September 22, 2024 - English Studies

“A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay: A Critical Analysis

“A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay, first published in the 2015 collection Catalog of Unabashed Gratitude, is a poignant exploration of grief, loss, and resilience.

Introduction: “A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay

“A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay, first published in the 2015 collection Catalog of Unabashed Gratitude, is a poignant exploration of grief, loss, and resilience. The poem, characterized by its understated tone and vivid imagery, delves into the tragic death of Eric Garner, a victim of police brutality. Gay employs a seemingly simple narrative, focusing on Garner’s role as a horticultural worker, to highlight the stark contrast between life and death. The central idea of the poem is that even in the face of immense tragedy, beauty and growth can persist. Gay’s skillful use of language and his ability to evoke powerful emotions make this a deeply moving and thought-provoking piece.

Text: “A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay

Is that Eric Garner worked
for some time for the Parks and Rec.
Horticultural Department, which means,
perhaps, that with his very large hands,
perhaps, in all likelihood,
he put gently into the earth
some plants which, most likely,
some of them, in all likelihood,
continue to grow, continue
to do what such plants do, like house
and feed small and necessary creatures,
like being pleasant to touch and smell,
like converting sunlight
into food, like making it easier
for us to breathe.

Annotations: “A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay

Line	Annotation
Is that Eric Garner worked	The poem begins by referencing Eric Garner, a man whose death during an encounter with police sparked national protests. The speaker draws attention to his work, shifting the focus from his death to his life.
for some time for the Parks and Rec.	This line introduces Garner’s employment at the Parks and Recreation Horticultural Department, framing his connection to nature and growth.
Horticultural Department, which means,	The line sets up the idea that his work involved tending plants, introducing a more reflective tone on how this work carries on even after his death.
perhaps, that with his very large hands,	The use of “perhaps” introduces a gentle tone of speculation. Eric Garner is often remembered for his physical size, which is now being linked to nurturing and care rather than violence.
perhaps, in all likelihood,	Repetition of “perhaps” underscores the uncertainty but suggests a reasonable likelihood, building a subtle connection between life, death, and what continues.
he put gently into the earth	This line emphasizes Garner’s nurturing side, presenting a tender image of him planting life. This is juxtaposed with the tragic way his own life was cut short.
some plants which, most likely,	The line hints at continuity, noting that some of the plants he may have planted continue to grow, reinforcing the idea of life moving forward despite his absence.
some of them, in all likelihood,	The repetition adds a rhythmic, meditative quality to the poem, reflecting on the connection between past actions and present outcomes.
continue to grow, continue	The growth of the plants serves as a metaphor for life, endurance, and the cycle of nature. This line emphasizes the idea that Garner’s contributions live on.
to do what such plants do, like house	The plants represent life and nourishment, and this line expands on the ecological role they play, creating a connection between Garner’s hands and the thriving of small creatures.
and feed small and necessary creatures,	The imagery here focuses on the simple, essential aspects of life – how nature provides sustenance for small creatures. This parallels the “small” but meaningful acts of everyday life.
like being pleasant to touch and smell,	Plants are described not only for their ecological value but also for their sensory beauty, reflecting the peace and goodness that can be found in the simplest things, perhaps hinting at the lost humanity in Garner’s story.
like converting sunlight	Plants, through photosynthesis, convert sunlight into food, symbolizing the transformation of something intangible into something life-sustaining, a subtle nod to Garner’s legacy.
into food, like making it easier	The role of plants in producing food is highlighted as another essential function, emphasizing life’s continuous need for nourishment.
for us to breathe.	The final line delivers a poignant reminder of the literal connection between plants and life – oxygen production. It also indirectly references Eric Garner’s last words, “I can’t breathe,” linking the personal to the universal act of breathing.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay

Device	Definition	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	The repetition of initial consonant sounds.	“put gently into the earth”	Emphasizes the gentle action of planting.
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.	“like house and feed small and necessary creatures, like being pleasant to touch and smell”	Reinforces the idea of the plant’s functions.
Assonance	The repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“like house and feed”	Creates a melodic quality and emphasizes the plant’s nurturing role.
Connotation	The emotional associations attached to a word.	“very large hands”	Suggests strength and capability, reflecting Garner’s occupation.
Consonance	The repetition of consonant sounds within words, often at the ends of words.	“Horticultural Department”	Adds a rhythmic quality and emphasizes the connection to nature.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence or thought beyond the end of a line.	“some plants which, most likely, some of them, in all likelihood”	Creates a sense of fluidity and natural flow.
Imagery	The use of vivid language to create mental images.	“like converting sunlight into food”	Paints a picture of the plant’s life cycle.
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“like making it easier for us to breathe”	Compares the plant’s contribution to the environment to human respiration.
Parallelism	The use of similar grammatical structures.	“like house and feed small and necessary creatures, like being pleasant to touch and smell”	Creates a sense of balance and rhythm.
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things.	“plants…continue to grow”	Attributes human-like qualities of growth and persistence to the plants.
Repetition	The repeated use of words, phrases, or sounds.	“in all likelihood”	Emphasizes the certainty of the plant’s actions.
Simile	A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.”	“like being pleasant to touch and smell”	Compares the plant’s sensory qualities to human experience.
Symbolism	The use of objects, characters, or events to represent something else.	“plants”	Represent life, growth, and resilience, despite the tragedy of Garner’s death.
Tone	The author’s attitude toward the subject matter.	Understated and hopeful	Expresses a sense of quiet optimism in the face of loss.
White Space	The intentional use of blank space on a page.	Throughout the poem	Creates a sense of calm and reflection, emphasizing the poem’s contemplative nature.
Word Choice	The careful selection of words to convey meaning and evoke emotion.	“gently,” “pleasant”	Creates a positive and uplifting atmosphere.
Syntax	The arrangement of words in sentences.	The use of simple sentence structures	Contributes to the poem’s clarity and directness.
Theme	The central idea or message of the poem.	The resilience of life and the enduring power of nature	Explores the concept that even in the face of tragedy, life continues and beauty persists.
Versification	The use of rhythm and meter to create a poetic structure.	The poem’s free verse form	Allows for a natural and flexible flow of language.
Voice	The author’s distinctive style and perspective.	Reflective and contemplative	Creates a personal and intimate connection with the reader.

Themes: “A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay

Life and Continuity: One central theme of the poem is the continuity of life, even in the face of death. The image of Eric Garner planting plants that “continue to grow” suggests that while he is no longer alive, his contributions to nature endure. The plants, which “house and feed small and necessary creatures,” symbolize a life-giving force that persists, much like how people’s legacies continue to influence the world after they are gone. This theme is reflected in the line “some of them, in all likelihood, continue to grow.”

Human Connection to Nature: The poem explores the intimate relationship between humans and the natural world. Eric Garner’s work in the Parks and Recreation Horticultural Department ties him directly to nature through his labor of planting. By nurturing plants that “convert sunlight into food” and “make it easier for us to breathe,” the poem highlights the essential role humans play in fostering and sustaining life in the environment. This connection emphasizes the peaceful, life-affirming qualities of Garner’s actions, contrasting with the violence of his death.
Gentleness and Care: Ross Gay underscores the theme of gentleness and care throughout the poem, especially in how Garner is portrayed. Despite being a large man, often remembered for the forceful way he was restrained during his arrest, here he is shown using his “very large hands” to “gently” plant life into the earth. The poem reframes Eric Garner’s memory from one of violence to one of tenderness, shifting the narrative to focus on the nurturing, caring aspects of his life.
Transformation and Legacy: The theme of transformation is woven through the poem, particularly in the metaphor of plants growing and converting sunlight into sustenance. This transformation can be seen as symbolic of how Garner’s memory might be transformed into a legacy of life and care. While his life was tragically cut short, the plants he may have nurtured continue to live, “house,” and “feed” others, signifying the positive impact one can leave behind. The poem suggests that even after death, there is a quiet, enduring legacy that continues to grow and nourish the world.

