by the struggles of the African masses against these comprador minority regimes is necessarily a tension between the national democratic assertion and the neocolonial forces of imperialism.”
National Culture	A culture that is rooted in the history, traditions, and values of a particular nation.	“Kamiriithu celebrated the history of the Kenyan people’s struggle against colonialism and neo-colonialism.”
Indigenous Language	A language that is native to a particular region or country.	“In the Kikuyu language”
Alienation	The feeling of being isolated or separated from one’s culture or identity.	“The imposition of imperialist languages and cultures has had a profound impact on the development of national desire to preserve indigenous cultural heritage and the pressures to conform to dominant Western norms.”
Cultural Resistance	The active struggle to preserve and promote a culture against the influence of a dominant culture.	“Kamiriithu as a symbol had to go. The final coup de grâce in 1982 was authorized by President Moi through his provincial commissioner. But the questions are these: How do you kill an idea? How do you silence the throbbings of a national democratic culture?”

Contribution of “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Ngugi’s Lens	Example of Tension
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Ngugi would critique Achebe’s depiction of the clash between indigenous Igbo culture and British imperialism. Achebe portrays the dismantling of Igbo society by colonial forces, which mirrors Ngugi’s argument about the cultural destruction by imperial languages and values.	The imposition of British legal and religious systems on Igbo society represents the tension between African national culture and Western imperialism.
A Passage to India by E.M. Forster	Ngugi would view Forster’s work as illustrating the cultural divide between the British colonizers and the Indian population. Although Forster attempts to humanize both groups, Ngugi might critique the depiction of Indian culture through a British lens, reflecting the imperialist narrative.	The portrayal of British officials in India as superior, despite their inability to understand or respect Indian culture, showcases the imperialist domination over the colonized society.
The Wretched of the Earth by Frantz Fanon	Ngugi would resonate with Fanon’s analysis of the psychological effects of colonialism. Fanon’s call for cultural liberation aligns with Ngugi’s view of the importance of reclaiming national languages and cultures to resist imperialist domination.	Fanon’s call for a rejection of colonial culture and the creation of a national culture parallels Ngugi’s assertion that language and culture are key to resisting imperialism.
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Ngugi might critique Conrad’s depiction of Africa as a “dark continent,” which reinforces imperialist stereotypes. The portrayal of Africans as silent and primitive could be seen as part of the cultural imperialism Ngugi discusses, where European values dominate and dehumanize African cultures.	The novel’s depiction of Africa as mysterious and savage reflects the imperialist worldview that Ngugi criticizes, where colonized peoples are denied their history and cultural complexity.

Criticism Against “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

• Essentialism: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s essay essentializes national cultures, assuming a monolithic and homogenous identity for all members of a particular nation. This criticism suggests that his approach may overlook the diversity and complexity of cultural experiences within a nation.
• Western-centric framework: While Thiong’o is critical of Western imperialism, some critics argue that his analysis still relies on a Western framework of understanding and categorization. This criticism suggests that his approach may not fully capture the nuances of non-Western cultural perspectives.
• Overemphasis on language: While language is undoubtedly a crucial aspect of cultural identity, some critics argue that Thiong’o overemphasizes the role of language at the expense of other cultural factors such as social structures, economic conditions, and historical context. This criticism suggests that a more comprehensive understanding of cultural tension requires a broader analysis of these factors.
• Neglect of internal contradictions: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s focus on the external tensions between national and imperialist cultures may overlook the internal contradictions and conflicts within national cultures themselves. This criticism suggests that a more nuanced understanding of cultural dynamics requires an examination of both external and internal factors.
• Limited scope: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s essay primarily focuses on the experiences of African nations, neglecting the experiences of other colonized peoples in the Third World. This criticism suggests that a more comprehensive analysis of cultural imperialism requires a broader comparative perspective.
• Oversimplification of imperialism: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s portrayal of imperialism may be overly simplistic, failing to account for the complex and varied forms of imperialist domination. This criticism suggests that a more nuanced understanding of imperialism requires a more sophisticated analysis of its historical and contemporary manifestations.

Suggested Readings: “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

1. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Heinemann, 1986.
2. Irele, Abiola. The African Imagination: Literature in Africa and the Black Diaspora. Oxford University Press, 2001.
3. Ashcroft, Bill, et al. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989. https://www.routledge.com/The-Empire-Writes-Back-Theory-and-Practice-in-Post-Colonial-Literatures/Ashcroft-Griffiths-Tiffin/p/book/9780415280204
4. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/573723/the-wretched-of-the-earth-by-frantz-fanon/
5. Quayson, Ato. Postcolonialism: Theory, Practice, or Process? Polity Press, 2000.

