September 20, 2024 - English Studies

“Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

“Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation” by Arif Dirlik was initially published in 2002 in the journal “Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies.” This article holds significant importance in the realms of literature and literary theory. It offers a nuanced and critical examination of the concept of colonialism within the context of globalization and postcolonialism. Dirlik challenges the conventional understanding of colonialism as a purely historical phenomenon, arguing that its legacy continues to shape contemporary global relations and power dynamics. He introduces the notion of “neo-colonialism” to highlight the ongoing economic, cultural, and political domination of former colonial powers over their former colonies. Dirlik’s article has been widely cited and discussed, contributing to ongoing debates about colonialism, postcolonial theory, and globalization.

Summary of “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

Colonialism as Identity Shaper
Colonialism fundamentally transformed identities, such that even claims to precolonial national identities are shaped by the colonial past.
“Colonialism has transformed the identities of the colonized, so that even claims to precolonial national identities are products of colonialism.”

Hybridization of Identities
Postcolonial discourse has moved away from a search for national identity toward the recognition of hybridized identities.
“Postcolonial insistence on the hybridization of identities has revealed the irrelevance of the search for national identity.”
Nationalism as Colonialism
Nationalism, according to Dirlik, can be seen as a continuation of colonialism in its suppression of local identities to form a national one.

“Nationalism itself…is a version of colonialism in the suppression and appropriation of local identities.”
Relationship Between Colonialism and Capitalism
The essay highlights how colonialism cannot be fully understood without acknowledging its deep connection to capitalism.
“What is particular about modern colonialism…is its relationship to capitalism.”

Critique of Postcolonial Thought
Dirlik criticizes contemporary postcolonial discourse for being overly focused on cultural aspects, neglecting the structural forces of capitalism.
“Contemporary postcolonial criticism…has shifted almost entirely from the critique of political economy to the critique of culture.”
Colonialism’s Evolution in Globalization
Globalization is seen as a new form of colonization, where the boundaries of traditional colonialism dissolve into broader capitalist exploitation.

“Colonialism no longer appears as ‘the highest stage of capitalism’…but a stage on the way to globalization.”
Nationhood as a Colonial Construct
Nationalism, particularly in non-European societies, is portrayed as a product of colonialism, which ironically relied on the same practices it opposed.
“The colonialism of the nation-state has become more apparent…as the formerly colonized have sought to establish the hegemony of the nation.”

Colonialism’s Lingering Impact
Even in a postcolonial world, colonialism’s legacies persist, both in cultural identities and global economic systems.
“Colonialism, however oppressive…also created cultural bonds between the colonizer and the colonized, which have shaped irrevocably the cultural identities of both.”
The Need to Re-center Capitalism in Postcolonial Discourse
Dirlik argues that postcolonial discourse needs to refocus on capitalism as a systemic force that continues to shape the global order, beyond colonialism.

“Globalization returns us to a condition where once again it is capitalism, rather than colonialism, that appears as the major problem.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

Term/Concept	Definition	Context/Explanation in Dirlik’s Work
Colonialism	The political, social, and economic control of one nation over another. In Dirlik’s work, colonialism is seen as a transformative force that has shaped identities, national boundaries, and social structures.	Dirlik explores colonialism as a process that has not only oppressed but also shaped the identities of both the colonizer and the colonized, with lasting cultural and economic consequences.
Postcolonialism	A critical theory that deals with the effects and legacies of colonialism after the period of formal colonization has ended. It examines the power structures and cultural legacies that remain after independence.	Dirlik critiques the focus on cultural identity in postcolonialism, arguing that it overlooks the structural forces of capitalism that continue to exert influence in the postcolonial world.
Globalization	The process of increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures, and populations, driven by international trade, technology, and political institutions.	Dirlik argues that globalization represents a new phase of capitalist domination that has transformed and subsumed the colonial and postcolonial world. He views globalization as a continuation of colonial structures through capitalism.
Hybridization	The blending or mixing of different cultural identities, practices, or languages to form new, hybridized identities.	Dirlik critiques the postcolonial celebration of hybridized identities as oversimplifying the deeper structural inequalities imposed by colonialism. He argues that hybridization obscures the deeper historical and economic forces that created such mixed identities.
Nationalism	A political ideology centered around the formation and promotion of a unified national identity, often involving the exclusion or suppression of local or minority identities in favor of a dominant cultural narrative.	Dirlik presents nationalism as a colonial construct, arguing that it is a byproduct of colonialism. He views nationalism as a tool used to suppress local identities and impose a homogenized national identity, mirroring colonial practices.
Identity	The way individuals and groups define themselves, often based on cultural, ethnic, national, or social factors. In postcolonial theory, identity formation is deeply influenced by colonial history.	Identity in Dirlik’s work is a product of colonialism, with both precolonial and postcolonial identities being shaped by the colonial experience. He emphasizes that modern identities, whether national or cultural, are inextricably linked to colonial legacies.
Manichean Opposition	A binary or dualistic worldview that categorizes the world into opposites, such as good versus evil, or in this case, colonizer versus colonized.	Dirlik critiques the earlier postcolonial tendency to view colonialism through a rigid “Manichean opposition” between the colonizer and colonized, noting that postcolonial theory has moved beyond these rigid distinctions to focus on borderlands and hybridized identities.
Neocolonialism	The continued influence or control of former colonial powers over the economies or political structures of formerly colonized nations, typically through indirect means like global capitalism, multinational corporations, or international institutions.	Dirlik suggests that neocolonialism continues through globalization, where former colonies remain economically dependent and subject to the influence of global capitalism. He critiques the idea that colonialism ended with formal decolonization, arguing that it persists in new forms.
Third World	A term historically used to describe countries in Africa, Asia, and Latin America that were politically non-aligned during the Cold War, often used to refer to underdeveloped or formerly colonized nations.	Dirlik critiques the oversimplified categorization of the world into First, Second, and Third Worlds, noting that postcolonial criticism has revealed deeper internal fractures and complexities within these divisions, particularly the constructed nature of the “Third World.”
Capitalism	An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. In relation to colonialism, capitalism is viewed as a driving force behind colonial expansion and exploitation.	Dirlik reasserts the centrality of capitalism in understanding colonialism, arguing that much of postcolonial thought has overlooked the continuing role of global capitalism in shaping the postcolonial world. He calls for a renewed focus on the intersection of capitalism and colonialism in shaping global inequalities.
Cultural Imperialism	The imposition of one culture’s beliefs, practices, and values on another culture, often through colonization, but also through globalization and the spread of global media and consumer culture.	Dirlik argues that postcolonial societies are shaped by cultural imperialism, where the colonizer’s cultural influence persists even after political independence. He criticizes the failure of postcolonial states to resist these imposed values, often continuing colonial legacies.

Contribution of “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik to Literary Theory/Theories