Literary Theories and “A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay

Ecocriticism	Focuses on the relationship between literature and the natural world, often analyzing how nature is depicted and the connection between humans and the environment.	The poem emphasizes Eric Garner’s work in the “Horticultural Department,” where he likely contributed to nature by planting and fostering growth, tying human action to environmental impact.
Critical Race Theory	Examines how race and racism intersect with literature and culture, often exploring themes of systemic inequality, identity, and social justice.	Eric Garner’s legacy is subtly invoked, highlighting systemic racism and police brutality. The peaceful, nurturing work of “put[ting] gently into the earth” contrasts with his violent death.
Humanism	Centers on human dignity, values, and the potential for moral growth. It often looks at the positive contributions of individuals in society, promoting empathy and human connection.	The poem humanizes Garner by presenting his role as a caretaker of nature, evoking empathy as it reflects on his contribution to life and breath—”making it easier for us to breathe.”

Critical Questions about “A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay

How does the poem’s focus on Eric Garner’s occupation as a horticultural worker contribute to its overall theme?
Ross Gay’s decision to center the poem on Eric Garner’s work as a horticultural worker is a strategic choice that significantly enhances the poem’s thematic depth. By highlighting Garner’s connection to nature, Gay suggests a parallel between Garner’s life and the resilience and growth of the plants he tended. This juxtaposition underscores the enduring power of life even in the face of tragedy. Furthermore, the image of Garner nurturing plants creates a sense of hope and possibility, suggesting that despite his untimely death, his legacy lives on through the natural world.
What is the significance of the repetition of the phrase “in all likelihood” throughout the poem?

The repeated use of the phrase “in all likelihood” serves a dual purpose in “A Small Needful Fact.” On one hand, it conveys a sense of uncertainty and the unpredictable nature of life. By acknowledging the possibility of alternative outcomes, the poem emphasizes the fragility of existence and the tragic randomness of Garner’s death. On the other hand, the repetition of this phrase also suggests a degree of inevitability. It implies that despite the uncertainty surrounding life, certain things, such as the growth of plants, are more or less guaranteed. This contrast between uncertainty and inevitability adds a layer of complexity to the poem’s exploration of life and death.
How does the poem’s use of simple language and imagery contribute to its emotional impact?
“A Small Needful Fact” employs a deceptively simple style, relying on straightforward language and concrete imagery. This deliberate choice enhances the poem’s emotional impact by allowing readers to connect with the subject matter on a visceral level. The poem’s focus on the mundane activities of a horticultural worker, such as planting and tending to plants, creates a sense of familiarity and relatability. By grounding the poem in everyday experiences, Gay is able to evoke powerful emotions without resorting to overt sentimentality.

How does the poem’s understated tone contribute to its overall message?
The poem’s understated tone plays a crucial role in conveying its message. By avoiding excessive emotionalism or rhetoric, Gay allows the reader to experience the poem’s impact more subtly. The poem’s quiet contemplation of Garner’s life and the resilience of nature creates a sense of peace and reflection. This understated approach also reinforces the idea that even in the face of tragedy, there is beauty and hope to be found.

Literary Works Similar to “A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay

“The Summer Day” by Mary Oliver: Like Gay’s poem, this work contemplates the beauty and simplicity of nature, while raising profound questions about life and death.

“Those Winter Sundays” by Robert Hayden: Both poems explore the unnoticed, tender acts of care performed by figures whose significance is often overlooked.
“Let America Be America Again” by Langston Hughes: Hughes, like Gay, reflects on social justice and the American experience, focusing on marginalized voices and their contributions.
“A Litany for Survival” by Audre Lorde: Lorde’s poem, similar to Gay’s, addresses the experiences of marginalized people, emphasizing endurance and the need for recognition of life’s small, essential moments.

“Facing It” by Yusef Komunyakaa: Both works meditate on memory and loss, framing personal grief and societal issues within a broader human and historical context.

Representative Quotations of “A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective (in bold)
“Is that Eric Garner worked for some time for the Parks and Rec.”	Establishing the factual foundation of Eric Garner’s work history and humanizing his memory.	Biographical criticism: The reference to Garner’s job helps to humanize him, highlighting the often-overlooked aspects of his life.
“Horticultural Department, which means, perhaps, that with his very large hands”	Suggests the labor and care Eric Garner put into his work with plants, symbolizing growth.	Ecocriticism: The connection between Eric Garner and the natural world reflects a harmonious relationship between humans and nature.
“he put gently into the earth some plants which, most likely, continue to grow”	Reflects on how Garner’s life, through his labor, continues to influence the environment.	Existentialism: Focuses on the idea of legacy, pondering how human actions, even after death, can leave lasting impacts on the world.
“continue to do what such plants do, like house and feed small and necessary creatures”	Highlights the plants’ ongoing life and support for other creatures as a metaphor for resilience.	Metaphorical criticism: The plants symbolize Garner’s life and continued influence, representing growth, nurturing, and sustenance.
“like making it easier for us to breathe.”	Suggests the plants’ role in sustaining life and implies that Garner, through his work, contributed to the well-being of others.	Marxist criticism: The focus on labor as life-sustaining draws attention to the working class’s often invisible contributions to society.

“The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton first appeared on the pages of the influential journal Cultural Critique in the winter of 1985-1986.

Introduction: “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

“The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton first appeared on the pages of the influential journal Cultural Critique in the winter of 1985-1986. This groundbreaking piece, published in the second issue of the journal, significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s exploration of the complex relationship between the subject and the literary text challenged prevailing assumptions and offered a new perspective on the role of literature in shaping our understanding of the world.

Summary of “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Introduction to the Context
Terry Eagleton introduces the essay’s context, aimed at educators grappling with applying modern cultural theory in British schools, particularly those in multiracial, working-class urban areas. He outlines how English literature is being taught through a critical lens in a pedagogical framework aimed at rethinking traditional ideologies.
“The struggle for progressive political methods of English teaching is clearly vital.” (p. 96)
Production of Subjects and Subjectivity
Eagleton argues that society produces human subjects through various institutions like the family, church, and school. Literature plays a significant role in producing “subjectivities” – ways of being that align with societal needs. The creation of subjects is thus historically contingent, just like the production of goods.
“There is a history of techniques for the production and reproduction of human subjects.” (p. 96)

Literature as a ‘Moral Technology’
Eagleton introduces the idea of literature as a “moral technology,” which shapes and assesses subjective emotional and moral responses, often in ways that serve social control. Literature, in this framework, molds subjects to conform to societal norms.
“The particular function of a moral technology is to map, measure, assess, and certify the emotive and experiential aspects of subjectivity.” (p. 97)
Depoliticizing Subjectivity
The essay emphasizes how literature, particularly in liberal humanist education, creates a depoliticized form of subjectivity, which is an end in itself. This subjectivity may appear free and autonomous but is subtly bound to capitalist ideologies, presenting itself as a form of control.
“We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all.” (p. 99)
Literature as Formalism
Eagleton discusses literature as a form of “moral formalism,” where the focus is not on specific moral content but on the cultivation of sensibility, imagination, and creativity. These traits are seen as universal values that are abstract and detached from any concrete political or social reality.
“Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object.” (p. 99)

Liberal Humanism’s Ideological Function
Liberal humanism, Eagleton argues, masks its ideological role by promoting literature as a form of personal growth and creativity. However, this growth is constrained within a political framework that prioritizes maintaining the existing social order. Literature, under this ideology, fosters a form of subjectivity that aligns with capitalist society.
“Liberal humanism guards and treasures this interior enclave as the one defense against deforming external forces.” (p. 100)
Contradictions in Liberal Humanism
Eagleton points out that liberal humanism is self-contradictory in its desire for peace, justice, and personal growth, while simultaneously failing to address the necessary conflicts and breaks required to achieve these goals. Liberal humanism favors gradualism, ignoring the transformative potential of political action.
“Liberal humanism appears to speak only of growth, gradualism, evolutionary continuity.” (p. 102)
Critique of ‘Immediate Experience’
Eagleton criticizes the liberal humanist emphasis on “immediate experience” as abstract and detached from political reality. He argues that every experience is shaped by social and historical contexts, making the notion of pure personal growth or experience nonsensical outside a political framework.
“‘Immediate experience’ in itself is nothing; it is only by the political interpretation of experience that existence becomes fruitful.” (p. 103)

Language and Power
Eagleton concludes by noting that language is not merely a medium for creative exploration but a tool of power and struggle. He warns that the liberal humanist view of language and literature as tools for personal enrichment ignores their role in political and social conflicts.
“Language is power, conflict, and struggle – weapon as much as medium, poison as well as cure.” (p. 104)