Representative Quotations from “The Tension Between National And Imperialist Culture” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“I must, at the very start, voice my strong discomfiture with the concept of ‘Commonwealth’ literature.”	Thiong’o rejects the concept of “Commonwealth” literature as a unifying framework, arguing that it obscures the diverse and often conflicting experiences of former colonized nations.
“Language is a carrier of a people’s culture. Culture is a carrier of a people’s values. Values are a carrier of a people’s outlook or consciousness and sense of identity.”	This quote highlights the interconnectedness of language, culture, and identity, emphasizing the importance of language in shaping a people’s worldview.
“The,result was often the creation of a minority who spoke and understood the language of imposition and who, in the process, had internalized the culture of imperialism.”	This quote describes the creation of a comprador class, a minority that internalizes imperialist values and becomes a tool of neo-colonial domination.
“In other words, a situation now arose where it was they, the peasants, who were laughing at our use of language.”	This quote illustrates the power dynamics between the writer and the peasants, as the peasants become teachers of language and culture.
“The very fact that we had to ask ourselves in what language we were going to write a play is itself a telling point about how far gone we were.”	This quote emphasizes the significance of language choice in the context of cultural resistance and the importance of reclaiming indigenous languages.
“Kamiriithu as a symbol had to go. The final coup de grâce in 1982 was authorized by President Moi through his provincial commissioner. But the questions are these: How do you kill an idea? How do you silence the throbbings of a national democratic culture?”	This quote highlights the repressive tactics used by neo-colonial regimes to suppress national cultures and democratic movements.
“Let me, in other words, show you the other side of the coin.”	This quote introduces the contrasting cultural influences that are promoted by neo-colonial regimes, such as Western pop culture and imperialism.
“The repression of national democratic cultures, of national languages, in a place like Kenya is done precisely to keep the country stable for investments from West Germany, France, Sweden, Britain and North America.”	This quote reveals the economic motivations behind cultural repression, as neo-colonial regimes seek to maintain a stable environment for foreign investment.
“And whether we call it tension between ‘indigenous’ and ‘metropolitan’ cultures or whatever, we must remember what is behind that particular tension.”	This quote emphasizes the importance of understanding the underlying power dynamics and political struggles that shape cultural tensions.
“So we, who are concerned with these cultures, with these literatures, with these values, must at the same time necessarily be involved in raising our voices, wherever we are, against the repression of national cultures, national languages and particularly the repression of democratic rights.”	This quote calls for international solidarity and activism in support of national cultures and democratic struggles against imperialism.

Introduction: “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

“The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o, first appeared in 1980 in the journal Index on Censorship, holds importance in literature and literary theory for offering a firsthand account of an artist’s political awakening and the role of language in cultural resistance. Here, Ngugi, a renowned Kenyan writer, details his upbringing steeped in Gikuyu traditions and his disillusionment with colonial education that privileged Western culture. This personal narrative sheds light on the power dynamics between colonizer and colonized, particularly in the realm of language and storytelling.