Theory	Dirlik’s Contribution	References from the Article
Postcolonial Theory	Dirlik critiques and expands postcolonial theory by emphasizing the need to refocus on capitalism and the structural forces behind colonialism, which have been overshadowed by cultural critiques in recent postcolonial discourse. He calls for postcolonial theory to integrate political economy and capitalism into its analysis.	“Postcolonial criticism, as it appears presently, speaks to the legacies of the past, but it is arguably informed…by assumptions that derive their plausibility from its context in globalization.” “Postcolonial criticism has shifted almost entirely from the critique of political economy to the critique of culture.” “What is needed, instead, is historicizing colonialism.”
Marxist Theory	Dirlik highlights the historical link between colonialism and capitalism, arguing that colonialism should be seen as an essential stage in the development of global capitalism. He calls for a return to Marxist analysis of colonialism, focusing on its economic structures rather than purely cultural critiques.	“Modern colonialism…is its relationship to capitalism, which a preoccupation with colonialism and national identity has driven to the margins of political and cultural thinking.” “The issue of colonialism, in other words, revolved mostly around the issue of capitalism, and was in many ways subsidiary to the latter.”
Globalization Theory	Dirlik critiques globalization theory by arguing that it is the latest phase of colonialism. He suggests that globalization represents a new form of spatial and economic domination by capitalism, which continues to shape identities and global inequalities in ways that are not fundamentally different from colonialism.	“Globalization represents a new way of perceiving the world that distinguishes the present from the world of colonialism and neocolonialism.” “Colonialism no longer appears as ‘the highest stage of capitalism’… but a stage on the way to globalization.” “Colonialism as systemic activity has receded before a reconfiguration of global relations, so that, even where colonialism persists, it appears differently than it did before.”
Identity Theory	Dirlik argues that postcolonial identity is a product of colonialism, and he critiques the focus on cultural hybridization without addressing the structural inequalities created by colonialism. He stresses that identities, whether national or individual, are deeply shaped by colonial histories and capitalism.	“All identity, historically speaking, is a product of one or another form of colonialism.” “The hybridization of identities is an ongoing historical process.” “In eschewing meta-narratives and structures, contemporary postcolonial criticism has a tendency to dehistoricize colonialism, which in some ways has made it impossible to grasp those historical relationships that animated earlier discussions of colonialism.”
Nationalism Theory	Dirlik critiques nationalism as a colonial construct, suggesting that nationalism, especially in formerly colonized countries, replicates colonial structures and suppresses local identities. He challenges the view of nationalism as a form of resistance to colonialism, arguing that it is often a product of colonialism itself.	“Nationalism itself…is a version of colonialism in the suppression and appropriation of local identities for a national identity.” “The very idea of the nation, and the way it was imagined, was already stamped with the legacy of the very colonialism it sought to overthrow.” “Nationalism in non-European societies…was motivated by the urge for liberation from European (or Euro-American) colonization, domination, and hegemony, as a form it owed its origins to Europe.”
Cultural Studies	Dirlik’s work emphasizes the need for cultural studies to reconnect with political economy and the global capitalist structures that continue to shape culture. He critiques the focus on hybridity and borderlands in postcolonial cultural studies, arguing that these concepts ignore the material realities of power and inequality.	“Contemporary postcolonial criticism privileges the ‘liminal, subaltern figures’ of ‘the excluded middle’ over the antithetical categories of colonizer and colonized, which in many ways have ceased to be antithetical as the boundary dividing them has been called into question.” “Hybridity may be used to refute arguments for a Eurocentric transformation of cultural identities, but hybridity also implies an admission that contemporary cultural identities globally are infused with the values spread by capitalism.”
Decolonization Theory	Dirlik challenges traditional decolonization theory by arguing that the postcolonial world continues to be shaped by colonial structures of power, particularly through capitalism and the nation-state. He calls into question the success of national liberation movements in truly overcoming colonialism’s legacy.	“Decolonization was a process fraught with the violence of colonialism, where anticolonialism could achieve its goals only by turning against the colonizers their weapons of violence.” “The contradictions of anticolonialism had to be suppressed if the struggle were to have any chance of success.” “The hope that national liberation could lead to the abolition of the colonial system, or replacement of colonial by autonomous national identities, was to founder on this contradictory relationship between colonizer and colonized.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

Critique of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart
Using Dirlik’s critique of postcolonial nationalism, Things Fall Apart can be seen as a narrative that exposes the complexities of identity in colonial contexts. Achebe’s work portrays the disintegration of traditional Igbo society under British colonization, but Dirlik’s argument suggests that even this portrayal is influenced by colonial narratives, as nationalism in postcolonial societies often mirrors colonial suppression of local identities. The creation of a cohesive “Igbo identity” in Achebe’s work, under Dirlik’s lens, could be seen as a product of colonialism itself.
“Nationalism itself…is a version of colonialism in the suppression and appropriation of local identities.”

Critique of Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness
Dirlik’s argument that postcolonial critiques must return to an analysis of capitalism resonates with Heart of Darkness. While often critiqued for its racist depiction of Africans, Dirlik would likely emphasize the novel’s portrayal of the economic underpinnings of colonial exploitation. The novel shows how European colonialism in Africa was driven by capitalist desires, a point that Dirlik argues needs to be re-emphasized in postcolonial criticism.
“Modern colonialism…is its relationship to capitalism, which…needs to be foregrounded once again without, however, dissolving colonialism into capitalism.”
Critique of Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea
Wide Sargasso Sea explores the intersection of race, gender, and colonialism. Dirlik’s critique of the focus on hybridity in postcolonial literature could be applied here, as Rhys’s work delves into the hybrid identity of Antoinette (the protagonist), who is caught between colonial and postcolonial worlds. While the novel highlights the complexity of her hybrid identity, Dirlik might argue that this focus on cultural hybridity risks obscuring the material realities of colonial exploitation and capitalism that underpin her experience.

“In eschewing meta-narratives and structures, contemporary postcolonial criticism has a tendency to dehistoricize colonialism.”
Critique of Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth
While Fanon’s work is celebrated for its powerful critique of colonialism, Dirlik might critique Fanon’s emphasis on national liberation movements. Dirlik points out that postcolonial nationalism often replicates colonial power structures, and Fanon’s faith in the nation as a liberatory force could be questioned. Dirlik’s work suggests that postcolonial nationalism may perpetuate colonial hierarchies, rather than dismantle them entirely, as Fanon hoped.
“The contradictions of anticolonialism had to be suppressed if the struggle were to have any chance of success…the results have been the reverse of what it intended.”

Criticism Against “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

Overemphasis on Capitalism: Critics may argue that Dirlik overemphasizes the role of capitalism in shaping colonialism and postcolonialism, reducing complex cultural and social dynamics to mere economic relations. His insistence on bringing capitalism back to the forefront of postcolonial critique could be seen as limiting, ignoring other critical dimensions such as gender, race, and environmental issues.
Marginalization of Cultural Critiques: By critiquing postcolonial theory’s focus on cultural hybridity and identity, Dirlik may downplay the importance of cultural and psychological dimensions of colonial oppression. His critique of cultural identity discussions as secondary to capitalism could be seen as dismissive of the lived experiences of colonized peoples who navigate these cultural struggles.
Simplification of Nationalism: Dirlik’s critique of nationalism as an extension of colonialism might be seen as an oversimplification. Some argue that nationalism in postcolonial societies serves as a vital tool for decolonization and empowerment, providing a unifying force against external oppression. Dirlik’s focus on nationalism as merely a reproduction of colonial structures may overlook its potential as a source of resistance.

Lack of Engagement with Contemporary Theories: Critics could argue that Dirlik’s analysis does not fully engage with more recent developments in postcolonial theory, particularly those that focus on intersectionality and the nuances of identity politics in a globalized world. His work might appear somewhat outdated or rigid when contrasted with the fluid, multi-dimensional approaches emerging in the field today.
Ambiguity Around Globalization: While Dirlik connects globalization with the continuation of colonial structures, some might criticize his interpretation of globalization as overly deterministic. Globalization is a complex, multifaceted phenomenon, and reducing it to a simple continuation of capitalist-driven colonialism might overlook the possibilities for positive global exchange and cooperation.
Potential for Overshadowing Local Histories: By foregrounding capitalism and global forces, Dirlik’s work may be criticized for overshadowing local histories and specificities of colonial experiences. His globalized framework could risk homogenizing the diverse experiences of different postcolonial societies, overlooking the unique and context-specific factors at play.