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Moral Technology	A set of practices and techniques in literature aimed at shaping and instilling specific moral values and behaviors in individuals.	“A moral technology consists of a particular set of techniques and practices for the instilling of specific kinds of value, discipline, behaviour…” (p. 97)
Subjectivity	The way human subjects are produced and shaped by social institutions like literature, forming an individual’s internal self.	“The production of subjects/subjectivities is just as historically relative and changing as the production of economic goods.” (p. 96)
Depoliticized Subjectivity	A form of subjectivity created by literature that appears to be autonomous but is actually bound to societal control mechanisms.	“Subjectivity is radically depoliticized…this form of subjectivity is the space of our freedom and creativity.” (p. 99)
Liberal Humanism	A literary ideology that values individual growth, creativity, and personal experience, but which conceals its support for the status quo.	“Liberal humanism works as a literary ideology…believing as they do that it is the one enclave of freedom.” (p. 100)
Literary Formalism	The emphasis on the aesthetic and emotional response to literature, rather than its specific moral or political content.	“Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object.” (p. 99)
Imaginative Sympathy	A concept in liberal humanism that stresses empathetic understanding of others’ experiences, often abstracted from political context.	“‘Imaginative sympathy’ in itself is nothing…Only when imbued with a specific social and historical content can we know what we are arguing about.” (p. 104)
Kantian Morality	Refers to Immanuel Kant’s moral philosophy, which focuses on formal moral principles without specifying particular ethical content.	“Kant’s moral philosophy…treat others as ends not means, universalise your actions…which could be given a whole number of specific historical contents.” (p. 98)
Cultural Theory	Contemporary theoretical approaches to analyzing literature, focusing on how culture and power shape the production and reception of texts.	“Modern critical ideas translated into terms intelligible to children and televisually attractive.” (p. 95)
Creative Transformation	The idea that genuine change in society comes not from gradual growth but from conflict and radical breaks with the status quo.	“There is one major way in which men and women in our society have over the years experienced creative transformation…at the end of a policeman’s truncheon.” (p. 104)

Contribution of “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Theory	Contribution by Eagleton	Quotation/Reference
Marxist Literary Criticism	Eagleton argues that literature is a form of “moral technology” that shapes subjectivities according to the needs of the dominant social order. He critiques how liberal humanism conceals power relations in literature.	“What these techniques at once map and produce…are certain forms of value and response” (p. 97); “Liberal humanism… masks its ideological role by promoting literature as a form of personal growth and creativity” (p. 100).
Ideology Critique	Eagleton’s essay analyzes how literature functions ideologically to produce depoliticized subjects. He critiques the illusion of literary subjectivity being “free” when it is, in fact, bound to capitalist ideology.	“We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all” (p. 99); “This is what is meant by saying that in a liberal capitalist society we are now ‘free.'” (p. 99).
Post-structuralism	The essay challenges the liberal humanist view of literature as a space for universal moral truths and emphasizes that subjectivity itself is socially constructed, contingent, and political.	“Subjectivity is radically depoliticized, and that is always to the advantage of the ruling order” (p. 99); “What it is to be a subject is to be constituted as a kind of free, autonomous, universal sensibility.” (p. 100).
Formalism (Critique of)	Eagleton critiques literary formalism, which values the aesthetic and emotional response over the political or moral content of literature. He argues that this formalism ultimately serves the interests of the ruling class.	“Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object… Literature is a formalism.” (p. 99).
Kantian Morality (Critique of)	Eagleton critiques the Kantian notion of morality as abstract and formal, arguing that it resonates in the depoliticized, contentless subjectivity fostered by literature in capitalist society.	“Kant’s moral philosophy…could be given a whole number of specific historical contents” (p. 98); “What Literature teaches is not so much this or that moral value; it teaches us rather to be moral.” (p. 99).
Critical Pedagogy	The essay highlights the political implications of teaching literature and critiques how literature education in schools shapes students’ subjectivities in ways that conform to the needs of capitalist society.	“We do not teach our children to revere water-sprites or regard authority as evil because these responses would be naturally disruptive of our particular social order.” (p. 98).
Cultural Studies	Eagleton emphasizes that literature is a cultural product that serves social and political functions, rather than an isolated aesthetic experience. This aligns with the focus of cultural studies on power and ideology.	“Literature is a technology… for mapping, measuring, assessing and certifying emotive and experiential aspects of subjectivity” (p. 97).
Post-Marxism	Eagleton’s arguments engage with the post-Marxist critique of culture, emphasizing the constructed nature of subjectivity and the ideological role of literature in reproducing capitalist values.	“The form of what counts as a ‘literary’ response…is in contradiction with the moral and political content at stake.” (p. 100).

Key Contributions:

Marxist Critique of Literature and Subjectivity
Eagleton expands on Marxist theory by arguing that literature is instrumental in producing subjectivities that align with the needs of capitalist society. He critiques how literature depoliticizes the subject and hides power relations. “Any society will produce those modes of subjectivity which it deems in general appropriate to the furtherance of its own ends.” (p. 98)
Critique of Liberal Humanism
Eagleton’s analysis challenges the liberal humanist belief in the autonomy of literature and the individual. He exposes how literature, under this ideology, actually serves capitalist interests by creating subjects who are supposedly “free” but are, in fact, shaped by dominant ideologies. “This form of subjectivity is the space of our freedom and creativity – which is to say, the place where we are bound most firmly to the capitalist social order.” (p. 99)

Post-structuralist Influence
Eagleton’s notion that subjectivity is socially constructed rather than innate aligns with post-structuralist ideas about the instability of meaning and the role of power in shaping identity. He critiques the “universal” subjectivity promoted by liberal humanism. “The very form of our subjection lies in our trust in a subjectivity transcendental of all determinations.” (p. 100)
Critique of Aesthetic Formalism
Eagleton critiques the literary tradition that privileges form over content, suggesting that this detachment from political and social realities helps maintain the existing social order. “The task of the moral technology of Literature is to produce an historically peculiar form of human subject who is sensitive, receptive, imaginative and so on… about nothing in particular.” (p. 99)
Pedagogical Implications
By addressing how literature is taught in schools, Eagleton contributes to critical pedagogy, arguing that education in literature shapes students into subjects that conform to the existing social order. “In this ideological climate, the struggle for progressive political methods of English teaching is clearly vital.” (p. 96)

Examples of Critiques Through “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s Theories	Key Concepts from Eagleton
*King Lear* by William Shakespeare	Eagleton argues that although King Lear contains themes of solidarity with the oppressed, liberal humanist readings often fail to transform these moral insights into political action. The play is instead interpreted as fostering a personal emotional experience, depoliticizing its revolutionary potential.	“The form of what counts as a ‘literary’ response…is in contradiction with the moral and political content at stake.” (p. 100)
*Pride and Prejudice* by Jane Austen	From an Eagletonian perspective, Pride and Prejudice can be seen as reinforcing bourgeois subjectivity by promoting values of social decorum, individual growth, and personal morality that align with capitalist ideology. The novel trains readers to value personal virtue over systemic change, thus depoliticizing the subject.	“We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all.” (p. 99); “Liberal humanism guards and treasures this interior enclave…” (p. 100)
*The Great Gatsby* by F. Scott Fitzgerald	In Eagleton’s framework, The Great Gatsby may be critiqued as illustrating the moral emptiness of capitalist society. While the novel critiques the American Dream, it does so through a focus on personal failure and disillusionment, which leads to a depoliticized understanding of broader class conflict.	“What Literature teaches is not so much this or that moral value… It teaches us rather to be moral.” (p. 99); “The workings of the particular moral technology…” (p. 97)
*Wuthering Heights* by Emily Brontë	Eagleton would critique Wuthering Heights as a novel that, while engaging in complex portrayals of passion and social conflict, ultimately reinforces traditional class and gender hierarchies through its emotional focus. The readers are trained to focus on personal emotional responses rather than critically engaging with the oppressive social structures within the novel.	“What is important is just the production of a specific form of subjectivity, about which we can say… that it is sensitive, creative, imaginative and so on.” (p. 99)

Explanation of Critiques:

Depoliticization of Morality
In King Lear, despite the play’s potential to inspire political solidarity with the oppressed, Eagleton’s framework critiques how literary criticism tends to focus on personal emotional responses, thereby weakening its political potential.
Reinforcement of Bourgeois Subjectivity
Pride and Prejudice trains readers to embrace personal virtues and individual morality that fit into capitalist social structures, leading to the production of bourgeois subjectivity.
Moral Emptiness in Capitalist Society
In The Great Gatsby, Eagleton’s perspective would highlight the way literature critiques societal ideals like the American Dream but does so by focusing on individual experiences of failure, which removes the political context of class struggle.

