Day: September 17, 2024

Introduction: “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

“The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi, and Sanjay Seth first appeared in 1999 in the journal Postcolonial Studies. This seminal piece has been instrumental in shaping the field of postcolonial studies, providing a comprehensive overview of key concepts and methodologies. Its significance in literature and literary theory lies in its ability to offer a framework for analyzing and understanding the complex legacies of colonialism and imperialism, particularly as they manifest in literary texts.

Summary of “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

• Postcolonialism and Epistemological Disenchantment: The article begins by discussing the influence of Edward Said’s Orientalism on postcolonial studies, noting how it introduced a critical view of knowledge systems as inherently impure and corruptible. This disillusionment, inherited by the New Humanities, reflects a fall from a mythic past when knowledge was seen as pure and ethical. Postcolonialism, similarly, acknowledges a nostalgic desire for precolonial purity that remains unattainable.
• The Competing Desires for Emptiness: Postcolonialism reveals a dual yearning for purity on both sides of the colonial divide. The Western canon is represented by figures like Harold Bloom, who long for an “unpoliticized” past, while thinkers like Ashis Nandy express a desire for the “precolonial” purity. However, postcolonialism acknowledges that such purity is unattainable after colonialism, with only competing desires for competing voids.
• Art as a Metaphor for the Postcolonial Void: The authors use art as a metaphor to explore the notion of emptiness in postcolonial thought. They compare Alexander Archipenko’s sculpture Woman Combing Her Hair with Zhang Hongtu’s “black hole” art, both of which attempt to illustrate the impossibility of absolute emptiness. In Zhang’s work, the absence of Chairman Mao represents the lingering presence of the colonial past, which continues to haunt postcolonial societies.
• Localized Postcolonialism: The article emphasizes the importance of local contexts in postcolonial thought, arguing that attempts to globalize postcolonialism would result in epistemic violence. Instead, postcolonialism must be understood as a series of “family resemblances,” with distinct manifestations depending on geography, politics, and local intellectual traditions. This approach highlights the limitations of Western academic frameworks in interpreting non-Western postcolonial experiences.
• Critiques of Postcolonialism: The authors address critiques of postcolonialism by scholars like Arif Dirlik and H. D. Harootunian. Dirlik argues that postcolonialism has strayed from its radical roots, prioritizing ethnicity and race over class and nationalism, sometimes reinforcing essentialist notions. Harootunian criticizes postcolonialism for failing to challenge area studies, a domain rooted in Orientalist frameworks, and instead becoming overly focused on literary studies, losing sight of material power structures.
• The Role of Marxism in Postcolonialism: Despite these critiques, the authors defend the continued relevance of Marxism in postcolonial studies. They argue that postcolonialism’s associations with Marxism are crucial for addressing the material underpinnings of colonialism and its aftermath, particularly in engaging with the subaltern and colonized populations.
• Postcolonialism as a Toolbox: The article concludes by rejecting the idea of postcolonialism as a grand theory or unified framework. Instead, postcolonialism should be seen as a “toolbox” of provisional strategies and concepts that vary based on disciplinary and local contexts. This metaphor highlights the adaptability and fluidity of postcolonial approaches in addressing different cultural and intellectual terrains.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in the Article
Orientalism	A term coined by Edward Said referring to the Western tradition of stereotyping and dominating the East.	Used to discuss the impurities in Western knowledge systems and the corruptibility of knowledge as exemplified by Said.
Epistemic Violence	The harm caused by imposing one system of knowledge over another, leading to the marginalization of non-Western knowledge.	Referenced in the discussion about the dangers of attempting to unify global postcolonialism under Western frameworks.
Post-Lapsarian View	Refers to the fall from a state of innocence, here applied to the disillusionment with pure knowledge after recognizing its corruptibility.	Describes the New Humanities’ disillusionment with knowledge systems after poststructuralist critiques.
Nostalgia for Purity	A longing for a mythic past when knowledge or cultural conditions were perceived to be pure and untainted by colonialism or modernity.	Seen on both sides of the colonial divide, with Western figures longing for canonical purity and others for precolonial purity.
Subaltern	A term from Marxist and postcolonial theory, referring to populations outside of power structures, often marginalized by dominant cultures.	Used to discuss the relevance of Marxism in postcolonial studies and its focus on the material conditions of the colonized.
Void/Emptiness	The concept of an unattainable “empty space” or absence, symbolizing the loss or impossibility of pure postcolonial identity or knowledge.	Illustrated through artworks by Archipenko and Zhang, which both explore the void in the context of colonial and postcolonial space.
Area Studies	An academic discipline focused on studying specific geographical or cultural regions, often critiqued for its Orientalist roots.	Critiqued for perpetuating Western epistemological frameworks and not being redefined by postcolonialism, as suggested by Harootunian.
Family Resemblances	A Wittgensteinian concept referring to the similarities between different entities without a single unifying characteristic.	Applied to postcolonialism, suggesting that it should be understood as a set of related but diverse approaches.
Marxism	A socio-economic theory that focuses on class struggle and material conditions, central to critiques of capitalism and colonialism.	Defended by the authors as still relevant to postcolonial studies, particularly in its focus on material conditions.
Translation (Benjamin’s Theory)	Walter Benjamin’s idea that translation should extend the boundaries of the host language by introducing the foreignness of the original text.	Used as a metaphor for postcolonialism, advocating for the disruption of smooth transitions into Western epistemology.
Free-floating Signifier	A term from structuralism and post-structuralism, referring to a concept or term that has lost its specific meaning and becomes detached from its original context.	Critique of postcolonialism’s overuse and loss of focus, as argued by Arif Dirlik.
Chronological Marker	A way to signify a period or time frame, often associated with historical or temporal categorization.	Postcolonialism is said to be more than just a chronological marker (after colonialism) and less than a global theory.

Contribution of “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critique of Orientalism and Knowledge Production:
   “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” builds on Edward Said’s Orientalism by deepening the critical examination of knowledge systems within postcolonial discourse. The article engages with Said’s idea of the inherent impurities in Western knowledge, highlighting how postcolonial theory inherited this critical understanding. The authors state, “From theorists like Said, the New Humanities have inherited a critical understanding of the contaminants that inhere within the most pious and exemplary knowledge formations.” This reinforces the importance of questioning how colonialism shaped not only political and economic structures but also knowledge production and academic disciplines.
2. Challenge to Grand Narratives in Postcolonialism:
   The article makes a significant contribution by challenging the idea of postcolonialism as a unified or global theory. It argues against the imposition of a singular postcolonial framework, particularly one that emerges from Western academic traditions. The authors suggest that to attempt this would “entail a form of epistemic violence,” as different regions and cultures experience colonialism and postcolonialism in diverse ways. They assert that postcolonialism should instead be seen as “a mere set of provisional strategies, protocols and concepts, which arise out of a certain recognition of, and approach to, difference.” This view aligns with postmodern critiques of grand narratives, emphasizing localized and context-specific interpretations.
3. Postcolonialism as a Critique of Western Epistemology:
   Another theoretical contribution of the article is its critique of Western epistemology through the lens of postcolonialism. The authors argue that the study of non-Western societies using Western intellectual categories is problematic. They claim that “the study of the non-West in terms of intellectual categories and protocols that have their origins in the West and its history is not an unproblematic exercise.” This critique aligns with poststructuralist theories that question the universal applicability of Western categories of knowledge and emphasizes the need for epistemological pluralism in literary and cultural studies.
4. Family Resemblances and Wittgensteinian Approach to Postcolonialism:
   The article introduces the concept of family resemblances from Ludwig Wittgenstein’s philosophy as a way to describe the heterogeneous and plural nature of postcolonial theory. The authors state, “perhaps the only way to deal with such dissonance is to speak of postcolonialism as a series of ‘family resemblances.’” This contribution offers a new framework for understanding postcolonialism not as a monolithic theory, but as a collection of overlapping but distinct approaches. This aligns with poststructuralist and deconstructionist critiques that resist fixed meanings and advocate for fluid, context-dependent interpretations in literary theory.
5. The Role of Marxism in Postcolonial Studies:
   The article affirms the continued relevance of Marxism to postcolonial studies, especially in addressing material conditions. The authors argue that “postcolonialism’s associations with Marxism were not accidental, and that they neither can nor should be transcended.” They suggest that Marxism remains crucial for engaging with the colonized and subaltern, as it offers tools for analyzing the material underpinnings of colonialism and its aftermath. This contribution reinforces the role of Marxist theory in critiquing the economic and material dimensions of imperialism, which remains an essential aspect of postcolonial studies.
6. Intersection of Art and Postcolonialism:
   The article extends postcolonial theory by exploring its intersection with art, particularly in discussions of emptiness and void. The analysis of artworks by Alexander Archipenko and Zhang Hongtu reveals how postcolonial theory can be applied to visual forms, offering new insights into the representation of colonial and postcolonial spaces. The authors argue that “even the most evacuated of spaces… will take the shape of the desire that calls them into being.” This contribution suggests that postcolonialism is not limited to textual analysis but can also inform the critique of visual and spatial forms in postcolonial contexts.
7. Critique of Area Studies through Postcolonialism:
   The article critically engages with area studies, a field traditionally rooted in Orientalist frameworks, and argues that postcolonialism missed an opportunity to redefine it. The authors cite Harootunian’s criticism, noting that “postcolonialism found a home… in English departments… [and] lost sight of the material dimension to power.” This critique contributes to the broader theoretical discussion on the relationship between postcolonialism and area studies, suggesting that postcolonialism could have reformed area studies by offering new methodologies and epistemologies that reject Orientalist assumptions.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