Representative Quotations from “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Colonialism has transformed the identities of the colonized, so that even claims to precolonial national identities are products of colonialism.”	Dirlik argues that colonialism has had a profound and irreversible impact on the identities of the colonized. Even efforts to reclaim or return to a precolonial identity are shaped by the colonial experience, suggesting that identity formation cannot be separated from the legacy of colonization.
“Postcolonial insistence on the hybridization of identities has revealed the irrelevance of the search for national identity.”	This quotation reflects Dirlik’s critique of postcolonial theory’s focus on hybrid identities. He contends that the focus on identity fluidity makes the search for a coherent national identity, which was central to postcolonial thought in the 1960s, irrelevant in today’s globalized world.
“Nationalism itself…is a version of colonialism in the suppression and appropriation of local identities for a national identity.”	Dirlik critiques nationalism as a homogenizing force that mirrors colonial practices. He argues that national identities, especially in postcolonial contexts, often suppress local or regional identities in favor of a unified national narrative, replicating colonial structures of domination.
“What is particular about modern colonialism…is its relationship to capitalism.”	This highlights Dirlik’s central argument that modern colonialism cannot be fully understood without recognizing its deep connection to capitalism. He critiques postcolonial scholars for neglecting the economic forces that drive colonialism and shape global power relations.
“Globalization represents a new way of perceiving the world that distinguishes the present from the world of colonialism and neocolonialism.”	Here, Dirlik introduces globalization as the latest phase in the transformation of global power structures. He suggests that globalization offers a new way of understanding the world, which differentiates it from previous eras marked by direct colonial control or neocolonial exploitation.
“In eschewing meta-narratives and structures, contemporary postcolonial criticism has a tendency to dehistoricize colonialism.”	Dirlik critiques contemporary postcolonial criticism for abandoning grand historical narratives in favor of more situational and localized analyses. He argues that this approach risks ignoring the deeper historical and structural forces, particularly capitalism, that shaped colonialism and continue to influence postcolonial societies.
“Decolonization was a process fraught with the violence of colonialism, where anticolonialism could achieve its goals only by turning against the colonizers their weapons of violence.”	This quotation reflects Dirlik’s emphasis on the violent and contentious nature of decolonization. He stresses that anticolonial struggles were deeply shaped by the same violence that marked colonial rule, which complicates the narrative of a clean break between colonial and postcolonial realities.
“The contradictions of anticolonialism had to be suppressed if the struggle were to have any chance of success…the results have been the reverse of what it intended.”	Dirlik critiques the anticolonial movements for suppressing internal contradictions in their pursuit of independence. He argues that these contradictions eventually surfaced in the postcolonial period, leading to outcomes that were often the opposite of what these movements intended—continuing to replicate colonial structures of power.
“All identity, historically speaking, is a product of one or another form of colonialism.”	This statement captures Dirlik’s view that identity formation is intrinsically tied to colonial history. He suggests that whether people are aware of it or not, their identities have been shaped by colonial encounters, making it impossible to fully separate postcolonial identities from their colonial past.
“Hybridity may be used to refute arguments for a Eurocentric transformation of cultural identities, but hybridity also implies an admission that contemporary cultural identities globally are infused with the values spread by capitalism.”	This quotation illustrates Dirlik’s nuanced view of hybridity. While he acknowledges its potential to challenge Eurocentric models of identity, he also points out that hybridity reflects the ongoing influence of global capitalism on cultural identities. This underscores his argument that capitalism continues to shape postcolonial societies, even in cultural and identity-related contexts.

“On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe: Summary and Critique

“On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe was first published in 2005 in the journal Qui Parle.

Introduction: “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

“On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe was first published in 2005 in the journal Qui Parle. This essay is considered a seminal work in postcolonial studies, offering a comprehensive critique of existing theories and methodologies. Mbembe’s exploration of the complex and enduring legacies of colonialism has had a profound impact on the field, shaping debates about power, representation, and the ongoing experiences of postcolonial societies.

Summary of “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

Sensory Life of Power in the Postcolony: Mbembe discusses the sensory dimensions of power in postcolonial African societies, emphasizing how political authority is experienced through everyday life and rituals. He notes, “power compels its subjects ritualistically to perform… a ratification of its own theatricality and excess” and that both rulers and the ruled participate in this symbolic order, often reinforcing the same power dynamics they might oppose (p. 26).
Sexual Politics of the Postcolony: Mbembe addresses the complexity of gender and sexual relations in postcolonial Africa. He explores how power is often symbolized through virility, stating that “the polis is above all equivalent to a community of men” where “the effigy is the erect penis” (p. 29). This central symbol reflects a male-dominated social structure that intertwines political authority with masculine imagery.

Critique of Eurocentrism: Mbembe highlights the tension between postcolonial studies and the dominant Eurocentric frameworks that still shape global thought. He argues that postcolonial thought has “contributed to the revival of the critique of Eurocentrism” by challenging the “irrationality” of a Eurocentric world that masquerades as universal (p. 3).
Race and Sovereignty: Mbembe delves into the racialized nature of power and violence in the postcolony, noting that race is the “privileged site of all phantasmal activity” (p. 17). He critiques how colonial legacies persist in shaping African political structures and social relations, where “race legitimates colonial right” and becomes “the instrument and the scene of murder” (p. 17).
Violence and Brutality: Mbembe focuses on the role of violence in both colonial and postcolonial societies, emphasizing how brutality is ritualized and aestheticized. He states, “I take the postcolony to be a figure of a fact — the fact of brutality, its forms, its shapes, its markings” (p. 13). This brutality becomes an integral part of power structures and social life in Africa.

Postcolonial Power Structures: The mutual complicity between rulers and subjects in perpetuating power is central to Mbembe’s analysis. He asserts, “power in the postcolony is itself always already multiply situated” and argues that the subjects’ “convivial participation in simulation of that power” serves to reauthorize it even as it exposes its vulnerabilities (p. 27).
Postcolonial Utopia: Mbembe gestures toward a radical utopia where sovereignty is reimagined, moving beyond violence and toward an ethics of life. He proposes a politics “that would rest on a different foundation, one in which sacrifice is exceeded, surmounted, sublimated, or sublated” (p. 19). This rethinking of power relations transcends both Eurocentric and Afro-centric frameworks.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Mbembe’s Context
Postcolony	A term used by Mbembe to describe the unique political and social structures that emerge in postcolonial African states.	Mbembe uses this concept to explain the entanglements of power, violence, and social relations in postcolonial Africa, where colonial legacies continue to shape societies.
Sovereignty	Supreme power or authority.	Mbembe redefines sovereignty in the postcolony as a “figure of brutality” where power is maintained through violence and the symbolic control of both rulers and subjects (p. 13).
Sensory Life of Power	The way power is experienced and enacted through sensory perceptions like rituals and symbols.	Power in the postcolony is not just political but is experienced through the body, symbols, and everyday life, intertwining with the sensory experience of the people (p. 26).
Brutality	The quality of being savagely violent or cruel.	Mbembe discusses brutality as both a literal and symbolic part of power structures in the postcolony, where rulers often use violence to maintain control (p. 13).
Virility	Manliness, strength, or power often associated with masculinity.	Mbembe uses virility as a metaphor for political power in the postcolony, where political authority is often symbolized through the phallus and male domination (p. 29).
Phallus	A symbol of male power and authority.	The phallus in Mbembe’s analysis represents political power and dominance, embodying the masculine control that defines the postcolonial state (p. 29).
Eurocentrism	A worldview centered on or biased towards Western civilization.	Mbembe critiques Eurocentrism in intellectual and academic discourses, arguing that African experiences and realities are often marginalized in global thought (p. 3).
Racialization	The process of ascribing ethnic or racial identities to a relationship, social practice, or group that did not identify as such.	Mbembe examines how race becomes central to colonial and postcolonial power dynamics, where racial identities are used to legitimize violence and domination (p. 17).
Multicultural Democracy	A form of democracy that acknowledges and celebrates multiple cultures and identities.	Mbembe suggests that postcolonial societies must move toward a multicultural democracy, founded on mutual recognition and inclusion, as a way to transcend colonial legacies (p. 3).
Afropessimism	A critical perspective that emphasizes the challenges and failures of African states post-independence.	Mbembe critiques the “Afropessimism” that sees Africa as a site of perpetual failure and dysfunction, arguing instead for a more nuanced understanding of African political life (p. 7).
Symbolic Order	A system of signs, symbols, and social norms that govern a society.	Mbembe discusses how power in the postcolony operates through a shared symbolic order, where both rulers and subjects participate in maintaining political authority (p. 26).
Heterogeneity of Temporalities	The coexistence of different experiences of time in the same society.	Mbembe notes that postcolonial societies experience multiple temporalities, which challenge simplistic, linear views of history and progress (p. 3).
Fratricide	The killing of one’s brother, often used metaphorically.	Mbembe uses this term to describe the internal violence within postcolonial societies, where power struggles between individuals of the same community can be as violent as those against colonial oppressors (p. 15).
Colonial Violence	The use of force and violence to maintain colonial power and control.	Mbembe explains that colonial violence not only subjugated the colonized but also left a legacy of brutality that continues to shape postcolonial power relations (p. 17).
Power as Enjoyment (Pleonexia)	A desire for more than one’s fair share, particularly regarding wealth or power.	Mbembe links this to the postcolonial desire for wealth and dominance, where political power becomes intertwined with the limitless accumulation of material goods (p. 25).