Summary of “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

• Early Life and Education Shaped by Gikuyu Culture: Ngugi wa Thiong’o grew up deeply influenced by Gikuyu peasant culture, where stories, proverbs, and songs played a significant role. His early education was also shaped by the conflict between the colonial missionary schools and the Gikuyu independent schools. As Ngugi noted, “In missionary schools some things were deliberately held back from students… [but] in Gikuyu Maringa schools nothing would be hidden.” This instilled in him a desire for a more truthful and comprehensive education, setting the stage for his future rebellion against colonial cultural impositions.
• Alliance High School and Colonial Influence: Ngugi’s experience at Alliance High School contrasted sharply with his earlier education. At Alliance, the emphasis was on producing Africans who would serve the colonial administration. He recalled that the headmaster “always emphasised that we were being educated to rule… [but] what he actually meant was that we were being trained to become obedient servants of Her Majesty the Queen of England.” This experience made him aware of the dichotomy between colonial values and the Kenyan nationalist struggle.
• Literary Beginnings and Influences: Ngugi’s interest in literature was sparked in his primary school days, where he was introduced to European writers like Stevenson and Dickens. At Alliance, he discovered African and Third World writers at Makerere University. This exposure was pivotal, as he explained, “The real importance of my university studies lay in that at Makerere, for the first time, I came into contact with African and West Indian writers.” This discovery inspired Ngugi to focus on literature that reflected the African experience, rather than the Eurocentric perspectives he had been taught.
• Political Awakening and the Role of Literature: Ngugi’s time at Makerere and later at Leeds University further radicalized him, exposing him to anti-colonial and socialist literature. He became a proponent of literature that reflected the struggles of the oppressed, asserting, “I take literature to be a reflection of social reality.” He rejected the Eurocentric view that glorified colonialism, favoring instead the works of African and Third World writers like Chinua Achebe, Peter Abrahams, and Frantz Fanon.
• Commitment to Gikuyu Language and Theatre: Ngugi’s commitment to using African languages in literature was solidified through his experience with the Kamirithu Community Educational and Cultural Centre, where he co-wrote and staged the play Ngahiika Ndenda (I Will Marry When I Want). The play was performed in Gikuyu, and as Ngugi observed, the peasants and workers “took the initiative in suggesting additions and even deciding the form of the performance.” This demonstrated the power of theatre as a tool for ideological communication in Kenya.
• Arrest and Detention: Ngugi was detained without trial in 1977 after writing Ngahiika Ndenda, a play critical of Kenyan society and politics. Reflecting on his detention, Ngugi stated, “I believe I was detained because I wrote truthfully about the Kenyan historical situation, both past and current.” His arrest highlighted the risks faced by writers who challenged oppressive regimes through literature.
• Conclusion: The Role of African Writers: Ngugi believed that African writers must return to their roots, writing in African languages for African audiences. He criticized the use of European languages in African literature, calling such works “Afro-Saxon literature.” He emphasized, “If our audience is composed of peasants and workers… we must write in the languages of the peasants and workers of Africa.” Ngugi’s dedication to this cause is evident in his post-detention works, which continue to reflect his commitment to truthfully representing the African experience.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Application in the Text
Colonialism	The policy or practice of acquiring political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it.	Ngugi reflects on the colonial education system designed to create obedient subjects of the British Empire. “We were being trained to serve… the Queen.”
Eurocentrism	Focusing on European culture or history to the exclusion of a wider view of the world.	Ngugi critiques the curriculum at Alliance High School and Makerere University for its focus on European writers and exclusion of African literature.
Cultural Imperialism	The imposition of a foreign viewpoint or civilization on a people.	Ngugi contrasts the missionary schools with the Gikuyu independent schools, accusing colonial institutions of hiding truths from Kenyan students.
Resistance Literature	Literature that challenges oppressive systems and promotes social justice.	Ngugi’s play Ngahiika Ndenda is an example of resistance literature, as it critiques the political and social injustices in Kenya.
Dialectical Opposition	The concept of two opposing forces in constant struggle.	Ngugi explains the struggle between colonial and indigenous education systems, where Kenyan peasants built their own schools to resist colonial influence.
Third World Literature	Literature produced in formerly colonized or economically marginalized nations.	Ngugi highlights the importance of African and Third World writers like Achebe and Lamming in shaping his worldview.
Language and Power	The relationship between language and social, political, or cultural dominance.	Ngugi stresses the need for African writers to write in African languages to connect with the people, calling literature in colonial languages “Afro-Saxon.”
Neocolonialism	The use of economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence former colonies.	Ngugi critiques post-independence Kenya for continuing the structures of colonialism, reflecting his concerns in works like Petals of Blood.
Social Realism	The depiction of realistic everyday life with a focus on social issues.	Ngugi views literature as a reflection of social reality, stating that it must depict the “totality of forces affecting the lives of the people.”
Radical Tradition	A political and literary tradition that seeks to challenge established structures and promote systemic change.	Ngugi credits his exposure to radical literature at Leeds University, such as the works of Frantz Fanon, for shaping his critique of colonialism.
Nation Language	The use of indigenous languages in literature as a form of cultural and political expression.	Ngugi advocates for writing in Gikuyu to make literature accessible to peasants and workers, rejecting the use of colonial languages in African literature.
Theatre as Ideological Tool	The use of drama to communicate political or social messages.	Ngugi’s experience with the Kamirithu Community Centre’s play Ngahiika Ndenda highlights the power of theatre to engage with and reflect the lives of the people.
Class Consciousness	Awareness of one’s social class and the inequalities that arise from class distinctions.	Ngugi emphasizes that literature must reflect the struggles of the oppressed classes, particularly the peasants and workers in Kenya.
Mimicry in Literature	The imitation of the colonizer’s culture, values, and systems.	Ngugi criticizes the Kenyan elite educated in colonial schools for adopting colonial values and becoming “obedient servants” of the British Empire.
Nationalism	The advocacy of political independence for a particular nation or people.	Ngugi’s commitment to reflecting Kenyan history and resisting neocolonialism showcases his nationalist perspective in both his literature and activism.

Contribution of “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Work and Author	Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s Critique	Context from “The Making of a Rebel”
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Ngugi praises Things Fall Apart for portraying the African experience authentically and resisting colonial narratives.	Ngugi mentions that Achebe’s work started him on a path of discovering African literature. He states that Things Fall Apart reflected “another world, a world which was my own.”
King Solomon’s Mines by H. Rider Haggard	Ngugi critiques this work for its racist depiction of African characters and glorification of colonial conquest.	He recalls reading Haggard’s novels in high school and recognizing them as part of the “racist” literature that promoted Eurocentric values, which were imposed in colonial schools.
Tell Freedom by Peter Abrahams	Ngugi admires Tell Freedom for shedding light on South African struggles against apartheid and colonial oppression.	He describes how discovering Abrahams’ work introduced him to South African literature and influenced his own anti-colonial consciousness. He felt “overjoyed” upon reading Tell Freedom.
The Wretched of the Earth by Frantz Fanon	Ngugi views Fanon’s work as a profound influence, particularly for its revolutionary critique of colonialism and neocolonialism.	Ngugi recounts how reading Fanon at Leeds University was an “eye-opener” for him and shaped his understanding of colonial resistance and the importance of literature in liberation struggles.