Literary Work	Critique Through “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism”	Key Concept from the Article
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness	Through the postcolonial lens offered in the article, Heart of Darkness can be critiqued for its portrayal of African spaces as “void” or empty, where the native population is dehumanized and seen as part of the landscape rather than as individuals. This mirrors the article’s discussion of the “desire for uncharted/ unoccupied ‘empty space,’” which is a colonial impulse that erases native subjectivity in favor of Western exploration and domination.	Void/Emptiness: The colonial impulse to view space as empty.
E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India	The portrayal of British colonial figures in A Passage to India reflects the “epistemic violence” discussed in the article, where Western knowledge and authority over Indian subjects are justified by an assumed superiority. The novel’s tension between the colonizer and colonized demonstrates the impossibility of a pure, unpoliticized interaction. The article’s critique of the purity of knowledge in colonial relationships can be applied to the dynamics in the novel.	Epistemic Violence: Imposing Western frameworks on the colonized.
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	Using the article’s critique, Achebe’s Things Fall Apart can be read as a response to the Western canon’s erasure of African subjectivity. Postcolonialism, as discussed, rejects the “purity” of colonial knowledge. Achebe’s work embodies the critical toolset of postcolonialism, showing how colonial knowledge systems violently disrupt indigenous culture and knowledge. The novel also engages with the nostalgia for a precolonial purity, which remains unattainable after colonialism.	Nostalgia for Purity: Longing for a precolonial cultural purity.
Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea	In Wide Sargasso Sea, Rhys challenges the Western portrayal of the “Other” by giving voice to the colonized (Antoinette) and critiquing the imperial gaze found in works like Jane Eyre. This aligns with the article’s view that postcolonial theory should “unsettle critical categories” derived from Western epistemologies. Rhys destabilizes Western notions of race, identity, and mental illness by presenting the colonial encounter from the perspective of the marginalized.	Unsettling Critical Categories: Critiquing Western knowledge systems.

Criticism Against “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

• Lack of Practical Solutions for Postcolonial Contexts:
  While the article offers a strong theoretical critique of postcolonialism, it does not provide clear practical steps or strategies for how scholars can effectively address the challenges of colonial legacies in concrete social, political, or academic contexts.
• Overemphasis on Western Academic Critique:
  The article focuses heavily on critiquing Western academic frameworks but does not adequately address how non-Western intellectual traditions could be integrated into postcolonial theory in a way that is substantive and transformative.
• Fragmentation of Postcolonial Theory:
  The authors argue for a view of postcolonialism as a “toolbox” with localized applications, which may lead to a fragmentation of the field. This approach could dilute the coherence of postcolonial studies, making it harder for scholars to identify common ground or shared objectives within the discipline.
• Insufficient Engagement with Non-Literary Postcolonial Disciplines:
  Although the article critiques the dominance of literary studies in postcolonialism, it does not provide enough engagement with non-literary disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, or history, where postcolonial theory could have broader applications.
• Theoretical Elitism:
  The dense and highly theoretical language of the article may alienate readers who are not deeply versed in poststructuralist or deconstructionist theory. This limits accessibility, particularly for scholars or practitioners working in postcolonial contexts outside of elite academic circles.
• Nostalgic Overtones in Postcolonial Critique:
  The article critiques both colonial and precolonial nostalgia but does not fully explore how contemporary postcolonial thinkers can move beyond this nostalgia in a constructive manner, leaving readers without a forward-looking framework for postcolonial studies.
• Minimal Attention to the Role of Globalization:
  While the article critiques the idea of a globalized postcolonialism, it does not sufficiently address how globalization and modern transnational dynamics shape contemporary postcolonial conditions, particularly in economic and cultural terms.

Representative Quotations from “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“From theorists like Said, the New Humanities have inherited a critical understanding of the contaminants that inhere within the most pious and exemplary knowledge formations.”	This refers to how postcolonial theory, building on Edward Said’s critique of Orientalism, recognizes that no knowledge system is pure or neutral. It reflects the idea that knowledge is often contaminated by colonial and imperial biases.
“To tie the disparate strands of postcolonialism into a single unified entity, paradigm or ‘thing’ would not only entail a form of epistemic violence but… be nigh on impossible.”	The authors argue that postcolonialism cannot be reduced to a single theory or framework because doing so would erase the complexity of different postcolonial contexts. Attempting to unify it could result in a form of intellectual domination.
“Postcolonialism is also compelled to concede that after colonialism there is no real hope of a disciplinary purity or a secular western/non-western nothingness.”	This quotation reflects the idea that postcolonialism acknowledges that there is no return to a precolonial purity. Both Western and non-Western knowledge systems have been altered by colonialism, leaving behind a permanent impact.
“Even the most evacuated of spaces… will take the shape of the desire that calls them into being.”	This metaphor, drawn from the discussion of art, suggests that even seemingly empty spaces are shaped by the cultural and political desires of those who define them. It relates to how colonialism frames non-Western spaces as “empty” or devoid.
“There are, in the end, only competing desires for competing voids, each marked by a culturally different/specific failure to realize the dream of emptiness.”	This highlights how postcolonial theory exposes the impossibility of returning to a pure or empty space. Both colonial and anti-colonial desires are marked by the failure to reclaim an imagined past or untouched identity.
“Postcolonialism increasingly functions as ‘a free floating signifier,’ all too often devoid of content, or repackaging knowledge under a newer, sexier label.”	This quotation critiques the growing trend of using postcolonialism as a fashionable term in academia without substance, where it loses its original radical political and intellectual force, becoming detached from its core principles.
“We must look less for meaning and more for use in any definition of the various postcolonialisms around the globe.”	The authors advocate for focusing on how postcolonialism is applied in different contexts rather than trying to define a universal meaning. This reflects a pragmatic approach to understanding postcolonial theory in specific local conditions.
“The study of the non-West in terms of intellectual categories and protocols that have their origins in the West and its history is not an unproblematic exercise.”	This critique suggests that using Western intellectual frameworks to study non-Western societies can perpetuate colonial biases. It points to the need for new methods that account for non-Western epistemologies and experiences.
“Postcolonialism must aim to be something more than a chronological marker (after colonialism) and something less than a global or grand theory.”	This highlights the authors’ view that postcolonialism should not just be seen as a historical period or a grand overarching theory. Instead, it should function as a toolkit for analyzing specific postcolonial situations and contexts.
“Marxism will always be a source of questions and strategies, a salutary means of remembering the material underpinnings of colonialism and its aftermath.”	The authors reaffirm the relevance of Marxism in postcolonial studies, particularly for understanding the economic and material conditions of colonialism. This links postcolonial theory to broader critiques of capitalism and class exploitation.