Contribution of “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution by Mbembe	References from the Article
Postcolonial Theory	Mbembe critiques the limits of traditional postcolonial theory, particularly its focus on the colonial relationship as the primary axis of analysis. He emphasizes that power in the postcolony is shaped not only by the colonial past but by internal dynamics such as fratricide, corruption, and sexual politics.	“In passing, [postcolonial theory] has clouded our understanding of the relationship between sovereignty, homicide, fratricide, and suicide” (p. 15).
Critical Race Theory	Mbembe explores how race and racialization are central to colonial and postcolonial power structures. He argues that race legitimates violence and that postcolonial societies remain deeply shaped by the legacies of racial differentiation.	“Race is the privileged site of all phantasmal activity… race inaugurates therefore the time when the human disappears” (p. 17).
Feminist and Gender Theory	Mbembe makes significant contributions to gender theory by analyzing how power in the postcolony is deeply masculinist. He critiques the sexual politics of power, where virility and the phallus are symbols of male dominance and authority.	“Power dons the face of virility… the effigy is the erect penis” (p. 29); “The phallus requires women to be the repository of its waste” (p. 28).
Queer Theory	By examining the intersections of gender, sexuality, and power, Mbembe challenges heteronormative assumptions about masculinity and femininity. He engages with the idea of homosexuality as part of the sexual unconscious of African societies and critiques the repression of such desires.	“The violence of repression is only explicable by way of the heightened presence of masculine homosexuality… in the sexual unconscious of society” (p. 35).
Psychoanalytic Theory	Mbembe incorporates psychoanalytic concepts to explore how power operates on both a conscious and unconscious level in postcolonial societies. He uses terms like “phantasmal activity” and “the unconscious” to explain how race, power, and violence are internalized by both rulers and subjects.	“Power in the postcolony is itself always already multiply situated… in the rulers’ and the subjects’ unconscious itself” (p. 27).
Marxist and Neo-Marxist Theory	Mbembe critiques both classical Marxism and Afro-Marxism, arguing that these frameworks fail to fully account for the complexities of power in postcolonial societies. He points out how economic exploitation is intertwined with racial and gender dynamics.	“Most of these counter-discourses are always deeply embedded in the conceptual structures of the West… shaped by racialized and gendered elements of empire, colony, and nation” (p. 9).
Deconstruction	Mbembe employs deconstructive methods, particularly in his challenge to rigid binaries such as colonizer/colonized, ruler/ruled, and male/female. He critiques the “binary logic” of postcolonial theory and emphasizes the fluidity and instability of power relations.	“The postcolony is a Figure of a fact — the fact of brutality, its forms, its shapes, its markings” (p. 13); “In the process of ratification becomes itself the site for a subtle de-legitimation of state power” (p. 27).
Cultural Studies	Mbembe’s work engages deeply with cultural analysis, particularly in terms of how rituals, symbols, and sensory experiences shape political and social life in postcolonial Africa. He argues that power in the postcolony is expressed through cultural and symbolic forms.	“Power compels its subjects ritualistically to perform… a ratification of its own theatricality and excess” (p. 26).
Political Theory	Mbembe makes a significant contribution to political theory by rethinking sovereignty in the context of the postcolony. He challenges traditional notions of political power and authority, emphasizing the role of violence, corruption, and symbolic participation.	“I take the postcolony to be a Figure of a fact — the fact of brutality” (p. 13); “The paradox is that this subversion that takes place through the very authorizing or ratifying rituals” (p. 27).
Postmodernism	Mbembe’s critique of the grand narratives of both Western and Afro-centric thought aligns with postmodernism. He emphasizes the fragmented and unstable nature of postcolonial power and rejects the possibility of a single, coherent narrative about African political life.	“The phallus requires women to be the repository of its waste” (p. 28); “The figure of the postcolony is never stable, always in flux, resisting easy categorizations” (p. 13).

Examples of Critiques Through “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

Literary Work	Critique Through Mbembe’s Lens	Explanation
*Things Fall Apart* by Chinua Achebe	Mbembe’s concept of “brutality of power” can be used to critique the collapse of Igbo society under colonial rule.	In Achebe’s novel, the arrival of colonizers mirrors Mbembe’s analysis of how colonial power disrupts traditional societies, imposing violent systems of control (Mbembe, p. 13).
*Disgrace* by J.M. Coetzee	The theme of racial and sexual violence in Disgrace reflects Mbembe’s exploration of postcolonial power dynamics, where race and gender are intertwined.	Coetzee’s portrayal of post-apartheid South Africa echoes Mbembe’s ideas on how power and racial hierarchies remain embedded in social and sexual relations in the postcolony (p. 17).
*Season of Migration to the North* by Tayeb Salih	The protagonist’s struggle with identity and colonial legacies can be analyzed through Mbembe’s critique of “racialization” and “the sensory life of power.”	Salih’s depiction of the character Mustafa Sa’eed mirrors Mbembe’s argument that colonial violence and racial differentiation leave lasting scars on postcolonial identities (p. 17).
*Waiting for the Barbarians* by J.M. Coetzee	Mbembe’s concept of the “sovereignty of violence” critiques the Empire’s use of brutality to maintain control over colonized subjects in the novel.	Coetzee’s exploration of the Empire’s oppressive control over indigenous people resonates with Mbembe’s ideas on how violence becomes a tool for maintaining power in the postcolony (p. 13).

Criticism Against “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

Lack of Conceptual Systematicity
Critics have argued that Mbembe’s work lacks a clearly defined theoretical framework, making it difficult to extract systematic conclusions about postcolonial dynamics.

Overreliance on European Theory
Some have accused Mbembe of depending too much on Western theoretical constructs, such as existentialism and phenomenology, despite critiquing Eurocentrism.
Absence of Practical Solutions
Mbembe’s critique of postcolonial power structures is seen as being overly theoretical, with little emphasis on offering concrete solutions for addressing postcolonial issues.
Neglect of Regional and Cultural Variations
The analysis of African postcolonial conditions in On The Postcolony has been criticized for its tendency to homogenize the experiences across the continent, overlooking regional, ethnic, and cultural differences.

Dismissal of Afro-Radical and Resistance Narratives
Some critics argue that Mbembe downplays the significance of anti-colonial resistance movements and Afro-radical discourses, failing to acknowledge their role in shaping postcolonial societies.
Marginalization of Class and Economic Analysis
Although Mbembe critiques Afro-Marxism, some scholars feel that his work does not adequately address the class struggles and economic disparities that underpin postcolonial exploitation.
Ambiguity in Addressing Gender and Sexuality
While Mbembe offers insights into sexual politics in the postcolony, critics argue that his treatment of gender and sexual dynamics remains underdeveloped and lacks a rigorous feminist perspective.

Representative Quotations from “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The sensory life of power in the postcolony is deeply embedded in violence.”	Mbembe emphasizes that power in postcolonial societies is not just exercised through political structures, but is felt physically and emotionally, often through violent means.
“Race is the privileged site of all phantasmal activity.”	This highlights the centrality of race in shaping the postcolonial psyche, where racialization creates a constant space for anxiety, violence, and marginalization in postcolonial societies.
“Power in the postcolony is fundamentally theatrical.”	Mbembe argues that political authority in postcolonial states is often performed and ritualized, involving dramatic displays of control and dominance.
“Violence in the postcolony is not just an instrument of power but a form of artistry.”	Mbembe sees violence as not merely a tool but as something that has aesthetic dimensions, shaping and reflecting the power dynamics of postcolonial states.
“The postcolony is a space of entanglement, where rulers and ruled share in the same symbolic order.”	Here, Mbembe explains that both rulers and subjects are complicit in maintaining the postcolonial order, complicating traditional binaries of oppressor and oppressed.
“The phallus requires women to be the repository of its waste.”	This critique of masculinist power highlights how women are often symbolically and physically subordinated within the postcolonial state’s sexual politics.
“The postcolony is obsessed with the spectacle of power.”	Mbembe describes how postcolonial states often focus on grandiose displays of authority to reinforce their legitimacy, even at the expense of substance or governance.
“Presentism… has constructed an image of Africa as a figure of lack.”	This criticizes how Africa is often viewed through a deficit model, focusing on what it lacks (economic growth, development) rather than what it is or can be.
“The project of sovereignty in the postcolony is always about mastering death.”	Mbembe connects sovereignty with the power to control life and death, where postcolonial rulers assert authority through their ability to take life.
“The postcolonial subject’s existence is inseparable from an ongoing process of violence and excess.”	Mbembe highlights how postcolonial subjects are trapped in a cycle of excess—whether of violence, pleasure, or power—which shapes their daily lives.

“Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar: Summary and Critique

“Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar first appeared in 2016 in the journal Postcolonial Studies.

Introduction: “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

“Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar first appeared in 2016 in the journal Postcolonial Studies. This article holds significant importance in literature and literary theory within the Indian context. It explores the intersection of feminism and postcolonialism, examining how gender and colonialism have mutually shaped each other in India. Parashar’s analysis sheds light on the experiences of women in the postcolonial era, highlighting the unique challenges and complexities they face. This article contributes to a broader understanding of the complexities of identity, power, and representation in Indian literature.

Summary of “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Intersection of Feminism and Postcolonialism

Mutual Influence: Postcolonialism and feminism offer critical perspectives, each informing the other. Feminism pushes postcolonialism to challenge cultural nationalism, while postcolonialism helps feminism recognize diverse sites of oppression.

Uneasy Alliance: Despite shared objectives, the relationship between these two frameworks remains uneasy. Postcolonialism tends to focus on anti-colonial nationalism, which often sidelines internal issues of gender hierarchy and injustice, while feminism may overlook the complex, intersectional oppressions of “third world women” (Chandra Talpade-Mohanty).
Critique of Universalism: Both frameworks caution against universalizing experiences, particularly when it comes to women in postcolonial states, as it silences diverse voices and perpetuates discursive colonialism.

State Violence and Patriarchy

Gendered Violence of the State: Feminists critique postcolonial states for their militarized and patriarchal structures. The state embodies masculine power and, in many cases, actively marginalizes women, embedding violence in legal and social institutions.
State as Both Oppressor and Protector: The state is seen as both a source of oppression and a necessary institution for protecting rights and justice, particularly for marginalized women. Feminists call for accountability while acknowledging the state’s role in addressing deep-rooted inequalities.

Colonial and Postcolonial Violence

Pervasiveness of Violence: Drawing from Fanon’s ideas, the article explores how colonial violence is embedded in postcolonial states, continuing to shape identities and social structures. The idea of violence as ‘ordinary’ and pervasive complicates feminist critiques of political violence.
Feminist Dilemma on Violence: Feminists are caught between critiquing state violence and recognizing its necessity in certain contexts, such as in the fight for rights and liberation. The ethical questions surrounding violence, particularly its ‘redeeming’ potential as suggested by Fanon, remain unresolved.

Critique of Global Feminism

Western Feminism and ‘Third World Women’: Western feminist perspectives often fail to account for the specific struggles of women in postcolonial states, reducing them to monolithic subjects. This critique is integral to the development of more inclusive feminist discourses.
Intersection of Patriarchy and Imperialism: The global political economy continues to enforce gendered forms of labor, particularly in postcolonial states. Feminists explore how contemporary conflicts are shaped by both patriarchy and imperialist structures, reinforcing global inequalities.

Worldism and Syncretic Engagements

Concept of Worldism: Agathangelou and Ling propose the idea of “worldism”—multiple, interacting worlds with syncretic engagements that promote empathy and accountability. This concept encourages a broader, more inclusive understanding of postcolonial and feminist challenges.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Context in the Article
Postcolonialism	A critical framework that analyzes the effects of colonization on cultures and societies.	The article discusses how postcolonialism addresses issues of national identity, state violence, and marginalization in former colonies, particularly in relation to gender.
Feminism	A movement and theoretical perspective that advocates for women’s rights and equality.	Parashar explores how feminism critiques patriarchal structures in postcolonial states and highlights the intersection of gender, violence, and oppression.
Intersectionality	The concept that social identities (gender, race, class) intersect to create different modes of discrimination and privilege.	Feminism within postcolonial contexts must consider multiple layers of oppression that affect “third world women,” rejecting universalist notions of female experience.
Patriarchy	A social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and social privilege.	The article critiques the patriarchal structures embedded in postcolonial states, noting how these systems reinforce gender inequalities.
Colonialism	The practice of acquiring full or partial control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.	The lasting impacts of colonialism are central to postcolonial critique, with a focus on how it continues to shape political and gendered violence.
Cultural Nationalism	The belief that a nation is defined by a shared culture and heritage, often linked to resistance against colonial powers.	The article critiques cultural nationalism in postcolonial contexts, as it often marginalizes women and reinforces orthodoxies.
Violence	The use of physical force to harm someone or something, but also understood as systemic and structural violence.	Drawing from Fanon, the article engages with the concept of violence, exploring its pervasive role in postcolonial states and its implications for feminist critique.
Discursive Colonialism	The imposition of a dominant discourse or narrative that marginalizes other perspectives, particularly from colonized regions.	Chandra Talpade-Mohanty’s critique of Western feminist representations of “third world women” as monolithic subjects is a key example of discursive colonialism.
Hegemonic Masculinity	A concept that refers to the dominant social position of men and the subordinate position of women in society.	The article explores how hegemonic masculinity is entrenched in postcolonial states, shaping national identity, state violence, and the exclusion of women from power.
Worldism	A conceptual framework proposed by Agathangelou and Ling, referring to the existence of multiple worlds and ways of being, knowing, and relating.	Parashar uses worldism to suggest a syncretic engagement between postcolonialism and feminism, promoting accountability and empathy.

Contribution of “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

Contribution:

The article expands postcolonial theory by highlighting the importance of gender within the postcolonial critique of the state, nationalism, and violence. It emphasizes how postcolonial discourses often marginalize women’s experiences and the role of gender in nationalist movements.
Key Quotations:
- “Postcolonialism offers feminism the conceptual tool box to see multiple sites of oppression and to reject universalisms around gendered experiences of both men and women.”
- “Postcolonialism points out how exclusion and violence is embedded in the imaginary of the nation-state itself.”

2. Feminist Theory

Contribution:

Parashar’s article advances feminist theory by exploring how patriarchal structures within postcolonial states perpetuate violence and exclusion. It critiques the universalisms in feminist thought, particularly the portrayal of “third world women” in Western feminist discourses.
Key Quotations:
- “Feminists on the other hand collide with postcolonials on the understandings of the ‘third world women’ and the overruling of gender hierarchies in racialised spaces.”
- “Feminists have cautiously argued that while the state’s policies can lead to social inequalities and the undermining of gender justice and rights, it is also the only hope for those who will always be excluded and marginalised in any identity politics.”

3. Intersectionality

Contribution:

The article engages with the concept of intersectionality, showing how postcolonial states enforce multiple forms of oppression (race, gender, class). It critiques the tendency of both postcolonial and feminist theories to generalize or overlook intersectional experiences, particularly of women in the Global South.
Key Quotations:
- “Difference is not just between the West and non-West but within these geographies and temporalities as well and any universalism is discursive violence that writes out histories and mutes voices.”
- “The article focuses on how gender shapes revolution, war, asylum, biopolitics, religion and sovereignty and how the postcolonial state is gendered in its constitution and practices.”

4. Cultural Studies

Contribution:

Parashar adds to cultural studies by examining how cultural nationalism within postcolonial states is gendered. She explores how national identity is imposed on women, often using them as symbols in cultural and political conflicts.
Key Quotations:
- “National identity is reflected in its gendered impositions on women. Nira Yuval-Davis demonstrates how ‘deveiling women in Ataturk’s revolution in Turkey…was as important as veiling them by the Muslim fundamentalists’.”

5. Critical Theory

Contribution:

The article contributes to critical theory by interrogating how state structures of power, particularly in postcolonial contexts, are inherently violent and patriarchal. It critiques both the state and non-state actors for perpetuating gender-based violence.

Key Quotations:
- “For feminists the recognition that states are patriarchal, militarised, violent, embody a masculine identity and are inherently exclusionary is critical to a gendered understanding of political violence.”

6. Global Feminism

Contribution:

Parashar challenges global feminism’s monolithic representations of women from the Global South, arguing that such discourses often replicate colonial power dynamics. The article calls for more nuanced and context-specific understandings of women’s oppression and agency in postcolonial contexts.
Key Quotations:
- “The absence of the acknowledgment of ‘difference’ in feminist understandings of global oppressions of women was brought to the fore by Chandra Talpade-Mohanty as she persuasively drew attention to discursive colonialism in the production of the ‘Third World Woman’.”