Criticism Against “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Representative Quotations from “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“We were being trained to become obedient servants of Her Majesty the Queen.”	Ngugi critiques the colonial education system for its role in producing loyal colonial subjects, rather than critical thinkers or political agitators.
“African literature can only be written in African languages.”	Ngugi emphasizes the importance of writing in indigenous languages, rejecting the dominance of European languages in African literature.
“My interest in writing really goes back as far as my primary school days.”	This shows how Ngugi’s early exposure to literature, even under a colonial system, sparked his passion for storytelling and writing.
“I take literature to be a reflection of social reality.”	Ngugi views literature as a tool for understanding and depicting the socio-political struggles of the people, particularly in postcolonial societies.
“I was convinced… it was to do with the play Ngahiika Ndenda and my other works.”	Ngugi believes his detention was a direct result of his political and literary activism, particularly his critique of Kenyan politics and society.
“At Makerere, for the first time, I came into contact with African and West Indian writers.”	This quotation highlights the moment Ngugi became aware of non-European literature, which shaped his perspective on African identity and resistance.
“The play reflected their lives in their language.”	Ngugi’s commitment to using Gikuyu in theatre shows his belief that literature and art should resonate with the local population, culturally and linguistically.
“I would go as far as saying… what has been called African literature in English is not African literature at all.”	He criticizes African writers who write in European languages, asserting that true African literature must be written in African languages.
“I found Fanon’s book The Wretched of the Earth to be an eye-opener.”	This reflects the influence of anti-colonial theorist Frantz Fanon on Ngugi’s understanding of resistance, violence, and decolonization.
“The Gikuyu peasant culture… was the first foundation of my consciousness.”	Ngugi attributes his political and cultural identity to his early experiences with Gikuyu culture, which grounded his later resistance to colonialism.

Suggested Readings: “The Making Of A Rebel” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

1. Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Penguin Books, 2006.
   https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/603426/things-fall-apart-by-chinua-achebe/
2. Abrahams, Peter. Tell Freedom: Memories of Africa. Faber & Faber, 1981.
   https://www.faber.co.uk/product/9780571206899-tell-freedom/
3. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Translated by Richard Philcox, Grove Press, 2004.
   https://groveatlantic.com/book/the-wretched-of-the-earth/
4. Haggard, H. Rider. King Solomon’s Mines. Penguin Classics, 2007.
   https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/315334/king-solomons-mines-by-h-rider-haggard/
5. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Heinemann Educational, 1986.
   https://heinemannafrica.com/title/9780435080167/
6. Gikandi, Simon. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Cambridge University Press, 2009.
   https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/ngugi-wa-thiongo/B118D84CE30D8A17F04CD97E0898F73A
7. Lazarus, Neil. Resistance in Postcolonial African Fiction. Yale University Press, 1990.
   https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300046915/resistance-in-postcolonial-african-fiction/
8. Lamming, George. In the Castle of My Skin. University of Michigan Press, 1991.
   https://www.press.umich.edu/10082825/in_the_castle_of_my_skin
9. Mwangi, Evan. The Postcolonial Animal: African Literature and Posthuman Ethics. University of Michigan Press, 2019.
   https://www.press.umich.edu/9900605/postcolonial_animal
10. “Ngugi wa Thiong’o.” Encyclopaedia Britannica.
    https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ngugi-wa-Thiongo

Introduction: “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

 “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o first appeared in 2007 in the prestigious journal Performance Research: A Journal of the Performing Arts. This groundbreaking work has significantly contributed to the fields of literature and literary theory, offering a nuanced exploration of orature and its performative nature. Thiong’o’s essay has been widely cited and discussed, inspiring scholars to delve deeper into the connections between oral traditions, performance, and written texts.