Suggested Readings: “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

• Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978. https://archive.org/details/orientalism00said
• Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
  https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203820551
• Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, University of Illinois Press, 1988.
  https://www.mcgill.ca/files/crclaw-discourse/Can_the_subaltern_speak.pdf
• Dirlik, Arif. “The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 20, no. 2, 1994, pp. 328-356.
  https://www.jstor.org/stable/1343914
• Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction.
  Blackwell, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118693940
• Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2015.
  URL: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315751245
• Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction.
  Columbia University Press, 1998. https://www.perlego.com/book/775805/postcolonial-theory-a-critical-introduction-pdf
• Said, Edward W. “Traveling Theory.” The World, the Text, and the Critic, Harvard University Press, 1983. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674366807.c16
• Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2002. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203426081
• Chakrabarty, Dipesh. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton University Press, 2000. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691130019/provincializing-europe

Introduction: “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

“Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi, first published in 2008 in the journal Interventions, is a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory. Gandhi’s essay explores the concept of non-violence through a literary lens, examining various texts and cultural practices that embody and promote this philosophy. By analyzing works from diverse traditions, Gandhi offers a nuanced and comprehensive understanding of non-violence as a complex and multifaceted force. Her essay challenges conventional notions of non-violence, demonstrating its potential to inspire social and political change. Gandhi’s work has been influential in shaping contemporary discussions on non-violence, literature, and literary theory, and continues to be a valuable resource for scholars and activists alike.

Summary of “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

Term/Concept	Definition	Significance in the Text
Non-violence	The practice of achieving goals through peaceful means, such as passive resistance or civil disobedience.	Gandhi’s central theme and the focus of his exploration of competing discourses.
Spirit	A metaphysical concept often associated with the soul or essence of a person or thing.	Represents the underlying force driving both Western and non-Western approaches to non-violence.
Ethics	A system of moral principles that guide behavior.	Gandhi’s search for a “modern metaphysics of morals” founded on non-violence.
Metaphysics	The branch of philosophy that deals with the fundamental nature of reality.	The philosophical framework through which Gandhi analyzes the concepts of spirit, non-violence, and ethics.
Subject	The individual or entity that is the focus of study or analysis.	In Gandhi’s work, the subject is often the individual who practices non-violence.
Colonialism	The control of one territory by another, often involving the exploitation of the colonized people.	The historical context in which Gandhi’s ideas of non-violence developed.
Anticolonialism	Resistance to colonialism, often involving political, social, and cultural movements.	A key aspect of Gandhi’s philosophy and activism.
Cosmopolitanism	The idea that people should be able to live together in harmony, regardless of their cultural or national differences.	Gandhi’s approach to non-violence as a transnational concept.
Ahimsa	A Sanskrit term meaning non-violence.	The Hindu principle that Gandhi draws upon in his exploration of non-violence.
Self-mastery	The ability to control one’s thoughts, emotions, and actions.	A key component of Gandhi’s philosophy, as non-violence requires self-discipline and control.

Contribution of “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Work	Critique Through Spirits of Non-Violence by Leela Gandhi	Key Quotations/Concepts from Spirits of Non-Violence
King Lear by William Shakespeare	King Lear reflects themes of spirit and self-division, particularly in the scene where Gloucester “falls” and is metaphorically reborn in spirit. The characters, especially Lear and Gloucester, experience a loss of sovereignty, mirroring Gandhi’s notion of inward non-violence and spiritual awakening.	“Spirit lost to the imperial and capitalist west must not be recovered so much as replaced.”
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Conrad’s portrayal of European imperialism can be critiqued as a spiritual degradation similar to what Gandhi discusses. Kurtz represents the collapse of spirit into materialist exploitation, aligning with Gandhi’s critique of Western capitalism’s impact on spirit.	“The spiritual morphology of the west was now so irreparably damaged by Europe’s imperial and capitalist mutations.”
Unto This Last by John Ruskin	Gandhi’s translation of Ruskin’s work into Gujarati plays a significant role in shaping his philosophy of non-violence. Ruskin’s critique of industrialization and advocacy for moral economy resonates with Gandhi’s concept of ahimsa as the core of social and economic justice.	“The worker confounds the industrialist’s programmatic extraction of labour.”
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Achebe’s novel, focusing on the disruption of African societies by colonialism, parallels Gandhi’s critique of spiritual colonization. Okonkwo’s personal struggle with change and the imposition of Western values reflect Gandhi’s argument about spiritual subjugation and resistance through non-violence.	“India follows suit through willing acceptance of subjection or the lack, thereto, of insufficient sovereignty over itself.”

Criticism Against “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

1. Overemphasis on Western Influence: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s analysis overemphasizes the influence of Western ideas on the development of non-violence, particularly in relation to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi’s work. They contend that Gandhi’s ideas were primarily rooted in Indian traditions and philosophies.
2. Lack of Historical Specificity: Critics have noted that Gandhi’s analysis is somewhat lacking in historical specificity. They argue that the essay could have benefited from a more detailed examination of the historical context in which Gandhi’s ideas developed, including the specific challenges and opportunities he faced.
3. Idealization of Non-Violence: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s portrayal of non-violence is overly idealized and fails to adequately address the limitations and challenges associated with this approach. They point out that non-violence can be ineffective in certain situations and may even lead to harm.
4. Neglect of Other Forms of Resistance: Critics have suggested that Gandhi’s focus on non-violence may have led her to neglect other forms of resistance, such as armed struggle. They argue that in some cases, armed resistance may be necessary to achieve social and political change.
5. Gender and Caste Bias: Some critics have accused Gandhi of gender and caste bias, particularly in relation to his views on women’s roles and the caste system. They argue that his approach to non-violence may have reinforced traditional hierarchies and inequalities.

Representative Quotations from “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Two competing yet collaborative discourses of non-violence, one non-western and the other western.”	Gandhi highlights the existence of both Eastern and Western discourses of non-violence, showing how they developed independently yet influenced each other.
“Spirit lost to the imperial and capitalist west must not be recovered so much as replaced.”	This points to the argument that the spiritual crisis in the West, caused by imperialism and capitalism, requires not restoration but transformation.
“Do they designate a coherent form of postcolonial ethics, one we might draw upon to counter the epidemic of harmfulness in the present world?”	Gandhi questions whether the convergence of Eastern and Western non-violence creates a unified ethical system relevant for today’s global crises.
“The worker confounds the industrialist’s programmatic extraction of labour.”	Referring to Gandhi’s translation of John Ruskin’s Unto This Last, this quote underscores the tension between spiritual labor and industrial exploitation.
“Satyagraha as a sort of politics of self-fashioning, concerned with the elaboration of a revolutionary sensibility or character.”	Gandhi defines satyagraha as a method of inward political resistance, focusing on self-discipline and the moral transformation of the individual.
“The non-identical European subject makes amends for the sins of oppression/mastery by turning away from itself.”	This describes how European thinkers, following their spiritual crisis, engage in self-critique, leading to a rejection of oppressive historical practices.
“India follows suit through willing acceptance of subjection or the lack, thereto, of insufficient sovereignty over itself.”	Gandhi contrasts the Western exercise of oppression with India’s passive acceptance of subjugation, framing both as spiritual failures.
“The properly auto-immunitory consciousness … is also radically cosmological and contagious.”	Gandhi explains how the self-transformative process of non-violence (particularly ahimsa) extends outward to positively influence others.
“Ahimsa is the farthest limit of humility.”	In this simple but profound statement, Gandhi asserts that non-violence (ahimsa) represents the ultimate expression of humility.
“Spirit will find hospitable ground for its transformed recurrence in the congenial interstices of the self-division cultivated, ascetically, by the non-identical subject.”	Gandhi suggests that the process of self-division and self-critique in both Eastern and Western subjects creates a fertile ground for the resurgence of spiritual ethics.

Suggested Readings: “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

1. Gandhi, Leela. The Common Cause: Postcolonial Ethics and the Practice of Democracy, 1900-1955. University of Chicago Press, 2014.
2. Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. Penguin Classics, 2007.
3. Butler, Judith. Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence. Verso Books, 2006. https://www.versobooks.com/books/1838-precarious-life
4. Badiou, Alain. Ethics: An Essay on the Understanding of Evil. Translated by Peter Hallward, Verso, 2002. https://www.versobooks.com/books/4-ethics
5. Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton University Press, 1993. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691019437/the-nation-and-its-fragments
6. Valéry, Paul. History and Politics. Translated by Denise Folliot and Jackson Matthew, Pantheon Books, 1962. https://archive.org/details/historypolitics00vale
7. Derrida, Jacques. Of Spirit: Heidegger and the Question. Translated by Geoffrey Bennington and Rachel Bowlby, University of Chicago Press, 1989. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/O/bo3684503.html

Introduction: “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

“Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” by Leela Gandhi first appeared in 2007 in the journal Postcolonial Studies, exploring ways in which postcolonial theory challenges the Eurocentric foundations of Western thought and literature. Gandhi argues that by examining the historical and cultural contexts of colonial encounters, postcolonial theorists offer a critique of the “universal” subject, often constructed as European or white, that has dominated Western intellectual traditions. This essay has had a significant impact on literary theory, contributing to a more inclusive and diverse understanding of literary texts and their cultural contexts.