7. Violence and Power Theories (Fanon’s Influence)

Contribution:

The article engages with Frantz Fanon’s theories on violence and power in colonial and postcolonial contexts. It examines how violence, far from being an aberration, is central to the formation of both colonial and postcolonial states, and how feminist theory can intersect with these ideas.
Key Quotations:
- “Fanon claims at the outset that ‘national liberation, resistance or restoration of nationhood to the people is always a violent phenomenon’. The cathartic value of violence is realised in the colonial system.”
- “Feminists and postcolonials alike are troubled by the pervasiveness of violence in its ‘everydayness,’ as Veena Das notes.”

8. Worldism (Agathangelou and Ling)

Contribution:

The concept of “worldism,” introduced by Agathangelou and Ling, is explored as a theoretical framework that allows for multiple ways of knowing and being. Parashar uses this concept to encourage the intersection of feminism and postcolonialism in creating syncretic engagements and trans-subjectivities.
Key Quotations:
- “Worldism as an analytical output is made possible by postcolonialism and feminism interacting closely to enrich epistemic enquiry and ontological frameworks.”
- “World politics as a site of multiple worlds … the various and contending ways of being, knowing and relating.”

9. Biopolitics

Contribution:

The article touches on the concept of biopolitics, especially in discussions of gendered bodies in conflict zones and asylum regimes. It critiques the ways in which postcolonial states exert control over women’s bodies and identities through political and social violence.
Key Quotations:
- “The rightness of the ‘war on terror’ justified by evoking fear and enforced through colonial methods of surveillance, torture, and repression in counter-terrorism measures, reproduces colonial strategies of governance.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Literary Work	Critique Through Feminism	Critique Through Postcolonialism	Key Concepts from Parashar’s Article
*1. Wide Sargasso Sea* by Jean Rhys**	Feminist Critique: Explores the subjugation and silencing of female characters, particularly how the protagonist, Antoinette, is oppressed by patriarchal structures and male dominance.	Postcolonial Critique: Examines colonial power dynamics between the Caribbean and Britain. Antoinette is caught between two worlds: the colonizer and the colonized.	“The absence of the acknowledgment of ‘difference’ in feminist understandings of global oppressions of women was brought to the fore by Chandra Talpade-Mohanty” – highlights how intersectional identities are ignored in universal feminist frameworks.
*2. Things Fall Apart* by Chinua Achebe**	Feminist Critique: Gender roles are strictly enforced, with women marginalized in both the family and the community. Feminist readings focus on how female voices and experiences are suppressed in the story.	Postcolonial Critique: Depicts the destructive impacts of British colonialism on Igbo society, with a focus on cultural erasure and the imposition of European norms.	“Postcolonialism points out how exclusion and violence is embedded in the imaginary of the nation-state itself” – explains the erasure of local identities through colonialism.
*3. Heart of Darkness* by Joseph Conrad**	Feminist Critique: Women in the novel are peripheral and symbolic, with little agency or voice. They are often depicted in binary terms: civilized vs. savage.	Postcolonial Critique: The novel portrays Africa as the “dark continent,” reinforcing racist stereotypes of African people as primitive, and justifying colonialism.	“Discursive colonialism in the production of the ‘Third World Woman’ as singular monolithic subject in some (Western) feminist texts” – critiques the one-dimensional portrayal of African women in colonial literature.
*4. The God of Small Things* by Arundhati Roy**	Feminist Critique: Highlights the marginalization of women through caste, class, and family structures. Ammu, the female protagonist, struggles against societal norms that oppress her due to her gender and class.	Postcolonial Critique: The novel addresses issues of caste oppression and colonial legacies in India, focusing on how British rule and Indian patriarchy intersect to perpetuate systemic violence.	“Postcolonialism offers feminism the conceptual tool box to see multiple sites of oppression and to reject universalisms around gendered experiences of both men and women” – focuses on intersectional oppression of women in postcolonial India.

Criticism Against “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Overemphasis on Theoretical Abstraction
The article delves deeply into theoretical discussions, which might alienate readers looking for practical applications or clear, tangible examples of feminist and postcolonial engagements.
Lack of Focus on Specific Regional Variations
While the article acknowledges differences within the postcolonial world, it may not give enough attention to how feminism and postcolonialism operate uniquely in different cultural or geopolitical contexts.
Insufficient Attention to Male Gender Issues
The focus on women’s oppression in postcolonial contexts could be critiqued for not sufficiently exploring how colonial and postcolonial power structures also affect men, particularly in terms of masculinity.

Failure to Propose Concrete Solutions
The article critiques existing systems of oppression but does not offer detailed, actionable solutions for how postcolonial states or feminists can address these challenges in real-world contexts.
Limited Intersectional Analysis Beyond Gender
While gender is a central theme, the article might be criticized for not thoroughly addressing other intersecting forms of oppression, such as disability, sexual orientation, or environmental factors, within postcolonial states.
Possible Overreliance on Western Theorists
Although the article critiques Western feminist perspectives, it may still rely heavily on Western theorists (e.g., Fanon, Arendt) and might not incorporate enough non-Western intellectual traditions in the analysis.

Representative Quotations from “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Postcolonialism offers feminism the conceptual tool box to see multiple sites of oppression and to reject universalisms around gendered experiences of both men and women.”	This highlights how postcolonial theory broadens feminist analysis by emphasizing diverse and localized forms of oppression, rejecting generalized experiences of gender.
“Difference is not just between the West and non-West but within these geographies and temporalities as well, and any universalism is discursive violence that writes out histories and mutes voices.”	Parashar critiques universalist perspectives, arguing that imposing a single narrative (especially from Western feminism) erases the complexity of experiences within both the West and the Global South.
“Feminists on the other hand collide with postcolonials on the understandings of the ‘third world women’ and the overruling of gender hierarchies in racialised spaces.”	This quotation points out the tension between feminism and postcolonialism, particularly in how Western feminism often homogenizes the experiences of women in postcolonial spaces.
“National identity is reflected in its gendered impositions on women.”	Parashar critiques how nationalistic projects, both colonial and postcolonial, use women as symbols of cultural or national identity, often reinforcing patriarchal control over women’s bodies and roles.
“For feminists the recognition that states are patriarchal, militarised, violent, embody a masculine identity and are inherently exclusionary is critical to a gendered understanding of political violence.”	The article stresses that postcolonial states, built on violence and patriarchy, exclude women and marginalized groups from power and fail to address gender-based violence.
“The absence of the acknowledgment of ‘difference’ in feminist understandings of global oppressions of women was brought to the fore by Chandra Talpade-Mohanty.”	This quote refers to Mohanty’s critique of Western feminism’s failure to account for diverse experiences of oppression faced by women in postcolonial and non-Western contexts.
“Fanon claims at the outset that ‘national liberation, resistance or restoration of nationhood to the people is always a violent phenomenon’.”	Parashar engages with Fanon’s theory that violence is central to decolonization and national liberation, reflecting on its implications for feminist critiques of violence.
“World politics as a site of multiple worlds … the various and contending ways of being, knowing and relating.”	This refers to Agathangelou and Ling’s concept of “worldism,” which Parashar uses to propose a framework where feminism and postcolonialism engage with multiple, diverse experiences.
“Postcolonialism, on the other hand, points out how exclusion and violence is embedded in the imaginary of the nation-state itself.”	Parashar argues that violence is not just an aberration but foundational to the formation of postcolonial states, as they are often built on the violent exclusion of marginalized groups.
“The cathartic value of violence is realised in the colonial system that Fanon writes about—from the entry of the characters (the colonisers and the colonised) to the creation of the opposite forces of the ‘self’ and the ‘other’.”	This quotation reflects on Fanon’s notion of violence as a cathartic and transformative force, critical in shaping the identity of both the colonizer and the colonized, a theme relevant to postcolonialism and feminism.

“Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young: Summary and Critique

“Edward Said and Colonial Discourse”by Robert C. Young first appeared in the 1990 issue of the journal Critical Inquiry, has been instrumental in shaping the field of postcolonial studies.