Summary of “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

• The Paradigmatic Shift in Performance Studies: The article highlights the paradigmatic shift in the study of performance, initiated by Richard Schechner and the establishment of the Department of Performance Studies at NYU. This shift repositions theatre as one among many performance genres, removing it from its hierarchical position. It asserts that this shift allows scholars to see how “the invisible is often made visible through performance” (Thiong’o, 2007, p. 5). The comparison to Marxist theory is apt, as both shed new light on past and present cultural phenomena, challenging the notion of rigid categorizations.
• The Concept of Orature: Orature, coined by Ugandan linguist Pio Zirimu, is defined as the use of utterance as an aesthetic means of expression. Zirimu developed this term to contest the idea that oral arts were inferior to literature, arguing instead that orature stands on its own as a valid aesthetic form. The author writes that Zirimu’s brief contribution to this concept continues to influence scholars, as evidenced by its use across diverse cultures: “one reads variously of Hawaiian Orature, Namibian Orature, Ghanaian Orature and many others” (Thiong’o, 2007, p. 5).
• Pitika Ntuli’s Expansive Vision of Orature: South African artist Pitika Ntuli expanded Zirimu’s idea of orature by emphasizing its holistic nature, viewing it as a fusion of all art forms. Ntuli described orature as “more than the fusion of all art forms” but as the “capsule of feeling, thinking, imagination, taste and hearing” (Ntuli, 1988, p. 215). His conceptualization underscores the interconnectedness of human experiences, nature, and art in African societies. This fusion offers a holistic view of life where the boundaries between art forms are fluid.
• Orature’s Connection to Nature and Spirituality: The article explains that orature naturally assumes a connection between nature, nurture, the supernatural, and the spiritual. The Gikuyu term ndu encapsulates this interconnectedness, signifying the connection of all beings and phenomena. This connection is evident in the way orature portrays human interactions with animals and nature, such as in The Iliad or Ovid’s Metamorphosis, where transformations between different forms of life are common: “Orature takes for granted the normality of the connection between nature and nurture” (Thiong’o, 2007, p. 6).
• Performance as the Core of Orature: Central to the theory of orature is the concept of performance. Each element of orature—whether it be song, dance, or storytelling—is realized fully through performance. Thiong’o argues that the difference between orature and literature lies in this performative aspect: “Orature realizes its fullness in performance” (Thiong’o, 2007, p. 6). Performance involves not just the performer, but also the audience, and takes place in settings ranging from village squares to shrines.
• The Expanding Horizons of Orature: Cyber-Orature: Finally, the article explores the potential of cyber-orature, which extends the idea of orature into the digital age. Thiong’o suggests that the electronic space has revived orality and orature in new forms, further broadening its scope. He posits that this virtual space mirrors the principles of orature, where interconnectedness and performance are central: “In the electronic space, orality in general and orature in particular are coming back” (Thiong’o, 2007, p. 7).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Term/Concept	Definition	Example
Orature	A system of aesthetics that uses utterance as an aesthetic means of expression, emphasizing the performative and oral-aural aspects of cultural communication.	Hawaiian Orature, Namibian Orature, Ghanaian Orature
Performance Studies	A field of academic inquiry that investigates the nature, function, and meaning of performance across various cultural contexts.	Richard Schechner’s work on performance theory
Paradigmatic Shift	A fundamental change in the basic concepts and assumptions of a field of study.	The shift from viewing theater as the pinnacle of performance to recognizing it as one among many equally valid genres.
Weltanschauung	A worldview or philosophy of life that shapes one’s understanding of the world and one’s place in it.	The Gikuyu system of thought based on the concept of “ndu” (substance) and the interconnectedness of all existence.
Nurture	The environment and upbringing that influence an individual’s development and behavior.	The human-made world, including technology, culture, and institutions.
Cybernurture	The digital and virtual environment that shapes human experience and interaction.	The internet, social media, and virtual reality.
Supernatural	Beings or forces that are believed to exist beyond the natural world.	Gods, spirits, and other spiritual entities.
Supernurtural	The spiritual or metaphysical realm that transcends both nature and nurture.	The soul, the afterlife, and the divine.
Riddle	A question posed in the form of a puzzle or enigma.	“I have a house without a door.”
Proverb	A short, wise saying that expresses a general truth.	“A stitch in time saves nine.”
Story	A narrative that recounts events, either real or fictional.	The Ozidi Saga, a traditional Ijaw epic.
Song	A sequence of sounds that are intended to be sung.	Work songs, religious hymns, and folk songs.
Poetry	A form of literature that uses language creatively to express emotions, ideas, and images.	Riddles, proverbs, and narrative poems.
Drama	A form of literature that is intended to be performed.	Plays, theater, and other live performances.
Dance	A form of movement that is intended to be expressive or rhythmic.	Traditional dances, modern dance, and ballet.
Performance	The act of presenting something to an audience.	Theatrical performances, musical concerts, and artistic exhibitions.

Contribution of “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Through Orature	Key Concepts from Thiong’o’s Theory
“Things Fall Apart” by Chinua Achebe	This novel’s heavy use of proverbs reflects the orature tradition of the Igbo people, where oral storytelling and wisdom are essential. The proverbs serve as tools for moral education and cultural transmission, a core aspect of orature.	Proverbs as “codifications of wisdom” (Thiong’o, 2007), representing the interconnectedness of culture, language, and performance in oral societies.
“The Ozidi Saga” by J.P. Clark-Bekederemo	As a transcribed Ijaw epic, The Ozidi Saga exemplifies the transition from orature to literature, with the written text capturing only a version of what was a dynamic, performed narrative. This highlights orature’s performative essence, lost in textual representation.	Orature’s reliance on performance, where the audience’s participation and the context are crucial. “Orature realizes its fullness in performance” (Thiong’o, 2007).
“The Iliad” by Homer	Homer’s epic poetry, though written, stems from an oral tradition where storytelling was performative, involving recitation before an audience. Like orature, The Iliad portrays fluidity between human and divine realms, reflecting nature and nurture connections.	The interconnectedness of human, nature, and divine realms in orature, where orality plays a central role in storytelling and cultural expression.
“Mahabharata” by Vyasa (Indian Epic)	The oral transmission of the Mahabharata demonstrates how orature preserves and disseminates cultural narratives through performance. Though often read in written form, the epic was traditionally passed down orally, embodying orature’s participatory and dynamic qualities.	The performative and participatory nature of orature, where each telling of the story brings new life and meaning to the narrative (Thiong’o, 2007).