Subjectivity Focus Over Political Critique
Wuthering Heights provides intense emotional experiences but, under Eagleton’s critique, is seen as producing subjectivity that prevents readers from questioning class and gender hierarchies, thus reinforcing oppressive social structures.

Criticism Against “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton

Overemphasis on Ideology
Eagleton’s critique of literature as a “moral technology” shaping subjectivities primarily for social control might be seen as overly deterministic. Critics argue that not all literature operates as a tool of ideological reproduction, and many literary works foster critical thinking and social change rather than simply reinforcing dominant ideologies.
Reduction of Literary Experience to Politics
By focusing heavily on the political implications of literature, Eagleton might be criticized for reducing the complexity of literary experience to political and ideological dimensions. Critics could argue that Eagleton overlooks the aesthetic, emotional, and imaginative value that literature offers to readers beyond its ideological function.

Dismissal of Individual Agency
Eagleton’s argument that subjectivity is constructed almost entirely by social forces could be criticized for downplaying individual agency. His view might be seen as too structuralist, implying that readers have little capacity to resist or reinterpret the ideological messages embedded in literary works.
Narrow View of Liberal Humanism
Eagleton critiques liberal humanism for its supposed role in depoliticizing subjectivity, but some might argue that this view oversimplifies the diverse and often critical perspectives within liberal humanist thought. Not all liberal humanists ignore political and social critique, and many engage with literature as a means of questioning and transforming societal norms.
Lack of Engagement with Reader Response
Eagleton’s essay focuses on how literature shapes subjectivity in line with social and political ideologies, but it does not adequately consider how individual readers might actively interpret, resist, or challenge these ideologies. Critics may argue that Eagleton’s analysis neglects the role of reader response theory, which emphasizes the active role of readers in constructing meaning.

Generalization of Literature’s Role
Eagleton’s argument that literature functions as a tool of social control may be seen as a generalization. Critics could argue that literature’s role varies widely across time periods, genres, and cultures, and that his analysis doesn’t account for this diversity or for works that actively challenge dominant power structures.
Undermining the Aesthetic Value of Literature
Eagleton’s focus on literature as a form of ideological control may be criticized for undermining its aesthetic value. Critics might argue that literature also serves as an art form with intrinsic value, not just as a means of shaping or controlling subjectivity within a political framework.
Disregard for the Complexities of Literary Creation
Some may argue that Eagleton’s view of literature as part of an ideological apparatus overlooks the creative and complex process of literary creation. Authors often engage in nuanced and multifaceted ways with their cultural and political environments, which Eagleton’s framework may not fully capture.

Representative Quotations from “The Subject of Literature” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Among the various modes of production in any society, one of the most central is the mode of production of human subjects.” (p. 96)	Eagleton establishes that societies produce subjects through institutions, including literature. This highlights how literature functions within the broader social system to shape individual identities and subjectivities.
“Literature is a moral technology.” (p. 97)	This summarizes Eagleton’s argument that literature is a tool used to instill specific moral values and behaviors, often serving the interests of social control and power structures.
“Subjectivity is radically depoliticized, and that is always to the advantage of the ruling order.” (p. 99)	Eagleton critiques how literature creates a form of subjectivity that appears autonomous but is actually depoliticized, serving the interests of the dominant class by disconnecting personal experiences from political contexts.
“Liberal humanism guards and treasures this interior enclave as the one defense against deforming external forces.” (p. 100)	This critique of liberal humanism suggests that it falsely portrays subjectivity as a free, internal space, while ignoring the broader social and political forces that shape individuals.
“We are bound as firmly as we are precisely because we do not seem to be bound at all.” (p. 99)	Eagleton highlights how capitalist ideology operates invisibly, creating an illusion of freedom while subtly binding individuals to the system of power and control.
“Literature is that process in which the quality of the response is more significant than the quality of the object.” (p. 99)	Eagleton critiques literary formalism for prioritizing the subjective response to a work over its actual content, which can depoliticize literature by focusing on personal emotions rather than its social implications.
“What literature teaches is not so much this or that moral value; it teaches us rather to be moral.” (p. 99)	Eagleton argues that literature does not promote specific moral values, but rather a general disposition of being moral, which he sees as problematic because it detaches morality from concrete social and political realities.
“The form of what counts as a ‘literary’ response… is in contradiction with the moral and political content at stake.” (p. 100)	This quotation underscores Eagleton’s critique of liberal humanism: while literature may contain radical content, the form in which it is taught or received often prevents readers from translating that into political or moral action.
“What it is to be a subject is to be constituted as a kind of free, autonomous, universal sensibility, indifferent to any particular moral or political contents.” (p. 100)	Eagleton critiques the liberal humanist notion of the subject as free and autonomous, arguing that this conception of subjectivity is abstract and disconnected from any real-world social or political issues.
“Language is power, conflict, and struggle – weapon as much as medium, poison as well as cure.” (p. 104)	Eagleton stresses the dual nature of language, viewing it not only as a tool for communication and creativity but also as an instrument of power and control within social and political struggles.

“The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1988 in the journal Poetics Today, is considered a significant contribution to the field of literature and literary theory.

Introduction: “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

“The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1988 in the journal Poetics Today, is considered a significant contribution to the field of literature and literary theory due to its incisive analysis of the concept of aesthetics and its ideological underpinnings. Eagleton argues that aesthetics, far from being a neutral or objective category, is deeply intertwined with social, political, and economic structures. By examining the historical development of aesthetics and its relationship to various cultural and philosophical discourses, Eagleton offers a compelling critique of the notion that art and beauty are autonomous and independent of broader social concerns.

Summary of “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

Aesthetics and Power:
- Aesthetics is not solely about art but a broader “program of social, psychical, and political reconstruction.”
- Eagleton links aesthetics to the political concept of hegemony, stating, “It denotes instead a whole program of social, psychical and political reconstruction on the part of the early European bourgeoisie.”
Aesthetics as a Discourse of the Body:
- Aesthetics mediates between sensation and reason, initially introduced by Baumgarten as a “sister of logic.”
- Aesthetics is the bridge between material life (the body, sensations) and intellectual life (reason and thoughts), addressing how reason and sensibility integrate to dominate human experience.
Shift from Coercion to Hegemony:
- Eagleton interprets the aesthetic as a method to “rule and inform our sensuous life from within while allowing it to thrive in all its relative autonomy,” transitioning from coercive power to consensual hegemony.

Schiller and Aesthetic Education:
- Friedrich Schiller’s work focuses on social hegemony, advocating for the modulation of the psyche through aesthetics, making it a subtle yet powerful force for ideological control.
- “The aesthetic modulation of the psyche” plays a central role in softening Kant’s rigid rationalism, blending ethics and aesthetics into a cohesive system of social control.

Aesthetics and Manners:
- Aesthetics are involved in disciplining the body and converting morality into style. “Manners,” as Eagleton describes, are a “crucial hinge between ethics and aesthetics.”
- Social practices become aestheticized, where “ethical ideology loses its unpleasantly coercive force and reappears as a principle of spontaneous consensus.”

Aesthetic as Social Control:
- The aesthetic subject internalizes the law as “the very principle of its free identity” and works “all by itself,” resembling the self-regulating subject in Althusser’s ideological theory.
- Aesthetic judgments mask deeper ideological control, as noted by Eagleton, “Structures of power must become structures of feeling, and the name for this mediation… is the aesthetic.”

The Sublime and the Beautiful:
- Eagleton contrasts beauty as a “consensual power” with the sublime, which is “coercive.”
- This distinction reflects the tension between the softer, hegemonic forms of power (beauty) and more overt, authoritarian forms (sublime).

Ideology and Aesthetic Judgment:
- Aesthetic judgments, Eagleton argues, are “constative” but fundamentally performative and ideological, operating as emotive utterances while posing as objective truths.
- This duality ties aesthetics to ideology, where subjective experiences are universalized and enforced as societal norms.