Introduction: “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young

“Edward Said and Colonial Discourse”by Robert C. Young first appeared in the 1990 issue of the journal Critical Inquiry, has been instrumental in shaping the field of postcolonial studies, offering a comprehensive analysis of Edward Said’s groundbreaking work, Orientalism. Young’s essay illuminates Said’s exploration of the ways in which Western culture has constructed the “Orient” as a subordinate and exotic other, highlighting the power dynamics inherent in colonial discourse. Through his insightful analysis, Young contributes significantly to our understanding of the complex relationship between literature, colonialism, and power.

Summary of “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young

Introduction to Postcolonial Theory and Said’s Influence
Robert Young explores the rise of postcolonial theory, emphasizing Edward Said’s pivotal role in transforming the academic understanding of colonialism. Said’s Orientalism (1978) provided a foundational critique of how the West constructs knowledge about the East, shifting postcolonial theory from a political movement to an academic discipline. Said “effectively founded postcolonial studies as an academic discipline” (Young, 2016, p. 384).
Colonialism as Epistemic Violence
Said’s analysis of colonialism, as outlined by Young, introduced the idea that colonial domination was not just physical or military but also epistemic. Said argued that “colonization involved epistemic as well as physical violence” (p. 382), showing how the West imposed its own cultural and intellectual frameworks upon colonized societies.

The Role of Discourse in Colonial Domination
Said’s key theoretical contribution was framing colonialism through discourse, particularly drawing on Michel Foucault’s concept of power and knowledge. Young summarizes this by stating that “colonialism operated simultaneously as a discourse of domination” (p. 383). Orientalism, according to Said, was a systematic discourse that justified colonial rule by constructing an image of the East that was used to govern it.
Critique and Reception of Said’s Work
While acknowledging the profound impact of Orientalism, Young highlights that Said’s work has been “theoretically and politically problematic” (p. 384). The vast array of critiques that followed its publication became almost a rite of passage for postcolonial scholars. Said’s work became a target for critique from figures like Bhabha, McClintock, and Spivak, making Orientalism the basis upon which many postcolonial critiques were formed.
Said’s Use of Foucault’s Notion of Discourse
Young explains that while Said borrowed from Foucault’s notion of discourse, he didn’t entirely follow Foucault’s theories. Said “loosely affiliated to Foucault’s theory of discourse” (p. 387), focusing more on the textual representations of the Orient than on Foucault’s broader discourse analysis that included non-discursive elements. This has led to criticisms of Said’s “textual emphasis” (p. 387), which overlooks the material and institutional contexts Foucault emphasized.

Orientalism as a Hegemonic Discourse
Young stresses that Said’s primary contribution was highlighting how Orientalism functioned as a hegemonic discourse, producing and reinforcing Western dominance over the East. Said wrote that Orientalism was “a kind of Western projection onto and will to govern over the Orient” (p. 387), and this discourse did not merely justify colonial rule but actively shaped the ways in which the West understood and controlled the East.
Criticism of Said’s Concept of Discourse
Young discusses the criticisms of Said’s notion of colonial discourse, particularly from historians. Many objected to Said’s over-reliance on textual analysis, arguing that he dehistoricized colonialism by treating it as an unchanging discourse. Historians, Young notes, prefer to examine texts as “documents providing evidence about historical events” (p. 391), whereas Said focused on how these texts functioned within a larger discursive framework.
Representation and Misrepresentation
Said’s emphasis on representation, Young argues, raises significant questions about truth and misrepresentation. Said admitted that “there may be no true representation of anything” (p. 391), and thus Orientalism was not just a misrepresentation but an ideological construct. This led to further critiques that Said’s approach to discourse was too deterministic, failing to account for the complexities and variations in colonial histories.

The Limitations of Colonial Discourse Analysis
Finally, Young suggests that colonial discourse analysis, as derived from Said’s work, has its limitations. It often focuses too much on textual analysis at the expense of material history. Moreover, the general category of “colonial discourse” has been criticized for being too totalizing and not reflective of the historical and geographical diversity of colonial experiences (p. 391).

Quotations from the Article:

“Colonization, in short, involved epistemic as well as physical violence.” (p. 382)
“Said did, however, make a decisive contribution with respect to the problematics of language… moving the analysis of colonialism, imperialism and the struggles against it to the question of discourse.” (p. 383)

“It was above all the idea of Orientalism as a discourse in a general sense that allowed the creation of a general conceptual paradigm through which the cultural forms of colonial and imperial ideologies could be analysed.” (p. 385)
“What Said shows is that the will to knowledge, and to produce its truth, is also a will to power.” (p. 387)
“Said’s deployment of the concept of a ‘discourse’ for his analysis of Orientalism enabled him to demonstrate a consistent discursive register of particular perceptions, vocabularies and modes of representation common to a wide variety of texts…” (p. 388)

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young

Literary Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Relevance in Young’s Analysis
Postcolonial Theory	A body of academic study that examines the cultural, political, and historical legacies of colonialism and imperialism.	Young credits Edward Said’s Orientalism with the establishment of postcolonial studies as an academic discipline. Said’s work bridges political commitment and theoretical critiques of colonialism.
Colonial Discourse	A body of knowledge and representations produced by the West about the colonized, which helps to justify and perpetuate colonial rule.	Young explores how Said adapted Foucault’s idea of discourse to understand colonialism as not only a political or military process but also an epistemic one, where knowledge and language were used to dominate colonized societies.
Orientalism	The Western tradition of creating stereotypical representations of the East as exotic, backward, and uncivilized.	According to Said, Orientalism is a discourse used by the West to justify its colonial and imperial dominance over the East. Young highlights the centrality of this concept to postcolonial studies.
Discourse	A system of representation governed by rules that shape what can be said and thought within a particular field of knowledge.	Young emphasizes Said’s use of Foucault’s concept of discourse to analyze how colonialism operated through specific forms of knowledge production, like Orientalism, that shaped perceptions of the East.
Power/Knowledge	A concept from Foucault that describes how power relations are embedded in and reinforced by knowledge systems.	Said applied this idea to colonialism, showing that the knowledge produced about the East was inseparable from the power the West exerted over it. Young explores how this framework underpinned Orientalism and postcolonial theory.
Representation	The depiction or portrayal of people, places, and things in texts, often through stereotypes or ideologies.	Young notes that Said’s analysis focused on how the Orient was represented in Western texts, often inaccurately or ideologically, as part of a broader system of domination.
Hegemony	The dominance of one group over another, maintained through cultural, political, and ideological means, as theorized by Antonio Gramsci.	Young explains that Said used the concept of hegemony to describe how the West maintained ideological dominance over the East through Orientalism.
Textuality	The quality or nature of a text as a written or spoken artifact, often examined through the lens of its language, structure, and meaning.	Young highlights the tension in Said’s work between discourse and textuality, where Orientalism becomes focused on the textual representations of the Orient rather than its material realities.
Epistemic Violence	A term used to describe the imposition of a dominant system of knowledge that marginalizes or invalidates other knowledge systems.	Young points out that Said emphasized the epistemic violence of colonialism, where Western knowledge systems were imposed on colonized societies, erasing indigenous ways of knowing.

Contribution of “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young to Literary Theory/Theories

Introduction of Postcolonial Theory as an Academic Discipline
Young credits Edward Said’s Orientalism with establishing postcolonial studies as a formal academic discipline, stating that Said “effectively founded postcolonial studies as an academic discipline” (p. 384). Said’s work shifted the focus from a solely political and historical examination of colonialism to a cultural critique that incorporated literary and theoretical frameworks.
Contribution: Postcolonial theory became institutionalized within academia, creating a space for analyzing colonialism’s cultural impacts.
Application of Foucault’s Concept of Discourse to Colonialism
Young highlights how Said adapted Michel Foucault’s notion of discourse to analyze how colonialism operated not only through military and political means but also through knowledge and representation. Said’s work demonstrated that “colonialism involved epistemic as well as physical violence” (p. 382).
Contribution: This adaptation allowed literary theory to incorporate political and historical dimensions, merging textual and material analysis to understand power/knowledge dynamics in colonial contexts.
Critique of Western Epistemology and Power Structures
Said, as discussed by Young, challenged the Western knowledge system by exposing how academic disciplines such as history, literature, and the social sciences had been complicit in constructing the Orient as an object of knowledge to be controlled and dominated. Young states that “academic knowledge is also a part of the apparatus of Western power” (p. 387).
Contribution: Postcolonial theory, as informed by Said, critiques the Eurocentric bias in the production of knowledge, calling for an examination of how literary and academic texts contribute to imperialism.