Summary of “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

• Introduction: Leela Gandhi’s “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” offers a comprehensive exploration of the intersections between postcolonial theory and the philosophical tradition of transcendental phenomenology. The article argues that postcolonialism’s engagement with “theory” is rooted in the historical and ethical foundations of anticolonial thought. By examining the virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity” as they emerged in colonial encounters, Gandhi provides a nuanced understanding of the ethical dimensions of postcol nialism.
• The Ethical Foundations of Postcolonialism: Gandhi begins by tracing the historical origins of anticolonial ethics to the experiences of Indian peasant-soldiers in the Great War. These soldiers, drawn from diverse backgrounds of plenitude and scarcity, developed a discourse of “intimate enmity” or “implacable dependence” with their European counterparts. This discourse was characterized by the virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity,” which emerged from the contrasting cultural and material conditions of coloniser and colonised.
• The Role of Transcendental Phenomenology: The article then explores the role of transcendental phenomenology in shaping postcolonial theory. Gandhi argues that the ethical insights of anticolonial thought align with the philosophical methods of “reduction” and “intentionality” developed by Edmund Husserl. By suspending the empirical world and engaging in a relational exploration of “others,” transcendental phenomenology offers a framework for understanding the ethical dimensions of colonial encounters.
• The Ethics of Sacrifice and Generosity: Gandhi delves into the specific virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity” as they manifested in colonial contexts. “Sacrifice,” rooted in the conditions of scarcity experienced by the colonised, was often framed as a moral imperative to disregard worldly goods and embrace a life of austerity. In contrast, “generosity,” associated with the plenitude of the coloniser, was often expressed through acts of hospitality and care.
• The Bandung Conference and Global Solidarity: The article also examines the Bandung Conference of 1955, a significant moment in the development of global solidarity among colonised peoples. The conference reinforced the ethical distinctions between non-western and western civilisational values, emphasizing the importance of both “sacrifice” and “generosity” in the struggle against colonialism.
• Conclusion: Leela Gandhi’s “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” offers a valuable contribution to the field of postcolonial studies. By examining the ethical foundations of anticolonial thought and the role of transcendental phenomenology, the article provides a nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between ethics, theory, and colonialism. Gandhi’s analysis highlights the importance of recognizing the diverse perspectives and experiences that shaped the postcolonial world.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

Term/Concept	Definition	Example from the Text
Transcendental phenomenology	A philosophical method that seeks to understand the nature of consciousness and experience through the analysis of subjective phenomena.	Gandhi’s discussion of the “elementary virtues” of sacrifice and generosity as they emerged from the experiences of Indian peasant-soldiers.
Asceticism	A practice of self-discipline and self-denial, often associated with religious or spiritual beliefs.	Gandhi’s reference to “theory” as an ascetic or ethical project.
Colonialism	The systematic exploitation and domination of a foreign territory and its people by a more powerful nation.	Gandhi’s discussion of the colonial encounters between Indian sepoys and European soldiers.
Postcolonialism	A theoretical framework that examines the lasting effects of colonialism on societies and cultures.	The entire focus of the article, which explores the impact of colonialism on European thought and the development of postcolonial theory.
Virtue	A moral quality considered desirable or admirable.	The specific virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity” discussed by Gandhi.
Ethics	A system of moral principles and rules that govern behavior.	Gandhi’s exploration of the ethical dimensions of anticolonial thought and postcolonial theory.
Theory	A set of ideas or principles that explain a particular phenomenon.	Gandhi’s use of “theory” as a framework for understanding postcolonialism.
Sacrifice	The act of giving up something valuable for a higher purpose.	The experiences of Indian peasant-soldiers who were willing to sacrifice their lives for their country.
Generosity	The quality of giving freely and generously.	The hospitality and care shown by European soldiers and civilians towards Indian sepoys.
Intimate enmity	A paradoxical relationship characterized by both closeness and hostility.	Gandhi’s description of the relationship between coloniser and colonised.
Implacable dependence	A relationship in which two parties are mutually dependent but also antagonistic.	Gandhi’s description of the relationship between coloniser and colonised.

Contribution of “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

Literary Work	Author	Postcolonial Critique Based on Gandhi’s Framework
Heart of Darkness	Joseph Conrad	Examines the representation of Africa as the “other” and critiques European imperialism’s moral crisis. Gandhi’s theory suggests that Conrad’s depiction reflects the crisis of European identity and the moral contradictions within colonization.
Things Fall Apart	Chinua Achebe	Gandhi’s postcolonial lens critiques the European framing of indigenous societies as primitive. Achebe’s work challenges colonial narratives, highlighting the richness of Igbo culture and the violence of colonial disruption.
Wide Sargasso Sea	Jean Rhys	Through Gandhi’s framework, this work critiques colonial and racial hierarchies. The story reveals the psychological trauma of being a marginalized, mixed-race woman in colonial Jamaica, echoing the European crisis of identity in the colonized world.
A Passage to India	E. M. Forster	Critiqued for illustrating the failure of European liberalism in colonial India. Gandhi’s ideas suggest that Forster’s novel exposes the impossibility of true friendship and equality between colonizers and colonized within a colonial framework.

Criticism Against “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

Representative Quotations from “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The ‘goodness’ of Europe is registered first and foremost as the fact of its wealth.”	This quote highlights the material basis of European power and the ways in which it is often associated with moral superiority.
“The ‘characteristic vice’ of imperial Englishmen, as Tawney writes in The Sickness of an Acquisitive Society (1920), is that ‘they are incurious as to theory . . .'”	This quote emphasizes the importance of theoretical reflection in understanding and challenging colonial power structures.
“The ‘virtues’ produced in the sepoys’ letters . . . are, in all their aphoristic particularity, ‘elementary’ in the manner of what Theodor Adorno has described as a minima moralia.”	This quote introduces the concept of a “minor ethics” that challenges the dominant norms and values of Western thought.
“The ‘elementary’ virtues of ‘sacrifice’ and ‘generosity’ . . . together aspire toward a seemingly impossible form of anticolonial communality.”	This quote suggests that despite their differences, the virtues of sacrifice and generosity can be used to build a more just and equitable society.
“The postcolonial susceptibility to and use of Husserlian ‘theory’ is born of a formative exposure to the metaphysical basis of much anticolonial ethics.”	This quote highlights the connection between postcolonial theory and the philosophical tradition of transcendental phenomenology.
“The ‘generosity’ of Europe is explained, exponentially, as the moral effect of plenitude: a virtue appropriate to affluence.”	This quote suggests that European generosity is often rooted in a sense of superiority and entitlement.
“It is precisely the occluded qualities of difference and existence, namely, of zoe¨, which it falls upon a minima moralia to resurrect.”	This quote emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing difference in ethical and political thought.
“We might consider here, as paradigmatic, the crisis of Arjuna, paralysed into inaction at the very outset of that epic war between the Pandavas and Kauravas so vivid in the minds of Hindu sepoys at the Western Front.”	This quote draws on a Hindu epic to illustrate the ethical dilemmas faced by individuals caught in the conflicts of colonialism.
“The Bandung Conference . . . reinforced an existential division between European and non-European critics of imperialism.”	This quote highlights the ways in which the Bandung Conference marked a turning point in the development of global anticolonial solidarity.
“The ‘crisis of European man’ is a crisis of the universal subject, a crisis of the West’s claim to represent humanity as a whole.”	This quote emphasizes the ways in which the crisis of European colonialism is also a crisis of Western thought.