Criticism Against “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

1. Overemphasis on Orality at the Expense of Literary Forms
   Thiong’o’s prioritization of orature might be seen as undermining the value and significance of written literature, particularly in cultures where literacy plays a crucial role in preserving and disseminating knowledge.
2. Lack of Depth in Defining Orature as a Comprehensive Theory
   Although Thiong’o introduces orature as a powerful framework, the article does not fully develop the theoretical foundations, leaving the concept open to interpretation without rigorous academic analysis or clear boundaries.
3. Romanticization of Pre-Colonial Oral Traditions
   Some critics may argue that Thiong’o romanticizes African oral traditions, potentially overlooking the complexity and evolution of these traditions in contemporary contexts, where hybrid forms of communication (oral and written) coexist.
4. Limited Exploration of Non-African Orature
   While Thiong’o acknowledges the existence of orature in other cultures (e.g., Greek epics, Indian traditions), his focus is largely on African contexts. This may lead to a criticism that the theory is underdeveloped in its application to global orature traditions.
5. Neglect of Modern Media’s Role in Orature’s Evolution
   Thiong’o briefly touches on cyber-orature, but the article lacks a thorough engagement with how modern digital media, such as social media and video platforms, impact and shape contemporary forms of oral performance.
6. Potential Idealization of Orature’s Holistic Nature
   Thiong’o’s depiction of orature as a harmonious fusion of art forms might be viewed as an idealized, overly unified model of cultural expression, potentially ignoring conflicts or contradictions within oral traditions.
7. Insufficient Consideration of Socioeconomic and Political Factors
   The article focuses on the aesthetic and philosophical aspects of orature but does not sufficiently address how socioeconomic or political conditions influence the development, preservation, or marginalization of orature traditions.

Suggested Readings: “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Representative Quotations from “Notes Towards A Performance Theory Of Orature” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The invisible is often made visible through performance.”	This highlights Thiong’o’s belief that performance has the power to reveal deeper truths and realities, making abstract or hidden concepts accessible and tangible through enactment.
“Orature is more than the fusion of all art forms. It is the conception and reality of a total view of life.”	Thiong’o presents orature as a holistic worldview where various art forms—song, story, drama—are interconnected, reflecting the unity of human experience in performance.
“Orature realizes its fullness in performance.”	Thiong’o emphasizes that orature is not just about oral traditions but is brought to life through performance, which involves interaction between performer, audience, and context.
“What is often arrested in writing is a particular version, a particular rendering…”	Thiong’o argues that written literature limits the fluidity and dynamism of oral storytelling, where each performance can vary and evolve over time, making orature a more flexible form.
“Orature takes for granted the normality of the connection between nature, nurture, super-natural, supernurtural…”	This quotation reveals how orature assumes a seamless integration between the natural world, human life, and spiritual or supernatural elements, reflecting a holistic worldview.
“The highest conception of the supernatural is God… the highest conception of the supernurtural is the Soul.”	Thiong’o connects orature to spiritual beliefs, indicating how orature expresses the relationship between the material and the immaterial, linking nature, nurture, and spirituality.
“Performance involves performer and audience, in orature this often being a participatory audience.”	This points to the interactive nature of orature, where the audience is not passive but engages actively with the performance, thus enhancing its dynamism and impact.
“In the electronic space, orality in general and orature in particular are coming back.”	Thiong’o acknowledges the revival of oral traditions through digital media, suggesting that orature is evolving in the cyber age, where new platforms offer spaces for oral performances.
“Humans, birds, animals and plants interact freely, they often assume each others’ forms, including language.”	This quotation demonstrates how orature often blurs the boundaries between humans, animals, and nature, representing them as interconnected and capable of communication, a common feature in oral traditions.
“Dance is a celebration of freedom from fixity, a momentary triumph over gravitational pull…”	Thiong’o describes dance as an essential element of orature, symbolizing liberation and fluidity, reflecting orature’s overall resistance to rigidity and its embrace of transformation and change.

Introduction: “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

“Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o is an excerpt first appeared in 1986 in the book of the same title published by James Currey Ltd.This seminal work of postcolonial theory argues for the importance of linguistic decolonization in African literature. Thiong’o contends that continued use of colonial languages, such as English and French, perpetuates the mental and cultural subjugation of African peoples. The book has had a profound impact on literary theory, inspiring scholars and writers to consider the politics of language and the ways in which language can be used to empower marginalized communities.

Summary of “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

1. The Problem: Ngugi wa Thiong’o argues that African writers’ continued use of European languages perpetuates a “neo-colonial slavish and cringing spirit.” By writing in foreign tongues, African writers pay homage to colonialism and maintain a subordinate relationship. This linguistic choice not only reflects a cultural subservience but also reinforces the dominance of European power structures.
2. Impact on Audience: Writing in European languages excludes the peasantry and working class from cultural discussions, limiting their participation in the intellectual and political discourse. Ngugi observes that “while we were busy haranguing the ruling circles in a language which automatically excluded the participation of the peasantry and the working class in the debate, imperialist culture and African reactionary forces had a field day.” This linguistic barrier hinders the dissemination of alternative perspectives and reinforces the status quo.  
3. Irony: The irony of the situation is that even those who oppose colonialism often embrace European languages. Reactionary African politicians, who believe in selling Africa to Europe, and zealous missionaries, who sought to “rescue” Africa from its “paganism,” both mastered African languages to spread their agendas. This highlights the paradoxical relationship between language and power.
4. Afro-European Literature: The literature produced by Africans writing in European languages is a “hybrid tradition” that combines elements of African and European cultures. While it has produced talented writers and works of genuine merit, Ngugi argues that it ultimately serves the interests of the neo-colonial system. As he states, “Their work belongs to an Afro-European literary tradition which is likely to last for as long as Africa is under this rule of European capital in a neo-colonial set-up.”  
5. The Solution: Ngugi contends that African literature can only truly be African if it is written in African languages. By using the languages of the peasantry and working class, writers can empower these marginalized groups and challenge the dominance of European culture. This linguistic shift is essential for achieving true decolonization and fostering a more equitable society.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o ‘