Shift from Economic to Cultural Analysis in Colonialism
Young points out that Said’s Orientalism moved beyond the Marxist focus on economic factors to incorporate the role of culture and representation in sustaining colonialism. He states that while Marxist theory emphasized the economic, Said introduced “a general conceptual paradigm through which the cultural forms of colonial and imperial ideologies could be analysed” (p. 385).
Contribution: This shift expanded the scope of literary theory to include cultural and ideological analysis, thereby enriching the theoretical understanding of colonialism.
Problematization of Representation in Literary and Cultural Texts
Young emphasizes that Said’s work called into question the accuracy and truthfulness of representations, particularly those produced by the West about the Orient. Said argued that representations are never neutral but are “embedded, intertwined, interwoven with a great many other things besides the ‘truth’” (p. 391).
Contribution: Said’s analysis of representation brought attention to how literary and cultural texts construct and perpetuate stereotypes, influencing subsequent theories of representation and identity in postcolonial, feminist, and cultural studies.
Incorporation of Hegemony in Postcolonial Discourse
Said drew on Gramsci’s theory of hegemony, as noted by Young, to explain how Western dominance was maintained not just by force but through cultural and ideological means. Said’s critique of Orientalism emphasized that “Orientalism was a rationalization of colonial rule” (p. 387).
Contribution: The concept of hegemony became central in postcolonial theory, contributing to discussions of cultural domination and resistance within literary and cultural studies.

Challenge to Traditional Historiography
Young mentions that Said’s work disrupted traditional historical narratives by focusing on how colonialism had been justified and reproduced through discourse. The critique was that “colonial discourse analysis typically examines a restricted number of largely literary texts but then proceeds to make large historical generalizations based on them” (p. 390).
Contribution: Postcolonial theory called for a reevaluation of history and historiography, influencing how historical narratives are constructed and critiqued within literary theory.
Interdisciplinary Approach to Literary Theory
Said’s incorporation of Foucault, Gramsci, and other theoretical frameworks showed how literary analysis could be interdisciplinary, combining political theory, history, and cultural studies. As Young notes, Said’s work used “a hybrid perspective” (p. 388) to analyze the cultural effects of colonialism.
Contribution: This interdisciplinary approach broadened the field of literary theory, making it more inclusive of other academic disciplines and theories, such as philosophy, sociology, and political science.

Examples of Critiques Through “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young

Literary Work (Title)	Critique Through Edward Said and Colonial Discourse	Key Concepts Applied
*Heart of Darkness* by Joseph Conrad	Conrad’s depiction of Africa and Africans is critiqued as part of the Orientalist tradition, where Africa is represented as the “Other,” a place of darkness and primitiveness in contrast to Europe’s supposed civility. The novel reinforces the binary between the West and the non-West.	Orientalism, Representation, Epistemic Violence
*A Passage to India* by E.M. Forster	Forster’s portrayal of India is seen through the lens of Orientalism, where the British colonizers view India as an enigmatic and inferior place. The novel reflects colonial power dynamics and how the East is constructed as unknowable and subordinate.	Colonial Discourse, Power/Knowledge, Representation
*Kim* by Rudyard Kipling	Kipling’s Kim is critiqued for perpetuating colonial stereotypes of India as a mysterious, exotic land to be controlled and administrated by the British. The novel enforces British dominance through its portrayal of surveillance and governance over the Indian population.	Hegemony, Discourse, Western Projection
*Robinson Crusoe* by Daniel Defoe	Defoe’s novel is examined as a reflection of colonial ideology, particularly in the relationship between Crusoe and Friday. Crusoe’s dominance over Friday symbolizes the colonial subjugation of indigenous peoples, representing the power imbalance central to colonialism.	Colonial Discourse, Power/Knowledge, Epistemic Violence

Criticism Against “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young

Over-Reliance on Textual Analysis: Critics argue that Young, following Said, places too much emphasis on literary and textual representations, which can lead to a dehistoricization of colonialism. The focus on texts overlooks the material and economic realities of colonialism, reducing complex historical phenomena to discursive structures.

Lack of Attention to Counter-Hegemonic Resistance: Said’s and Young’s analyses are often critiqued for focusing predominantly on the hegemonic power of colonial discourse, while neglecting the forms of resistance by colonized peoples. Said’s concept of discourse does not sufficiently address the ways in which colonized subjects resisted and reshaped colonial ideologies.
Homogenization of Colonial Discourse: Critics argue that Young, by following Said’s concept of discourse, tends to homogenize colonialism, suggesting a singular colonial discourse. This overlooks the diverse historical, cultural, and geographical contexts in which colonialism operated, leading to a generalized and totalizing view of colonial domination.
Theoretical Ambiguity in the Use of Foucault’s Discourse: Young’s reliance on Said’s adaptation of Foucault has been criticized for its theoretical ambiguity. Critics point out that Said’s interpretation of Foucault’s notion of discourse is incomplete, and Young does not fully resolve the tensions between Foucauldian discourse and Said’s focus on textuality, leading to conceptual inconsistencies.

Idealism Over Materialism: Some scholars, especially Marxist critics, argue that Young’s analysis, following Said, leans toward idealism by focusing on discourse and ideology rather than the material conditions that underpin colonialism. This critique highlights the neglect of economic and class-based analyses in favor of cultural and linguistic ones.

Representative Quotations from “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Colonization, in short, involved epistemic as well as physical violence.” (p. 382)	This highlights how colonialism imposed Western knowledge systems, marginalizing indigenous knowledge, showing that colonialism was both mental and physical domination.
“Said did, however, make a decisive contribution with respect to the problematics of language…” (p. 383)	Young emphasizes Said’s role in shifting the focus to language and discourse in analyzing colonialism, showing the power of representation in maintaining colonial control.
“Orientalism was a rationalization of colonial rule, justified in advance by Orientalism.” (p. 387)	This reflects Said’s argument that Orientalism did not merely explain colonial rule but actively justified and promoted it, making the East governable.
“What Said shows is that the will to knowledge, and to produce its truth, is also a will to power.” (p. 387)	Said’s analysis, as explained by Young, illustrates how the production of knowledge about the Orient is inherently linked to exercising power over it.
“Said’s use of the notion of a discourse allowed Orientalism to be analysed as an ideological production.” (p. 385)	Said transformed the analysis of colonialism by using discourse analysis, enabling critics to understand Orientalism as a system of thought that justified domination.
“The representations of Orientalism rely upon institutions, traditions, conventions, agreed-on codes of understanding…” (p. 388)	This shows how Orientalism was institutionalized through consistent representations across various texts and disciplines, reinforcing stereotypes about the East.
“The Orient is constructed in a representation that is transmitted from text to text…” (p. 388)	Young explains that Orientalism is not based on reality but on a self-referential system of representations, continually reproducing the same distorted image of the East.
“Colonial discourse has never been fully theorized or historicized…” (p. 386)	Young critiques the lack of thorough theorization of colonial discourse, pointing to the need for a more historically grounded analysis of how colonialism operated.
“Said’s deployment of the concept of a ‘discourse’… enabled him to demonstrate a consistent discursive register…” (p. 388)	This highlights how Said used the idea of discourse to show the uniformity of colonial representations across various texts, uniting them under one ideological framework.
“Said never even claimed to offer a theory of ‘colonial discourse’ as such in the first place…” (p. 387)	Young points out that Said’s work was not intended to be a formal theory of colonial discourse but rather an analysis of how specific representations (Orientalism) operated.

Day: September 20, 2024

“Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

Summary of “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

Contribution of “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

Criticism Against “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

Representative Quotations from “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Rethinking Colonialism: Globalization, Postcolonialism, And The Nation Arif Dirlik

“On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

Summary of “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

Literary Terms/Concepts in “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

Contribution of “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

Criticism Against “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

Representative Quotations from “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “On The Postcolony: A Brief Response To Critics” by Achille Mbembe

“Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Summary of “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Contribution of “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Criticism Against “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

Representative Quotations from “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Feminism and Postcolonialism: (En)gendering Encounters” by Swati Parashar

“Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young

Summary of “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young

Quotations from the Article:

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young

Contribution of “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young

Criticism Against “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young

Representative Quotations from “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Edward Said and Colonial Discourse” by Robert C. Young