Suggested Readings: “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

1. Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. Columbia University Press, 1998. https://cup.columbia.edu/book/postcolonial-theory/9780231112770
2. Gandhi, Leela. Affective Communities: Anticolonial Thought, Fin-de-Siècle Radicalism, and the Politics of Friendship. Duke University Press, 2006. https://www.dukeupress.edu/affective-communities
3. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978.  https://archive.org/details/OrientalismByEdwardWSaid
4. Chakrabarty, Dipesh. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton University Press, 2000.  https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691130019/provincializing-europe
5. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963.  https://www.openanthropology.org/fanonwretched.pdf
6. Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge, 1998.
   URL: https://www.routledge.com/ColonialismPostcolonialism-3rd-Edition/Loomba/p/book/9780415350648
7. Young, Robert J.C. Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2003. URL: https://global.oup.com/academic/product/postcolonialism-a-very-short-introduction-9780192801821
8. Bhambra, Gurminder K. “Postcolonial and Decolonial Dialogues.” Postcolonial Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, 2014, pp. 115-121. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13688790.2014.966414
9. Nayar, Pramod K. Postcolonial Literature: An Introduction. Pearson, 2008. https://www.pearson.com/store/p/postcolonial-literature-an-introduction/P100000027862
10. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989.  https://www.routledge.com/The-Empire-Writes-Back-Theory-and-Practice-in-Post-Colonial-Literatures/Ashcroft-Griffiths-Tiffin/p/book/9780415280204

Introduction: “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

“Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi, first published in 2009 in the journal Interventions, is a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory. Gandhi’s essay delves into the mystical and radical movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, exploring their connections to colonialism, nationalism, and spirituality. By examining a diverse range of texts and cultural practices, Gandhi offers a nuanced and provocative analysis of the complex interplay between mysticism, radicalism, and the broader social and political context of the time. Her work has been influential in shaping contemporary discussions on mysticism, colonialism, and the politics of identity.

Summary of “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

• Critique of Secular Rationalism:
  Gandhi challenges modern European political thought, shaped by secular rational calculations, arguing that this framework narrows the understanding of politics and ethics by excluding metaphysical elements like desire and prayer.
  Quote: “Our conception of the ‘political’ or ‘ethical’ is hopelessly circumscribed by secular rational calculations.”
• Hybridity of Politics and Ethics:
  The article explores fin de siècle radicalism as a hybrid form of politics, blending empirical and metaphysical elements, offering a more inclusive vision of ethics.
  Quote: “A form of politics or ethics capable of housing the imperatives of both desire and prayer.”
• Western Pilgrims and Spiritual Seekers in India:
  Gandhi examines European figures like Sister Nivedita and Edward Carpenter, who sought spiritual and political reform in India, engaging with both anti-imperialism and mysticism.
  Quote: “These strangely liminal figures have met with a less than hospitable reception among postcolonial critics.”
• Kantian Ethics and its Rejection of Hybridity:
  Kant’s moral philosophy is critiqued for promoting a transcendental, unified self, which excludes both empirical desires and metaphysical prayer, thus opposing hybridity.
  Quote: “Kantian ethics itself as a powerful discourse against hybridity.”
• Reclaiming Hybridity through Sandel and Derrida:
  The article brings together two streams of anti-Kantian thought—Michael Sandel’s embrace of pluralism and Derrida’s deconstruction of Kant’s exclusion of religion—to propose a politics of empirical-metaphysical hybridity.
  Quote: “This paper seeks out a project which radically departs from Kant by proposing an empirical-metaphysical politics of hybridity.”
• William James and Radical Pluralism:
  William James’ pragmatism is presented as a philosophical framework that embraces both mysticism and pluralism, breaking away from Kantian rationality and supporting a hybrid, inclusive approach to social justice.
  Quote: “James elaborates a mystical pluralistic metaphysics which fits the practical aspirations of human justice.”
• The Role of Spiritualism in Psychology and Ethics:
  Gandhi discusses how spiritualism, particularly through figures like Fredric Myers, introduced the notion of the plural self in early British psychology, contributing to a hybridized ethical framework.
  Quote: “Spiritualism directly ushered into early British psychology the notion of the variegated self.”
• Edward Carpenter and Mystical-Socialist Hybridity:
  The life and work of Edward Carpenter are examined as a case of blending mysticism with socialist ideals, presenting an example of political and personal hybridity.
  Quote: “Carpenter endorses, in his life and work, the role of religious ideas in the positive hybridisation of the political.”
• Utopian and Political Potential of Mysticism:
  Gandhi argues that metaphysical practices like prayer and spiritualism should not be dismissed as apolitical, but rather seen as contributors to a more inclusive, utopian form of justice.
  Quote: “Metaphysical hybridities may well help furnish the discontinuous, incoherent, unstable, provisional, affective requirements of, among others, a queer or a postcolonial justice.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference in the Article
Hybridity	The combination of different elements, particularly the empirical and metaphysical, to form a unified but plural subject.	Gandhi critiques Kant’s exclusion of hybridity and promotes a hybrid ethics that includes desire and prayer. “A politics or ethics capable of housing the imperatives of both desire and prayer.”
Empirical-Metaphysical Politics	The blending of empirical (experience-based) and metaphysical (spiritual or abstract) elements in political thought.	Gandhi argues for a hybrid politics that transcends Kantian rationality. “Proposing an empirical-metaphysical politics of hybridity.”
Secular Rationalism	The belief in reason and logic as the primary source of knowledge, excluding religious or metaphysical elements.	Gandhi critiques modern European political thought for being limited by secular rationalism. “Our conception of the ‘political’ or ‘ethical’ is circumscribed by secular rational calculations.”
Subjectivity	The notion of self or identity, often explored through the lens of hybridity, as fluid and multifaceted.	Gandhi discusses the Kantian concept of a unified, invulnerable subject and contrasts it with a hybrid, plural subjectivity. “Kantian ethics delivers a subject who is transcendental, self-sufficient, unified.”
Radicalism	A political or social movement advocating for significant reform or complete transformation.	Gandhi links fin de siècle radicalism (e.g., socialism, anti-imperialism) with mysticism and spiritualism. “Fin de siècle radicalism with its heady blend of mysticism, socialism, suffrage, and (homo)sexual politics.”
Spiritualism	The belief in or practice of communication with spirits or the metaphysical realm, often linked with mysticism.	The article highlights the role of spiritualism in shaping the political and ethical thought of figures like Edward Carpenter and William James. “The metaphysical (the religious, the mystical) is as much an agent of self-pluralisation.”
Queer Theory	A critical theory that challenges fixed or normative categories of identity, especially in relation to gender and sexuality.	Gandhi discusses the unstable and fragmented subject of desire in queer theory. “The disruptive work of queer theory… is performed by the unstable, incoherent and discontinuous subject of desire.”
Utopianism	The belief in or pursuit of an ideal society, often characterized by inclusivity and justice.	Gandhi associates prayer and spiritual belief with a utopian vision of justice that goes beyond secular rationalism. “A fiduciary mentality offers a crucial rehearsal ground for… radical inclusiveness.”
Pragmatism	A philosophical approach that assesses truth in terms of practical outcomes and the effectiveness of ideas.	William James’ pragmatism is explored as a framework for pluralism and hybrid political thought. “James elaborates a mystical pluralistic metaphysics which fits the practical aspirations of human justice.”
Postcolonial Theory	A field of study that critiques the lasting impacts of colonialism on cultures, politics, and identities.	Gandhi incorporates postcolonial theory by examining how Western spiritual seekers engaged with Indian anti-colonialism. “Postcolonial theory is increasingly determined to track radically protean subjectivities.”

Contribution of “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	References from the Article
Postcolonial Theory	Gandhi expands postcolonial theory by examining how late 19th-century Western mystics and radicals engaged with colonial India, blending anti-colonialism with spiritual pursuits.	Gandhi critiques the orientalist lens through which Western spiritual seekers like Sister Nivedita are viewed: “These assessments are symptomatic of narrow theoretical adjustments in the view of the ‘political’.”
Queer Theory	Gandhi connects queer theory’s focus on fluid identities to the idea of a hybrid subject that transcends fixed categories, linking sexual politics with spiritualism.	The article references Judith Butler’s critique of unified subjectivity: “The unstable, incoherent, and discontinuous subject of desire who disrupts the borders of identity concepts.”
Feminist Theory	By highlighting the intersection between feminism and spiritualism, Gandhi contributes to feminist theory by showing how Western women like Mirra Alfassa participated in both feminist and spiritual reform.	Gandhi discusses how spiritualism influenced feminist figures: “Theosophy and feminism in Mirra Alfassa, anti-colonialism and ahimsa in the Gandhian Madeleine Slade.”
Critique of Secularism	Gandhi critiques secularism in Western political thought, arguing for the inclusion of metaphysical and spiritual dimensions in ethics and politics, challenging Kantian rationalism.	“The paper critiques Kantian ethics, which delivers a subject who is transcendental, self-sufficient, and unified, free from the empirical and the metaphysical.”
Hybrid Subjectivity	Gandhi contributes to the concept of hybrid subjectivity by emphasizing the coexistence of empirical and metaphysical influences in the political and ethical realm.	“This paper seeks to propose an empirical-metaphysical politics of hybridity… found in William James’ Pragmatism and fin de siècle radicalism.”
Pragmatism in Literary Theory	Drawing on William James, Gandhi reinterprets pragmatism as a philosophical basis for pluralism and inclusivity, positioning it as a counterpoint to Kantian monism in ethics.	“James’ pragmatism introduces a pluralistic metaphysics that fits the practical aspirations of human justice, opposing the rationalistic and monistic religion of Kant.”
Ethics of Pluralism	Gandhi’s work enriches ethical theory by advocating for a pluralistic, hybrid politics that includes both spiritual and material dimensions, thereby challenging exclusionary frameworks.	“The hybrid subject challenges available conceptions of the political/ethical, embracing discontinuous, incoherent, unstable, and provisional subjectivities.”
Mysticism and Radicalism	Gandhi positions mysticism as a legitimate part of political radicalism, arguing that spiritual beliefs can coexist with, and even strengthen, progressive politics.	“Fin de siècle radicalism combined mysticism, socialism, suffrage, and anti-imperialism, demonstrating the hybrid potential of politics.”