Hegel and the Aestheticization of Reality:
- Hegel sought to reconcile subjectivity and freedom with the alienation experienced by individuals in bourgeois society. He projected “subjectivity into the object itself” to achieve unity, leading to an “aestheticization of the whole of reality.”
Aesthetics and Bourgeois Ideology:
- Eagleton points out that bourgeois ideology uses aesthetics as a means to make the world feel more hospitable, even though bourgeois values often contradict this.
- The aesthetic provides a sense of community and unity in bourgeois society, standing in for the failures of both the coercive state and fragmented civil society.
- However, Eagleton notes the precariousness of this unity, commenting on how “human unity must be…rooted in nothing more resilient than the vagaries of aesthetic judgment.”

Critique of Bourgeois Individualism:
- Aesthetics emerges as a critique of bourgeois individualism, and while it serves as an ideological tool for the ruling class, it also offers glimpses of utopian critique, particularly in its potential for fostering empathy and shared human experience.
Conclusion – Aesthetics and Materialism:
- Eagleton concludes by suggesting that aesthetics, originally a “supplement to reason,” now poses a threat to reason, challenging the division between reason and sensation.
- He foresees the next stage of aesthetic thought moving toward a materialist perspective, citing the works of Marx and Freud, who approach aesthetics from the vantage of the “laboring body” and the “desiring body.”

Key Quotations:

“The aesthetic, in other words, marks an historic shift from what we might now, in Gramscian terms, call coercion to hegemony.”

“Aesthetics is thus the ‘sister’ of logic, a kind of inferior feminine analogue of reason, at the level of material life.”
“The bourgeoisie has won certain historic victories within the political state; but the problem with such conflicts is that, in rendering the Law perceptible as a discourse, they threaten to denaturalize it.”
“Pleasurable conduct is the true index of successful social hegemony, self-delight the very mark of social submission.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevance in Eagleton’s Argument
Aesthetics	A philosophical study of beauty and taste, focusing on the senses and emotions, particularly how they mediate our perception of art and life.	Central to Eagleton’s argument, aesthetics is framed as a project of social, political, and psychical reconstruction by the bourgeoisie, transcending mere art to serve as an ideological tool.
Hegemony	A form of power that is maintained through consensual domination rather than overt coercion.	Eagleton argues that aesthetics functions as a form of hegemony, subtly governing individuals’ sensuous life and ensuring that ideology is internalized without force.
Sublime	A concept associated with overwhelming, awe-inspiring experiences, often invoking fear or admiration.	Eagleton contrasts the “sublime” with the “beautiful” to highlight two forms of power: the sublime as coercive authority, while beauty serves as consensual, pleasurable hegemony.
Beautiful	Aesthetic judgment focused on harmony, balance, and pleasure, typically evoking a sense of consensual approval.	Represents a consensual, agreeable form of social control in Eagleton’s analysis, in contrast to the more oppressive nature of the sublime.
Ideology	A system of ideas and ideals that shapes individuals’ perceptions of reality and social structures.	Eagleton explores how aesthetics operates ideologically, shaping individuals’ internal lives, making social control seem natural and consensual.
Materialism	The philosophical belief that reality is primarily composed of physical, material elements, often contrasted with idealism or abstract concepts.	Eagleton traces the aesthetic to a form of “incipient materialism,” focusing on the sensuous, bodily experiences that ground social reality.
Hegemony vs. Coercion	A distinction between power exercised through voluntary consent (hegemony) versus power enforced through fear or violence (coercion).	Eagleton argues that aesthetics marks a historical shift from coercion to hegemony, as social control becomes internalized in everyday life through aesthetic experiences.
Lawfulness without Law	The idea that rules and norms can be internalized and followed without overtly acknowledging their authority, akin to the “unconscious” following of social codes.	Eagleton uses this concept to explain how bourgeois subjects regulate themselves, turning aesthetic and ethical norms into unspoken, internalized behaviors.
Phenomenology	A branch of philosophy that explores subjective experiences and consciousness as the primary means of understanding reality.	Eagleton references Husserl’s phenomenology to highlight how aesthetics reflects the structures of everyday life and consciousness, deeply tied to lived experience.
Political Unconscious	A concept from Fredric Jameson, referring to the hidden ideologies embedded in cultural forms that reflect societal power structures.	Aesthetic judgments, according to Eagleton, are embedded with ideological content that reflects the political unconscious, regulating social behaviors and beliefs.
Kantian Aesthetics	Immanuel Kant’s view that aesthetic judgments are disinterested and universally valid, grounded in the harmony between the faculties of understanding and imagination.	Eagleton critiques Kantian aesthetics for its idealism but notes that it serves bourgeois ideology by providing a model for how individual subjectivity can align with universal social norms.
Ethical Relativism	The belief that moral principles are not absolute but are culturally or individually determined.	Eagleton discusses how aestheticizing moral judgments risks slipping into ethical relativism, undermining the bourgeoisie’s control over moral values.
Sensuous Representation	A representation of ideas or experiences through sensory perception and emotional response.	Eagleton critiques Hegel for underestimating the ideological power of sensuous representation, which plays a crucial role in maintaining bourgeois social order through aesthetics.
Universal Subjectivity	The notion that aesthetic judgments reflect universal human experiences, rather than being limited to individual perspectives.	Eagleton critiques this as an ideological function of aesthetics, where the subject is led to believe that their personal, subjective experiences reflect universal truths, masking the societal forces behind those experiences.
Civil Society vs. State	Civil society refers to the realm of private individuals and economic relationships, while the state is a coercive, public authority.	Eagleton shows how aesthetics resolves the problem of fractured bourgeois civil society, providing a “third realm” where communal unity is achieved through shared aesthetic experiences, bypassing the state’s coercive authority.
Imaginary (Lacan)	A concept in Lacanian psychoanalysis that refers to a realm of illusions and images where the subject misrecognizes itself as whole and unified.	Eagleton uses Lacan’s Imaginary to describe how the aesthetic allows the bourgeois subject to misperceive the fragmented social reality as harmonious, thus serving as an ideological tool for masking contradictions in society.
Moral Sense Theory	A theory, particularly associated with British philosophers like Shaftesbury and Hutcheson, that moral judgments are based on innate feelings or “senses.”	Eagleton contrasts the aesthetic-based “moral sense” theory with rationalist approaches to morality, noting its potential for both ideological control and subversion of bourgeois values.

Contribution of “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Contribution to Marxist Literary Theory

Aesthetics as a Tool for Bourgeois Hegemony:
- Eagleton interprets aesthetics as an ideological apparatus that supports bourgeois hegemony, moving from coercion to consent: “Aesthetic marks an historic shift from what we might now, in Gramscian terms, call coercion to hegemony.”
- The aesthetic functions to “discipline the body” and “convert morality to style,” thus aestheticizing virtue and embedding ideological control within everyday experience.
- This insight aligns with Marxist literary theory, which critiques how ideology functions to sustain class dominance, and Eagleton demonstrates how aesthetics has been a key tool in this process.
Ideology and the Aesthetic Subject:
- Eagleton explores how the aesthetic creates a self-regulating bourgeois subject who internalizes the law as “the very principle of its free identity” and works “all by itself” without direct political control.
- This reflects a Marxist critique of subjectivity under capitalism, where the subject unconsciously reproduces class relations, making aesthetics an instrument of class reproduction.

2. Contribution to Poststructuralist and Deconstructive Criticism

Questioning the Universality of Aesthetic Judgment:
- Eagleton critiques Kantian aesthetic judgment for presenting subjective experiences as universally valid, noting that “subjective and universal coalesce” in aesthetics and ideology.
- This aligns with poststructuralist critiques of universalism, which argue that universal truths are often disguises for particular interests. Eagleton’s deconstruction of aesthetic judgment exposes its ideological nature, showing how it serves bourgeois values while claiming universality.

The Sublime and the Beautiful as Binary Oppositions:
- Eagleton discusses the opposition between the “beautiful” (as consensual power) and the “sublime” (as coercive power). This duality reveals how aesthetic categories are not neutral but ideological, serving different forms of social control.
- His approach here contributes to deconstructive literary criticism, which often interrogates binary oppositions to reveal how they function ideologically and to show how the “beautiful” and “sublime” are not neutral but politically charged concepts.

3. Contribution to Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

Lacanian Mirror Stage and Aesthetic Subjectivity:
- Eagleton draws on Lacan’s concept of the Imaginary and the mirror stage to explain how aesthetics allows the bourgeois subject to misrecognize itself as harmonious and whole, masking deeper contradictions: “The Kantian subject of taste… is in effect the infantile narcissist of the Lacanian mirror phase.”
- This offers a contribution to psychoanalytic literary theory, particularly in exploring how aesthetic experiences reflect the subject’s desires for unity and coherence, which are projected onto social and political realities.
Aesthetic as a Narcissistic Projection:
- He suggests that aesthetic experience offers a moment of self-estrangement where the subject “forgets its referent for a magical moment” and turns to the act of knowing itself, reflecting the Lacanian notion of narcissism and the mirror stage.
- This insight integrates psychoanalytic theories with aesthetic critique, linking the desire for self-unity to the ideological function of aesthetics in bourgeois society.