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevance in the Text
Neo-Colonialism	A political and economic system where former colonies remain dependent on imperial powers, despite formal independence.	Ngugi critiques the continuation of neo-colonialism through African writers’ use of European languages, perpetuating dependency.
Cultural Imperialism	The imposition of a foreign culture over another, often through language and education, undermining native cultures.	Ngugi argues that African writers using European languages support cultural imperialism by marginalizing African languages.
Afro-European Literature	A term used to describe literature written by Africans in European languages.	Ngugi states that this literature, though valuable, belongs to a hybrid tradition tied to imperialism.
Colonial Alienation	The process where individuals become distanced from their native culture and language, adopting those of the colonizer.	Ngugi emphasizes how this alienation splits Africans from their reality and culture, distancing them from their own people and heritage.
Mother Tongue	The native language that one learns from birth.	Ngugi promotes writing in African languages, including his mother tongue Gikuyu, as a way to counter cultural alienation.
Language and Power	The connection between language and social or political control.	Ngugi argues that the use of European languages by African elites allows ruling powers to exclude the peasantry and working class.
Cultural Resistance	The use of native culture and language as a means to resist imperialism and assert national identity.	Ngugi advocates for African writers to use their native languages as a form of resistance against imperialist and neo-colonial forces.
Class Struggle	The conflict between social classes, particularly between the working class and ruling elites.	Ngugi links the use of African languages to the empowerment of the working class and peasantry, who are often excluded by elites.
Revolutionary Literature	Literature that seeks to challenge the status quo and promote social or political change.	Ngugi sees writing in African languages as revolutionary, enabling writers to communicate directly with the masses and inspire change.

Contribution of “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

• Postcolonial Theory and Language Critique
  Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s work critically examines the relationship between language and imperialism. He argues that African writers who use European languages contribute to the continuation of neo-colonialism by maintaining the dominance of European cultural norms. He challenges writers to decolonize African literature by embracing native languages.

“By our continuing to write in foreign languages, paying homage to them, are we not on the cultural level continuing that neo-colonial slavish and cringing spirit?”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 101)

• Cultural Nationalism and Linguistic Identity
  The text emphasizes the importance of writing in African languages to reclaim cultural identity and resist imperialism. Ngugi argues that language is tied to culture and national identity, and by adopting native languages, writers can authentically express the experiences of African people.

“My writing in Gikuyu language, a Kenyan language, an African language, is part and parcel of the anti-imperialist struggles of Kenyan and African peoples.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 103)

• Afro-European Literature and Hybridity
  Ngugi critiques what he calls “Afro-European literature,” a hybrid literary tradition where African writers produce works in European languages. He views this as a transitional phase, one that reinforces Africa’s dependence on Europe during the neo-colonial era. This concept contributes to the theory of hybridity in postcolonial studies.

“Afro-European literature can be defined as literature written by Africans in European languages in the era of imperialism.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 102)

• Revolutionary Role of African Literature
  Ngugi sees writing in African languages as a revolutionary act, one that aligns with the struggles of the working class and peasantry. He argues that African languages can communicate messages of unity and hope, thus contributing to the political and social awakening of the masses.

“A writer who tries to communicate the message of revolutionary unity and hope in the languages of the people becomes a subversive character.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 104)

• Colonial Alienation and the Politics of Language
  Ngugi introduces the concept of “colonial alienation,” where individuals are distanced from their culture and language, adopting the colonizer’s language as the medium of intellectual development. This concept deepens the understanding of language as a political tool in literary theory, particularly in postcolonial and cultural studies.

“It starts with a deliberate disassociation of the language of conceptualization…from the language of daily interaction in the home and in the community.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 103)

Examples of Critiques Through “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Based on “Decolonizing the Mind”
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	While Achebe’s novel offers a powerful portrayal of pre-colonial Igbo culture, it has been criticized for reinforcing certain stereotypes and romanticizing the past. Ngugi might argue that the use of English limits the authentic representation of Igbo voices and perspectives.
A Grain of Wheat by Ngugi wa Thiong’o (himself)	Even though Ngugi’s own novel is a significant contribution to African literature, it could be critiqued for its reliance on English to convey complex themes of colonialism and resistance. Ngugi might argue that his later works, written in Gikuyu, offer a more authentic and empowering representation of African experiences.
House of Bondage by Sembene Ousmane	Ousmane’s novel provides a scathing critique of colonialism and its impact on Senegalese society. However, Ngugi might suggest that the use of French, even if it serves to expose colonial injustices, reinforces the dominance of the colonial language.
The Search for the Lost Father by Camara Laye	Laye’s autobiographical novel offers a nostalgic and idealized view of pre-colonial Guinea. Ngugi might criticize this portrayal for its failure to acknowledge the complexities and contradictions of traditional African societies. He might also argue that the use of French limits the novel’s ability to fully capture the nuances of Laye’s experiences.