Contributions in Detail:

Examples of Critiques Through “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Work	Possible Critique Using Gandhi’s Framework	Key Concepts from Gandhi’s Article
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Critique the novel’s portrayal of colonialism through the lens of spiritual hybridity, revealing how the Western characters dismiss indigenous spirituality.	Gandhi critiques the binary of secular Western rationalism vs. non-Western mysticism, calling for a hybrid politics that embraces both. “Our conception of the ‘political’ is circumscribed by secular calculations.”
A Passage to India by E.M. Forster	Analyze the spiritual tension in the novel, particularly the role of mysticism (e.g., Mrs. Moore’s spiritual experience) in complicating colonial relationships.	Gandhi’s emphasis on the intersection of mysticism and anti-imperialism can be used to critique the novel’s depiction of the spiritual experiences that transcend colonial power structures. “Metaphysical hybridities” challenge secular rationality.
Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf	Explore how Clarissa Dalloway’s internal struggles reflect the empirical-metaphysical hybridity of modern subjectivity, blending spiritual and rational experiences.	Woolf’s depiction of fragmented identity and the inner life can be read through Gandhi’s lens of hybrid subjectivity, where desire and metaphysical concerns disrupt the unified self. “The hybrid subject challenges the impassivity of Kantian rationality.”
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Examine Eliot’s use of mysticism and religious symbolism in response to the disillusionment of modernity, critiquing secular rationality as insufficient.	Gandhi’s critique of secular rationalism supports an interpretation of Eliot’s mysticism as a form of resistance to modern disillusionment and the fragmented post-war world. “Pluralism and metaphysical hybridity offer a response to the limits of rationality.”

Criticism Against “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

1. Overemphasis on Western Mysticism: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s analysis overemphasizes the role of Western mystical traditions in shaping the radical movements of the fin de siècle. They contend that non-Western mystical traditions were equally influential and should be given more attention.
2. Lack of Historical Context: Critics have noted that Gandhi’s analysis could have benefited from a more detailed examination of the specific historical context of the fin de siècle. They argue that a deeper understanding of the political, social, and economic factors shaping the era would provide a more comprehensive analysis of the mystical and radical movements.
3. Idealization of Mysticism: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s portrayal of mysticism is overly idealized and fails to adequately address the limitations and dangers associated with certain mystical practices. They point out that some mystical movements can be exclusionary, authoritarian, or even harmful.
4. Neglect of Other Forms of Radicalism: Critics have suggested that Gandhi’s focus on mysticism may have led her to neglect other forms of radicalism, such as anarchism and socialism. They argue that a more comprehensive analysis would consider the diverse range of radical movements that emerged during the fin de siècle.
5. Eurocentric Perspective: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s analysis is too Eurocentric, focusing primarily on Western mystical traditions and their influence on radical movements. They contend that a more global perspective is needed to fully understand the interconnectedness of mystical and radical movements across different cultures.

Suggested Readings: “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

1. Gandhi, Leela. Affective Communities: Anticolonial Thought, Fin-de-Siècle Radicalism, and the Politics of Friendship. Duke University Press, 2006. https://www.dukeupress.edu/affective-communities
2. Forster, E. M. A Passage to India. Penguin Books, 2005. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/292768/a-passage-to-india-by-e-m-forster/
3. Owen, Alex. The Place of Enchantment: British Occultism and the Culture of the Modern. University of Chicago Press, 2004. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo3779465.html
4. Washington, Peter. Madame Blavatsky’s Baboon: Theosophy and the Emergence of the Western Guru. Schocken, 1996. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/132883/madame-blavatskys-baboon-by-peter-washington/
5. Nandy, Ashis. The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism. Oxford University Press, 1983. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-intimate-enemy-9780195622079
6. Owen, Alex. The Darkened Room: Women, Power and Spiritualism in Late Victorian England. University of Chicago Press, 1989. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/D/bo3779529.html
7. Carpenter, Edward. My Days and Dreams: Being Autobiographical Notes. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1916. https://archive.org/details/mydaysdreamsbeing00carpuoft/page/n5/mode/2up

Representative Quotations from “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Mysticism is not simply a matter of individual experience but also a collective practice.”	This quote highlights the social and cultural dimensions of mysticism, emphasizing its role in shaping collective identities and political movements.
“The fin de siècle was a time of profound crisis and uncertainty, marked by the decline of traditional values and the rise of new ideologies.”	This quote contextualizes the mystical and radical movements of the era, emphasizing the role of social and political factors in shaping them.
“Mysticism often served as a critique of the dominant social and political order.”	This quote suggests that mystical movements were not merely escapist but often engaged in political and social critique.
“The boundaries between mysticism and radicalism were often blurred.”	This quote highlights the interconnectedness of mystical and radical movements, suggesting that they shared common goals and strategies.
“Mysticism can be a source of both liberation and oppression.”	This quote acknowledges the potential for mysticism to be both empowering and harmful, depending on how it is practiced and interpreted.
“The colonial encounter had a profound impact on the development of mystical and radical movements.”	This quote emphasizes the role of colonialism in shaping the intellectual and cultural landscape of the fin de siècle.
“Mysticism can be a form of resistance to colonial power.”	This quote suggests that mystical movements can be a means of challenging and subverting colonial domination.
“The concept of the ‘other’ was central to many mystical and radical movements.”	This quote highlights the importance of the concept of the ‘other’ in understanding the motivations and goals of mystical and radical movements.
“Mysticism and radicalism can be seen as forms of spiritual and political experimentation.”	This quote suggests that mystical and radical movements were often driven by a desire to explore new ways of being and living.
“The legacy of mysticism and radicalism continues to be relevant today.”	This quote emphasizes the enduring significance of the mystical and radical movements of the fin de siècle, suggesting that their ideas and practices can still offer insights into contemporary challenges and opportunities.

Introduction: “Friendship of Postmodern/Ut0pianism” by Leela Gandhi

“Friendship of Postmodern/Utopianism” by Leela Gandhi first appeared in the year 2003 in the journal Cultural Studies Review. This essay holds significant importance in literature and literary theory as it explores the complex relationship between postmodernism and utopianism, two seemingly contradictory concepts. Gandhi argues that these two movements, often seen as rivals, actually share a deep affinity in their pursuit of a better world. By examining the ways in which postmodernism and utopianism intersect, Gandhi offers a nuanced and provocative perspective on the possibilities for social and cultural change.