4. Contribution to Phenomenology and Existentialism in Literary Theory

Phenomenology of Lived Experience:
- Eagleton engages with Husserl’s phenomenology by examining how aesthetics mediates between the lived, sensory experience of individuals and broader social and political structures. He claims that aesthetics reflects “the formal, rational structures of the Lebenswelt” (lifeworld).
- This contributes to phenomenological literary theory, which is concerned with how texts represent subjective consciousness and lived experience.
Aesthetic as the Moment of Sensuous Particularity:
- He emphasizes how aesthetic experiences ground abstract reasoning in “sensuous particulars,” aligning with existentialist themes of lived experience and the body’s role in shaping meaning.
- Eagleton extends this to critique bourgeois social practices that attempt to aestheticize and thus control the individual’s sensory life, contributing to phenomenological critiques of ideology.

5. Contribution to Ethical Criticism and Cultural Criticism

Aestheticization of Ethics:
- Eagleton discusses the “aesthetic modulation of the psyche” as a project of “ideological reconstruction” where ethical imperatives are transformed into aesthetic judgments. This transforms moral conduct into a matter of taste, contributing to discussions in ethical criticism about how moral values are constructed and represented.
- By blending ethics and aesthetics, Eagleton critiques the bourgeois project of making morality intuitive and pleasing, masking coercive structures through “manners” and “decorum.”

Cultural Hegemony through Aesthetics:
- Eagleton contributes to cultural criticism by analyzing how aesthetics pervades everyday practices, making ideology appear natural through cultural forms. He argues that bourgeois ethics and aesthetics merge into a consensual ideology that “infiltrates the very textures of lived experience.”
- His focus on the everyday aestheticization of social life shows how ideology functions not just through political structures but through cultural norms and practices, contributing to cultural materialism.

6. Contribution to Postcolonial Literary Theory

Aesthetics and the Colonial Subject:
- While Eagleton primarily discusses aesthetics in the context of European bourgeois society, his critique of aesthetic judgment’s universal claims can be extended to postcolonial theory.
- His observation that bourgeois aesthetics imposes a “universal” that reflects a particular (European) perspective resonates with postcolonial critiques of how Western aesthetic values were used to justify colonial domination and cultural imperialism.

7. Contribution to Reader-Response Theory

Aesthetic Judgment as Ideological:
- Eagleton explores how aesthetic judgment is not merely individual but structured by social norms and ideology. He suggests that readers’ responses to art and beauty are shaped by these ideological structures: “What is from one viewpoint an absolute rightness is from another viewpoint just something I happen to feel.”
- This ties into reader-response theory by acknowledging the subjective and socially constructed nature of aesthetic experience, emphasizing that readers’ responses are conditioned by cultural and ideological forces.

Key Quotations from the Article:

“Aesthetic marks an historic shift from what we might now, in Gramscian terms, call coercion to hegemony.”
“The aesthetic modulation of the psyche… is to say a full-blooded project of fundamental ideological reconstruction.”
“The Kantian subject of taste… is in effect the infantile narcissist of the Lacanian mirror phase.”

“Structures of power must become structures of feeling, and the name for this mediation… is the aesthetic.”

Examples of Critiques Through “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s “The Ideology of the Aesthetic”
*Pride and Prejudice* by Jane Austen	– Aestheticization of Social Norms: The characters in Pride and Prejudice operate within rigid social structures, where manners and decorum reflect the ideological construction of morality. Elizabeth Bennet’s wit and judgments are shaped by an aesthetic sensibility that aligns with Eagleton’s idea of “manners,” where “moral ideology reappears as a principle of spontaneous consensus.” Austen critiques the superficiality of social norms, but these norms are nonetheless aestheticized, embedding class and gender hierarchies in daily interactions.
*Heart of Darkness* by Joseph Conrad	– Colonial Ideology and the Sublime: The novel’s portrayal of the African wilderness as a terrifying and incomprehensible force reflects the sublime in Eagleton’s terms—coercive and crushing. Marlow’s aesthetic judgments about the African landscape are ideological, presenting Europe as rational and civilized while the African wilderness is portrayed as chaotic and dangerous. The aesthetic of the sublime here masks the colonial ideology, which justifies exploitation and domination through the contrast between the “civilized” and the “savage.”
*The Great Gatsby* by F. Scott Fitzgerald	– Aestheticization of the Bourgeois Ideal: The Great Gatsby embodies Eagleton’s critique of how bourgeois society turns ethics into aesthetics. Gatsby’s pursuit of Daisy is not just emotional but framed as an aesthetic quest, turning her into a symbol of wealth, beauty, and social status. The novel critiques the American Dream, showing how its ideals of freedom and success are aestheticized and commodified, making Gatsby’s obsession with Daisy an ideological reflection of class and materialism.
*Wuthering Heights* by Emily Brontë	– Sensuous Experience and Bourgeois Hegemony: Wuthering Heights can be read through Eagleton’s lens as a critique of how aesthetics internalizes ideological control. The novel’s intense focus on emotional and sensory experiences—particularly in the relationship between Catherine and Heathcliff—reflects Eagleton’s notion of sensuous particularity. The wildness and raw emotion of the characters contrast with the bourgeois values of control and order, highlighting a tension between natural human passion and the socially imposed hegemony of class and property relations. This tension questions the ideology of social conformity.

Criticism Against “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton

Reduction of Aesthetics to Ideology:
- Critics argue that Eagleton reduces the entire field of aesthetics to a mere tool of bourgeois ideology, neglecting the complexities and nuances of aesthetic experience. By viewing all aesthetic judgments through the lens of power and ideology, he overlooks the autonomy of art and its potential for subversion and resistance.

Overemphasis on Marxist Framework:
- Eagleton’s analysis is heavily reliant on Marxist theory, which some critics feel limits his ability to engage with aesthetic theory in a broader, more interdisciplinary way. This rigid Marxist lens might oversimplify the historical and cultural dimensions of aesthetics, focusing primarily on class and power dynamics.
Neglect of Aesthetic Pleasure and Artistic Value:
- By focusing on the ideological functions of aesthetics, Eagleton is accused of downplaying or ignoring the intrinsic pleasures and values that people derive from art and beauty. His analysis tends to disregard the emotional and subjective responses individuals have to art, reducing aesthetic pleasure to a function of social control.
Simplification of Kant and Other Philosophers:
- Eagleton’s critique of philosophers like Immanuel Kant and Edmund Burke is seen by some as overly reductive. Critics claim that he simplifies complex philosophical concepts, particularly Kant’s notion of “disinterestedness,” to fit his argument about bourgeois ideology, thus missing the depth and subtleties of their aesthetic theories.

Insufficient Engagement with Postmodern Aesthetics:
- Eagleton’s focus on the Enlightenment and bourgeois aesthetic theory is critiqued for not adequately addressing postmodern developments in aesthetics. The text has been seen as somewhat dated or lacking engagement with more contemporary critiques of aesthetics that explore postmodernism, globalization, or digital culture.
Overgeneralization of Bourgeois Society:
- Some critics suggest that Eagleton tends to overgeneralize the bourgeoisie’s use of aesthetics, implying a monolithic control over art and culture. This neglects the diversity within bourgeois culture and the potential for alternative interpretations and uses of aesthetics within different social contexts.
Undermining Aesthetic Autonomy:
- Eagleton is criticized for undermining the idea of aesthetic autonomy— the belief that art can exist independently of politics and ideology. By treating all aesthetics as fundamentally ideological, he dismisses the possibility that art and aesthetic experiences could transcend social and political constraints.