Criticism Against “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

• Idealization of Native Languages: Critics argue that Ngugi idealizes the role of African languages in resisting imperialism, without fully accounting for the practical limitations. Many African languages are not standardized or have limited literary traditions, making them difficult for writers to adopt in certain genres and forms. Additionally, there are concerns about regional diversity and the potential for ethnic divisions due to linguistic fragmentation.
• Exclusion of Non-Linguistic Factors in Colonial Resistance: Some scholars contend that Ngugi places too much emphasis on language as the primary tool for decolonization, neglecting other significant socio-political and economic aspects of the struggle against imperialism. Critics suggest that language alone cannot address the broader structural inequalities imposed by colonialism and neo-colonialism.
• Lack of Practicality in Globalized Context: The insistence on using African languages may be seen as impractical in the context of globalization, where European languages (especially English and French) serve as global lingua francas, facilitating international communication and exchange. Ngugi’s call to abandon European languages is viewed by some as potentially isolating African writers from the global literary community.
• Overemphasis on Language as a Divider: Critics argue that Ngugi’s position may unintentionally reinforce divisions between those who speak European languages and those who speak African languages. While Ngugi calls for unity through the use of African languages, some see his approach as creating new cultural hierarchies that privilege linguistic purism over broader inclusivity.
• Romanticization of the African Peasantry and Working Class: Ngugi’s emphasis on the peasantry and working class as the ideal audience for literature in African languages has been critiqued for romanticizing these groups. Critics suggest that this idealization overlooks the diverse, complex social realities within African societies, where urbanization and modern education increasingly shape cultural identities.
• Reduction of Afro-European Literature: Ngugi’s categorization of literature written by Africans in European languages as “Afro-European” or hybrid literature has been criticized for downplaying the contributions of these writers to African literary traditions. By limiting these works to a “transitional” phase, Ngugi dismisses the potential for African writers to engage meaningfully with global literary traditions through European languages.

Suggested Readings: “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

1. Ashcroft, Bill, et al. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989. https://www.routledge.com
2. Gikandi, Simon. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Cambridge University Press, 2000. https://www.cambridge.org
3. Bhola, H. S. African Studies Review, vol. 30, no. 2, 1987, pp. 102–03. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/524049. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
4. Gikandi, Simon. “On Culture and the State: The Writings of Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’s.” Third World Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 1, 1989, pp. 148–56. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3992225. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
5. Gugler, Josef. “How Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o Shifted from Class Analysis to a Neo-Colonialist Perspective.” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 32, no. 2, 1994, pp. 329–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/161773. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
6. Raditlhalo, S. I. “Nationalism and Ethnicity in Selected Colonial and Post-Colonial Novels by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o.” English in Africa, vol. 27, no. 1, 2000, pp. 75–104. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40238893. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
7. Brown, Nicholas. “Revolution and Recidivism: The Problem of Kenyan History in the Plays of Ngugi Wa Thiong’o.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 30, no. 4, 1999, pp. 56–73. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3820752. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.

Representative Quotations from “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“By our continuing to write in foreign languages, paying homage to them, are we not on the cultural level continuing that neo-colonial slavish and cringing spirit?”	Ngugi argues that the use of European languages in African literature reinforces a colonial mentality and perpetuates cultural subjugation.
“The Christian bible is available in unlimited quantities in even the tiniest African language. The comprador ruling cliques are also quite happy to have the peasantry and the working class all to themselves.”	Ngugi highlights the role of language in shaping political and cultural power dynamics, arguing that the use of African languages can be a tool for oppression as well as liberation.
“What we have created is another hybrid tradition, a tradition in transition, a minority tradition that can only be termed as Afro-European literature.”	Ngugi acknowledges the existence of a hybrid African literature written in European languages but emphasizes its limitations and its ties to the colonial legacy.
“African literature can only be written in African languages, that is, the languages of the African peasantry and working class.”	Ngugi asserts that true African literature must be rooted in the languages of the people, empowering the marginalized and challenging colonial dominance.
“Colonial alienation takes two interlinked forms: an active (or passive) distancing of oneself from the reality around; and an active (or passive) identification with that which is most external to one’s environment.”	Ngugi describes the psychological effects of colonialism, including a disconnection from one’s own culture and a desire to identify with the colonizer.
“I do not want to see Kenyan children growing up in that imperialist-imposed tradition of contempt for the tools of communication developed by their communities and their history.”	Ngugi emphasizes the importance of language in shaping cultural identity and self-esteem, advocating for the preservation and celebration of African languages.
“It is like producing a society of bodiless heads and headless bodies.”	Ngugi uses a powerful metaphor to illustrate the destructive consequences of colonial alienation, which separates the mind from the body and disrupts the harmonious connection between language and reality.
“Africa’s natural and human resources continue to develop Europe and America: but Africa is made to feel grateful for aid from the same quarters that still sit on the back of the continent.”	Ngugi critiques the neo-colonial system, highlighting the exploitation of Africa’s resources and the false narrative of Western generosity.
“I would like to see Kenya peoples’ mother-tongues (our national languages!) carry a literature reflecting not only the rhythms of a child’s spoken expression, but also his struggle with nature and his social nature.”	Ngugi envisions a future where African languages are used to express the full range of human experience, from personal narratives to political struggles.
“A democratic participation of the people in the shaping of their own lives or in discussing their own lives in languages that allow for mutual comprehension is seen as being dangerous to the good government of a country and its institutions.”	Ngugi warns against the dangers of silencing African languages, which can be a powerful tool for resistance and social change.