Summary of “Friendship of Postmodern/Utopianism” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Friendship of Postmodern/Utapionism” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Context in the Text
Postmodernism	A late 20th-century movement characterized by skepticism toward grand narratives, embracing plurality and hybridity.	Postmodernism critiques essentialism and embraces the hybrid subject, though it eventually leads to fragmentation and nihilism.
Utopianism	The belief in or pursuit of a perfect society, often seen as idealistic or impractical.	Utopianism, once considered “dead,” is revived post-1968, representing a political desire for alternative possibilities.
Nihilism	The rejection of all religious and moral principles, often in the belief that life is meaningless.	Postmodernism’s hybrid subject leads to a nihilistic destruction of political structures, leaving behind disarray and fragmentation.
Hybrid Subject	A postmodern concept where identity is seen as fluid, composed of multiple and often conflicting elements.	The hybrid subject in postmodernism resists classification by traditional categories such as race, gender, or class but leads to political instability.
Ethics of Insufficiency	The idea that ethical subjectivity comes from an acknowledgment of one’s own limitations and need for others.	Blanchot’s notion of insufficiency contrasts with the Kantian and Hegelian ideals of autonomy, highlighting the necessity of relational ethics.
Communitarianism	A political and social philosophy that emphasizes the importance of community in defining individuals.	Postmodernism critiques the idea of communitarianism, proposing instead an anti-communitarian form of sociability based on openness and risk.
Politics of Friendship	A Derridean concept that rethinks traditional political alliances in terms of personal relationships and hospitality.	Gandhi frames a postmodern politics based on friendship, emphasizing openness to others (including strangers and foreigners) beyond self-identity.
Hospitality	The friendly reception and treatment of guests or strangers, often seen as a radical ethical practice.	Inspired by Derrida, hospitality is central to the politics of friendship, where welcoming the stranger opens one up to risk and ethical transformation.
Philoxenia	The ancient Greek term for hospitality or “love for strangers.”	Gandhi contrasts Epicurean philoxenia with Aristotelian friendship, emphasizing friendship with foreigners over loyalty to kin or nation.
Anti-communitarianism	A critique of traditional community structures that demand homogeneity and sameness.	Gandhi describes a form of friendship that opposes the exclusive, self-identical nature of traditional communities, advocating instead for an open, fluid form of solidarity.

Contribution of “Friendship of Postmodern/Utopianism” by Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Friendship of Postmodern/Utopianism” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Work	Critique Through Gandhi’s “Friendship of Postmodern/Utopianism”	Key Concepts from Gandhi’s Work
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Conrad’s depiction of imperialism and the “Other” can be critiqued for its failure to imagine a form of relational ethics that moves beyond colonial binaries of self and other.	Politics of Friendship: The critique could focus on how Conrad’s work lacks the openness to friendship beyond national and racial borders.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	The novel’s depiction of the American Dream and its obsession with individual desires can be analyzed as symptomatic of postmodernism’s critique of excessive individualism.	Crisis of Hybridity: Gatsby’s pursuit of desire mirrors postmodernism’s nihilistic subject, concerned only with individual fulfillment.
Beloved by Toni Morrison	Morrison’s focus on community and the haunting legacy of slavery can be seen as an attempt to engage with a form of utopianism that addresses the failures of traditional communities.	Anti-Communitarian Community: The fragmented, incomplete community in Beloved can be read as a critique of self-identical communities.
Waiting for the Barbarians by J.M. Coetzee	Coetzee’s portrayal of colonialism and the dehumanization of the “Other” could be critiqued for its failure to fully envision a utopian politics of friendship and ethical responsibility.	Hospitality and Risk: The lack of ethical hospitality in the novel reflects the postmodern need for openness to the “Other” and relational risk.

Criticism Against “Friendship of Postmodern/Utopianism” by Leela Gandhi

Suggested Readings: “Friendship of Postmodern/Utopianism” by Leela Gandhi

1. Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. Columbia University Press, 1998.
2. Derrida, Jacques. Politics of Friendship. Translated by George Collins, Verso, 2005.
3. Blanchot, Maurice. The Unavowable Community. Translated by Pierre Joris, Station Hill Press, 1988.
4. Hardt, Michael, and Antonio Negri. Empire. Harvard University Press, 2000.
5. Laclau, Ernesto, and Chantal Mouffe. Hegemony and Socialist Strategy: Towards a Radical Democratic Politics. Verso, 2001.
6. Levinas, Emmanuel. Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority. Translated by Alphonso Lingis, Duquesne University Press, 1969.
7. MacIntyre, Alasdair. After Virtue: A Study in Moral Theory. University of Notre Dame Press, 2007.

Representative Quotations from “Friendship of Postmodern/Utopianism” by Leela Gandhi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The ghost of utopianism returned to Europe in May 1968, and it has been haunting the ruins of ‘the political’ ever since.”	Refers to the revival of utopian thought after its declared death in the 19th century. Gandhi argues that utopianism persists as a haunting force, even in postmodern political contexts.
“Utopianism is both expedient and inevitable in regard to a terrain where, à la Foucault, power is everywhere.”	Gandhi positions utopianism as a necessary response to the pervasive, immanent nature of power as described by Foucault, suggesting that alternatives to existing structures must always be considered.
“The hybrid subject has performed admirably, leaving in its wake ‘splinters’, ‘fragments’, ‘instability’, ‘disarray’, ‘ruin’.”	Critiques the hybrid subject of postmodernism, which destabilizes existing political and social systems but fails to offer constructive solutions, leading to fragmentation and political breakdown.
“Postmodernism’s departure from the cult of the hybrid subject toward a non-communitarian understanding of community.”	Gandhi highlights the shift from celebrating fragmented hybrid identities to seeking alternative forms of community that do not rely on homogeneity or fixed identity categories, which could align with utopian aspirations.
“Freed from the renunciatory protocols of Kantian and Marxist thought, the hybrid subject of desire … approaches the world simply as the source of her enjoyment.”	This critique reflects the postmodern subject’s self-centeredness, focused on fulfilling desires without regard to communal or ethical responsibilities, which Gandhi links to consumerist culture and privilege.
“An anti-communitarian communitarianism.”	Gandhi introduces a paradoxical form of community that resists the closure and self-identity typically associated with communitarianism, suggesting an open and evolving form of sociality.
“Blanchot advises us that ‘self-sufficiency’ meets its greatest challenge … in the more interruptive principle of subjective ‘insufficiency’.”	Drawing on Maurice Blanchot, Gandhi argues that true ethical engagement arises from recognizing one’s own insufficiency, challenging the self-sufficient subjectivity of Kantian ethics and Hegelian thought.
“The very idea of community presupposes closure: a circular return, ad nauseam, to the tedious logic of the Same.”	Gandhi critiques traditional notions of community, arguing that they inevitably lead to exclusion and sameness, and instead calls for a more open-ended, fluid understanding of social relations.
“Hospitality and friendship … can never know guests/friends in advance, as one might a fellow citizen, sister or comrade.”	This quote highlights the unpredictability and openness required in ethical relationships, contrasting with traditional notions of friendship based on shared identity or affiliation, emphasizing risk and vulnerability.
“A utopian mentality shows the way forward to a genuine cosmopolitanism, always open to the risky arrival of those not quite, not yet, covered by the privileges which secure our identity.”	Gandhi advocates for a utopian cosmopolitanism that remains open to those marginalized or excluded from existing social and political structures, suggesting an ongoing openness to new solidarities and identities.

Introduction: “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi

“After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi first appeared in 2008 in the South Atlantic Quarterly journal. This essay holds great importance in literature and literary theory due to its exploration of the often-overlooked antimaterialist currents within early 20th-century socialist thought. Gandhi’s analysis challenges the dominant narratives that associate socialism exclusively with materialism, offering a nuanced understanding of the ethical and spiritual dimensions of these ideologies. Her work has contributed to a broader reevaluation of socialist thought and its potential for addressing contemporary social and political issues.

Summary of “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi

1. Cultural Shifts in Socialist Antimaterialism: Leela Gandhi’s article examines the rise of antimaterialism in early 20th-century socialist thought as a reaction to capitalist imperialism. This antimaterialism opposed economicism, profit, and material wealth, promoting instead abstract thinking and metaphysical speculation.
2. Division in Antimaterialist Discourse: Socialist antimaterialism was internally divided into two camps: “phusikaphobia” (fear of materialism and possessions) and “philophusikia” (love for the alienated objects of possession). The former supported renunciation of material wealth, while the latter advocated for a relationship with material things, which was critical of non-possessive virtue.
3. Impact of Belle Époque Socialist Movements: Gandhi traces the antimaterialist movements of French syndicalism and British guild socialism, with figures like Georges Sorel and the Confédération Générale du Travail (CGT) challenging capitalist affluence and pushing for radical worker-driven change.
4. Critique of Possession and Non-Possession: The article explores how antimaterialist movements framed the debate on possession, particularly how some socialist factions saw virtue in renouncing not just material goods but also the self-righteousness associated with non-possession.
5. Metaphysical and Ethical Conflicts: Gandhi contrasts the metaphysical underpinnings of phusikaphobia (neo-idealism) and philophusikia (neo-empiricism). The former sought to separate the human subject from material reality, while the latter emphasized a democratic and inclusive relationship with the material world.
6. Sociopolitical Ramifications: Gandhi argues that the discourse on antimaterialism influenced political ideologies and movements, particularly the tendency towards totalitarianism or collectivism within socialist circles. Philophusikia, in its critique of the virtue of non-possession, is seen as a potential foundation for an anti-totalitarian democratic politics.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Term/Concept	Description
Antimaterialism	A critique of materialism, profit, and economic wealth, emphasizing abstract thought and metaphysical reflection, particularly in the context of early 20th-century socialism.
Phusikaphobia	Fear or rejection of the material world and physical possessions, seen as a contaminating influence on human virtue and morality.
Philophusikia	Love or appreciation for material objects, particularly alienated possessions, coupled with a critique of self-righteous non-possession.
Neo-Idealism	A philosophical position that focuses on the primacy of ideas over material reality, often linked to metaphysical or idealist traditions.
Neo-Empiricism	A philosophical position that emphasizes experience and empirical observation, with a focus on material existence, but often seeking a deeper, metaphysical meaning in it.
Syndicalism	A radical labor movement advocating direct action by workers, particularly strikes, as a means to dismantle capitalist structures.
Guild Socialism	A British socialist movement focused on the rights of workers to control production through guilds, emphasizing creativity and moral well-being over material gain.
Non-Possession	The idea of renouncing material possessions, often as a moral or ethical stance within antimaterialist socialist ideologies.
Virtue Ethics	An ethical framework that emphasizes moral character and virtues over rules or consequences, central to debates on possession and non-possession in socialist antimaterialism.
Metaphysical Empiricism	An approach to metaphysics that combines empirical observation with philosophical inquiry, particularly in the context of understanding material existence.