Representative Quotations from “The Ideology of the Aesthetic” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Aesthetics is born as a discourse of the body.”	Eagleton emphasizes that aesthetics originally relates to sensory experiences and physicality, rather than purely intellectual or artistic pursuits. This materialist approach highlights how aesthetics interacts with bodily sensations, making it a crucial part of understanding power and social control.
“Aesthetics marks an historic shift from what we might now, in Gramscian terms, call coercion to hegemony.”	This quote connects aesthetics to the concept of hegemony, suggesting that aesthetics allows the ruling class to maintain power through consent rather than overt force. Eagleton frames aesthetics as a tool for subtle social control, aligning with Antonio Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony.
“The bourgeoisie has won certain historic victories within the political state; but the problem with such conflicts is that, in rendering the Law perceptible as a discourse, they threaten to denaturalize it.”	Eagleton explains the bourgeois class’s dilemma: by exposing power through political victories, they risk making the law (and thus power structures) subject to contestation, which is why aesthetics becomes a way to “naturalize” law and make it seem inherent and unquestionable.
“Structures of power must become structures of feeling, and the name for this mediation from property to propriety is the aesthetic.”	Aesthetic experience becomes a way of transforming abstract power structures into something felt and experienced in everyday life. The shift from “property to propriety” indicates how the bourgeoisie uses aesthetics to regulate behavior and social norms, linking material and moral worlds.
“Pleasurable conduct is the true index of successful social hegemony, self-delight the very mark of social submission.”	Here, Eagleton suggests that when people find pleasure in their social roles and behaviors, it indicates that hegemony has been internalized. Aesthetics plays a role in making submission to social order feel natural and even enjoyable, masking the ideological control beneath it.
“The aesthetic is thus the first stirrings of a primitive, incipient materialism.”	Eagleton ties the emergence of aesthetics to materialism, suggesting that aesthetic experience deals with the material, bodily world rather than abstract ideals. This highlights how aesthetics is rooted in the sensory and the tangible, which makes it an important tool for shaping social realities.
“Aesthetic judgment conceals an essentially emotive (subject-oriented) content within an apparently referential form.”	Aesthetic judgments, according to Eagleton, may appear to be objective or universal, but they are deeply tied to subjective emotions and ideological values. This masking of subjectivity as objectivity plays a key role in the functioning of ideology within aesthetics.
“The sublime—that which crushes us into admiring submission—is coercive.”	Eagleton contrasts the beautiful (consensual power) with the sublime (coercive power). The sublime, like oppressive authority, overwhelms the individual and demands submission, highlighting a form of aesthetic experience that mirrors authoritarian control.
“The Kantian subject of taste… is in effect the infantile narcissist of the Lacanian mirror phase.”	By linking Kantian aesthetics to Lacan’s mirror stage, Eagleton critiques Kant’s theory of aesthetic judgment, suggesting that it reflects a narcissistic misrecognition of unity and harmony. This shows how aesthetics can foster a false sense of self and social coherence, masking deeper contradictions.
“What is from one viewpoint an absolute rightness is from another viewpoint just something I happen to feel.”	This quote captures the ideological nature of aesthetic judgments, where something that seems universally valid is actually a subjective experience. Eagleton critiques how aesthetics presents personal tastes and values as if they were universally binding, thus reinforcing ideological norms.

“Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton is an influential essay that first appeared in the Spring 2000 issue of the journal New Literary History.

Introduction: “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

“Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton is an influential essay that first appeared in the Spring 2000 issue of the journal New Literary History. This essay is a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory because it revisits and challenges the traditional Marxist concept of the base and superstructure. Eagleton argues that the relationship between these two concepts is much more complex and dynamic than previously thought. He emphasizes that the base (the economic system) and the superstructure (the cultural and ideological systems) are not simply cause and effect but rather mutually influence and shape each other. This essay has been widely discussed and debated, and it continues to be an important resource for understanding the complex interplay between economics and culture.

Summary of “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

Money as a Meta-Good
- Eagleton opens by discussing how money functions as a “meta-good” in capitalist society. It facilitates the pursuit of various desires and lifestyles without effort. He humorously imagines an alien visitor baffled by the contradiction in human behavior, where money is considered vital but also despised: “The alien would soon find himself puzzling over the performative contradiction between what we said about money and what we did with it” (Eagleton, 232).

Contradictions in Economic and Cultural Perceptions
- Eagleton argues that the discrepancy between money’s importance and contempt is a “genuine conundrum” about its ontological status. He references Marx’s “Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts” to explore the paradoxical nature of money as both “everything and nothing” (233). This reflects the larger base-superstructure contradiction between economic reality (base) and cultural morality (superstructure).
Wealth and Power as Necessary Conditions
- Drawing from the philosopher Francis Hutcheson, Eagleton explains that wealth and power are not fundamental human desires but essential conditions for achieving other aspirations. He asserts that money is “the capacity of capacities,” a tool that enables various human goals (234).
The Economic Base and its Role in Culture
- Eagleton emphasizes that while the economic base is not the most “precious thing in life,” it is a necessary condition for most human activities, including cultural production. He notes that even socialism requires advanced material conditions, as “socialism is only possible on the basis of reasonably advanced material conditions” (234). Without this, attempts to develop a socialist state could lead to authoritarianism.

Culture’s Relative Autonomy from Material Conditions
- Eagleton critiques both left-wing and right-wing views on the relationship between culture and material conditions. He argues that culture becomes relatively autonomous as a result of material conditions, stating, “art becomes relatively autonomous of its material conditions precisely by being more firmly integrated into the economic” (235). This autonomy allows culture to critique its surrounding conditions.
Base and Superstructure Model
- Eagleton defends the base-superstructure model, arguing that it is not inherently hierarchical or deterministic, but acknowledges its limitations. He critiques the simplistic view that the superstructure (law, culture, ideology) is entirely determined by the economic base, noting that “a school forms part of the superstructure when it has its students salute the national flag, but not when it teaches them to tie their shoelaces” (239).
Superstructures and Social Contradictions
- According to Eagleton, superstructures arise because the economic base is internally contradictory, and their role is to manage these contradictions in favor of the ruling class. He states, “superstructures are necessary…because the productive activity…generates certain social contradictions” (239). Thus, the superstructure is a flexible concept, not rigidly tied to specific institutions or functions.

Cultural Materialism and the Future of Socialism
- Eagleton discusses the concept of “cultural materialism,” which seeks to reconcile the material base with cultural development. He notes that socialism’s long-term goal is to create conditions where people can live by culture rather than economics: “the project of socialism is to try to lay down the kinds of material conditions in which…they will be able to live by culture a great deal more than they do now” (240).
Historical Materialism and the Role of Culture
- In the final sections, Eagleton ties his argument to historical materialism, asserting that the economic is foundational, but culture will become increasingly important as society progresses beyond scarcity and toil. He ends by quoting Oliver Goldsmith to emphasize that culture is “superfluity” built into human nature, necessary yet not reducible to purely economic terms (237-240).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Usage in the Text
Base and Superstructure	A Marxist concept where the “base” refers to the economic foundation of society (productive forces and relations) and the “superstructure” refers to cultural, legal, political, and ideological institutions.	Eagleton revisits the base-superstructure relationship, emphasizing that while the superstructure is influenced by the base, it has relative autonomy. He critiques reductive interpretations of the model, arguing for a more nuanced, dialectical view.
Materialism	A philosophical approach that emphasizes the importance of material conditions (economic and social factors) in shaping society and human consciousness.	Eagleton supports a historical materialist perspective, arguing that the economic base shapes culture and consciousness but allows culture some independence under specific material conditions.
Cultural Materialism	A critical theory that examines the relationship between material conditions (the base) and cultural forms, emphasizing the historical context of culture.	Eagleton discusses how culture, while shaped by material conditions, can become relatively autonomous, especially in modern capitalist societies. He explores how culture resists commodification through ideological autotelism.
Dialectics	A method of analysis based on contradiction and change, often associated with Marxist theory. It seeks to understand how conflicting forces (thesis and antithesis) lead to new syntheses.	Eagleton uses a dialectical approach to argue that the contradictions between the economic base and cultural superstructure are essential to understanding their relationship, showing how autonomy and dependency co-exist in culture.
Autonomy	In Marxist theory, cultural or ideological autonomy refers to the idea that certain aspects of the superstructure (like art and culture) may operate independently of direct economic influence.	Eagleton emphasizes the relative autonomy of culture, arguing that culture can critique and resist its material conditions despite being economically determined to some extent.
Commodity Fetishism	A Marxist concept where social relations between people are expressed as economic relations between commodities, obscuring the true labor relations that produced them.	Though not explicitly mentioned, Eagleton alludes to commodity fetishism when discussing the paradoxical nature of money, where it is both “everything and nothing,” masking the true social relations behind its acquisition.
Use-Value vs. Exchange-Value	Use-value refers to the practical usefulness of an object, while exchange-value refers to its value in a market context as a commodity.	Eagleton contrasts use-value and exchange-value when discussing art. He argues that art, as a commodity, resists commodification by asserting its autotelism (self-justification), becoming an image of what life could be like under different conditions.
Ideology	A system of beliefs, values, and ideas that serve to justify the interests of the dominant social group, often obscuring the true nature of social relations.	Eagleton critiques postmodernist and liberal ideologies that downplay the importance of power and material conditions, advocating for a Marxist interpretation that reveals the economic roots of cultural and social systems.
Historical Materialism	A Marxist theory that emphasizes the role of material economic conditions in shaping history and human society. History progresses through the development of productive forces and class struggles.	Eagleton’s essay is grounded in historical materialism, exploring how economic development (the base) shapes culture (the superstructure) and how contradictions within the base necessitate the development of the superstructure.
Performative Contradiction	A situation where there is a discrepancy between what people say and what they do, often revealing underlying ideological conflicts.	Eagleton discusses the performative contradiction in society’s attitude toward money, which is both essential and despised, reflecting deeper contradictions between the material base and the moral superstructure.