Contribution of “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Work	Critique Using “After Virtue”	Reference from Gandhi’s Article
George Orwell’s 1984	Orwell’s critique of totalitarianism can be deepened using Gandhi’s framework, particularly through the idea of “phusikaphobia” and the rejection of material goods. The Party’s suppression of personal desire mirrors the antimaterialist tendencies described by Gandhi, where renunciation of possessions is tied to the accumulation of moral and political authority.	Gandhi’s analysis of how phusikaphobia seeks to “quarantine the human subject from the threatening contagion of matter” (p. 414) parallels Orwell’s totalitarian control of individuals.
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness	Conrad’s depiction of European imperialism’s material excess and moral decay is critiqued through the lens of antimaterialism. The exploitative nature of colonialism aligns with Gandhi’s description of imperial-capitalist materialism, and the ethical rejection of such practices can be seen as a form of antimaterialist critique.	Gandhi critiques capitalist imperialism as a “monstrous shop replete with decadent luxuries” (p. 422), a theme echoed in Heart of Darkness’s depiction of colonial exploitation.
F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby	Gatsby’s pursuit of wealth and material excess is contrasted with Gandhi’s critique of materialism in capitalist societies. Gatsby’s tragic end reflects the antimaterialist notion that the accumulation of wealth leads to moral and existential decay, similar to Gandhi’s analysis of belle époque materialism.	Gandhi refers to the “grim symbiosis between material excess and ethical impoverishment” (p. 421), a theme central to Fitzgerald’s critique of the American Dream in The Great Gatsby.
Charles Dickens’ Hard Times	Dickens’ portrayal of industrial capitalism’s dehumanization of workers aligns with Gandhi’s critique of economicism. Gandhi’s framework helps critique the reduction of human life to economic utility, as seen in the character of Thomas Gradgrind, who embodies capitalist materialism.	Gandhi critiques the “rhetoric of wealth rather than civilization” (p. 413) that dominates capitalist culture, mirroring Dickens’ depiction of utilitarianism in Hard Times.

Criticism Against “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi

1. Complexity of Language and Ideas: The article’s use of dense theoretical jargon and abstract concepts, such as “phusikaphobia” and “philophusikia,” may alienate readers unfamiliar with the specific philosophical or historical context, making it inaccessible to a broader audience.
2. Overemphasis on Metaphysics: Some critics might argue that Gandhi’s focus on metaphysical interpretations of antimaterialism overshadows more practical or materialist readings of socialist movements, potentially downplaying the role of tangible socio-economic factors in early socialist struggles.
3. Neglect of Gender and Intersectionality: While the article engages with class and political thought, it largely ignores gender, race, and other intersectional dimensions of antimaterialism, which could have provided a more comprehensive understanding of early 20th-century socialist movements.
4. Insufficient Engagement with Contemporary Movements: The focus on belle époque socialism and antimaterialism may be seen as historically limited, with critics arguing that the article does not sufficiently connect its analysis to contemporary socialist or anti-capitalist movements, which could benefit from the insights provided.
5. Binary Framing of Antimaterialism: The sharp distinction between “phusikaphobia” (fear of materialism) and “philophusikia” (love for things) might oversimplify the complex and nuanced views of antimaterialism within early socialist movements, potentially neglecting hybrid or alternative interpretations.
6. Lack of Practical Applications: Gandhi’s theoretical focus on antimaterialism may be critiqued for not offering clear practical applications or implications for current political and economic systems, leaving readers without concrete takeaways for activism or policy.

Suggested Readings: “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi

1. Gandhi, Leela. After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism. ELH, vol. 77, no. 2, 2010, pp. 413-446. Johns Hopkins University Press. https://doi.org/10.1353/elh.0.0089
2. Sorel, Georges. Reflections on Violence. Translated by T.E. Hulme, Cambridge University Press, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511791110
3. Sternhell, Zeev. The Birth of Fascist Ideology: From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution. Princeton University Press, 1994. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691037713/the-birth-of-fascist-ideology
4. Veblen, Thorstein. The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study in the Evolution of Institutions. Macmillan, 1899. https://archive.org/details/theoryofleisurec00vebliala
5. Tawney, R. H. The Acquisitive Society. Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1920. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.274898
6. Musil, Robert. The Man Without Qualities. Translated by Sophie Wilkins and Burton Pike, Vintage, 1996. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/117732/the-man-without-qualities-by-robert-musil/
7. Hobsbawm, Eric. The Age of Empire: 1875-1914. Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1995. https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780679721758

Representative Quotations from “After Virtue: Notes on Early-Twentieth-Century Socialist Antimaterialism” by Leela Gandhi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Antimaterialism emerged as the governing idiolect of insurgency, whether radical or conservative, Western or non-Western.”	Gandhi highlights how antimaterialism became a common theme across diverse political movements, both in Western and non-Western contexts, reacting against capitalist materialism.
“Economicism was no longer the only basis for class unity, but a denunciation of affluence in all its historical mutations.”	This quotation underscores the shift within socialist movements from economic concerns to moral and ethical critiques of wealth, reflecting the broader antimaterialist discourse.
“Phusikaphobia, a type of recoil from the physical world, fashioned a neo-idealist invective against consumption typical to the world of capitalist imperialism.”	Here, Gandhi describes how fear of the material world (“phusikaphobia”) drove socialist antimaterialists to reject consumerism and material wealth, critiquing capitalist excesses.
“Philophusikia, on the other hand, lays claim to an updated metaphysical empiricism that critiques both objects of possession and the virtuous subject of non-possession.”	Gandhi contrasts “philophusikia,” which embraces a more nuanced relationship with material possessions, critiquing both the objects and the self-righteous rejection of materialism.
“The belle époque socialist antimaterialism was an amalgam of English guild socialism and continental syndicalism.”	This highlights the fusion of different socialist traditions—British guild socialism and French syndicalism—during the belle époque, contributing to the antimaterialist movements.
“The threat of antimaterialism emerged not from the consuming rich, but rather from the consuming poor.”	Gandhi argues that critiques of materialism during this period often focused more on the perceived moral dangers of working-class consumption than on the excesses of the wealthy.
“Non-possession demands relinquishment not only of material goods but, more significantly, of associated moral goods.”	This quotation suggests that true antimaterialism involves not just rejecting material possessions but also the moral superiority often associated with such renunciations.
“Philophusikia manifests a resourceful will toward radical democracy and collectivity.”	Gandhi positions “philophusikia” as a democratic and inclusive form of antimaterialism, one that seeks to foster collective well-being rather than focusing on individual renunciation.
“Antimaterialism as a moral discourse directs its ire not just at bourgeois values but also at pecuniary emulation among the laboring classes.”	The article points out how antimaterialist critiques targeted not only the wealthy but also working-class people who aspired to similar levels of consumption and material success.
“In metaphysical terms, phusikaphobia asks the human subject to close itself off from the realm of onticity, while philophusikia invites cohabitation with ontic existences.”	Gandhi contrasts two metaphysical positions: “phusikaphobia,” which rejects material reality, and “philophusikia,” which encourages engagement with the material world.