Contribution of “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Revisiting and Nuancing Marxist Theory
- Eagleton’s essay significantly contributes to the ongoing conversation within Marxist Literary Theory, specifically concerning the relationship between the economic base and the cultural superstructure. He addresses how traditional Marxist theory has often been misinterpreted or reduced to economic determinism. Eagleton critiques this simplification by emphasizing the dialectical nature of the relationship: “The base/superstructure model has something valuable to say…though this is nowadays a proportion smaller than those who believe in the Virgin Birth” (Eagleton, 237). By reaffirming the model’s relevance, Eagleton defends its continued applicability in analyzing culture in a capitalist society, arguing that the superstructure can have a degree of autonomy while still being rooted in the base.

Cultural Materialism and the Role of Autonomy
- Eagleton extends the theory of Cultural Materialism by explaining how culture, while economically conditioned, gains relative autonomy under certain historical conditions. This autonomy allows culture to critique its own material origins, a point of significant importance for literary criticism. He states, “Art becomes relatively autonomous of its material conditions precisely by being more firmly integrated into the economic” (Eagleton, 235). This idea that culture can resist commodification while being produced within a capitalist economy has shaped how scholars think about the political function of literature and art.
Critique of Postmodernism and Liberal Theories
- Eagleton’s essay also engages with Postmodernist and Liberal Theories by critiquing their suspicion of power and material conditions. He argues that only a materialist framework, rooted in economic realities, can fully explain culture’s contradictions. He writes, “Only liberals or postmodernists can afford to be suspicious of power. It is selflessness here which is ideological” (Eagleton, 235). Eagleton’s critique of these theories contributes to the broader debate on ideology, reminding literary theorists of the importance of material conditions in shaping culture, rather than abstract notions of autonomy or individualism.
Revitalizing the Base-Superstructure Debate in Cultural Criticism
- Eagleton revitalizes the Base-Superstructure Debate within cultural and literary criticism by highlighting the dynamic, rather than static, relationship between these spheres. He dismantles the misconception that the superstructure is simply a passive reflection of the base, asserting instead that cultural forms actively interact with and sometimes resist their economic conditions. As he points out, “Superstructures are necessary in a Marxist view…because the productive activity to which these bodies give rise generates certain social contradictions” (Eagleton, 239). This approach encourages literary critics to explore the nuanced ways in which literature and other cultural forms are influenced by, but also challenge, their economic foundations.

Autotelism and Resistance to Commodification in Literature
- Eagleton introduces the concept of Autotelism—the idea that literature and art, in asserting themselves as ends in themselves, resist the commodification that defines their economic context. He argues that literature, by claiming “to be its own end, ground, and raison d’être,” opposes the commodifying tendencies of capitalism (Eagleton, 235). This concept contributes to Aesthetic Theory and Marxist Criticism, offering a way to understand how literary texts can be politically resistant despite being produced within a commodified cultural economy.
Historical Materialism and Literary Theory
- Eagleton’s reaffirmation of Historical Materialism—the idea that material conditions shape history and culture—has significant implications for literary theory. He suggests that the study of literature must always consider the historical and material context of its production: “It is what we do which lies at the bottom of our language games” (Eagleton, 238). This grounding of literary criticism in material conditions aligns with Marxist Historicism, pushing literary theorists to interrogate the socio-economic contexts that give rise to particular literary forms and genres.
Criticism of Reductionism in Cultural Theories
- Eagleton critiques the reductionism often found in Culturalist Theories, which either sever culture from its material base or reduce culture entirely to an expression of economic conditions. He argues that culture is neither completely autonomous nor entirely determined by the base but operates within a dialectical relationship with it: “The point of a materialist criticism, then, is to bring to the artifact a kind of double optic” (Eagleton, 240). This dual perspective, where culture is understood both as a product of material conditions and as having a degree of independence, encourages more complex readings of literary texts in relation to their socio-economic contexts.

Superfluity and Culture as Surplus
- Eagleton’s idea that culture is a kind of “superfluity” or surplus to biological needs also contributes to Cultural and Literary Theory. He draws on Marx’s concept of surplus value to explain how culture, though not necessary for survival, is integral to human expression and civilization: “Culture is itself superfluity, that which is strictly surplus to biological need” (Eagleton, 237). This framing challenges literary theorists to consider the role of excess and surplus in cultural production, offering new ways to think about art and literature as both products of and reactions to material surplus.
Integration of Marxist Aesthetic Theory
- Eagleton’s essay integrates Marxist Aesthetic Theory into his analysis, particularly through the concept of art as a critique of its own conditions. He argues that art, in asserting its autonomy, becomes a form of critique against the utilitarianism of capitalism: “Autonomy frees you from being the hired hack of the rulers, allows art to become for the first time critique” (Eagleton, 235). This perspective contributes to literary theory by positioning art and literature as sites of resistance within a capitalist economy, thus encouraging scholars to explore the political potential of literary forms.

Examples of Critiques Through “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton
*Charles Dickens’ “Hard Times”*	Critique of Capitalism and Material Conditions: Dickens’ portrayal of the industrial town of Coketown reflects the harsh material conditions of the working class. Through Eagleton’s lens, Hard Times can be seen as exposing the contradictions of capitalism, where economic forces dominate human life. The novel depicts how the economic “base” shapes the moral and educational institutions (superstructure), but Dickens also critiques the inhumanity of the system through characters like Stephen Blackpool, highlighting how cultural responses (literature) can act as resistance to the commodification of life.
*James Joyce’s “A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man”*	Autonomy of Art and Culture: In Joyce’s novel, Stephen Dedalus’s pursuit of artistic independence mirrors Eagleton’s concept of cultural autonomy. Stephen’s journey away from family, religion, and nation can be interpreted through Eagleton’s idea of art asserting its autonomy from the superstructure. Stephen’s decision to live as an artist reflects the tension between economic/material pressures and cultural aspirations, where the artist seeks to escape commodification and the restrictions of the dominant ideologies of religion and nationalism.
*Toni Morrison’s “Beloved”*	Superstructure and Ideology in the Legacy of Slavery: Morrison’s Beloved reveals how the superstructure of the post-slavery American society continues to perpetuate ideological control over the African-American community. Through Eagleton’s framework, the novel critiques the material base of slavery and its lingering effects on culture and identity. The characters’ trauma represents the contradictions in the economic base of slavery that demanded the repression of black bodies and the shaping of cultural memories. The ghost of Beloved can be viewed as a manifestation of the unresolved social contradictions of this historical base-superstructure relationship.
*Virginia Woolf’s “To the Lighthouse”*	Art and Domestic Life under Capitalism: Woolf’s To the Lighthouse can be read through Eagleton’s analysis of how culture gains autonomy but remains tied to material conditions. The novel portrays the intricate dynamics of family life within the framework of early 20th-century capitalism. Mr. Ramsay’s concerns with intellectual and economic success reflect the pressures of the base, while Mrs. Ramsay’s nurturing role reveals how the superstructure of gender and domestic ideology is shaped by these economic realities. Through Woolf’s exploration of art (Lily Briscoe’s painting), we see the tension between art’s autonomous form and the material conditions of life, mirroring Eagleton’s concept of art resisting commodification while being grounded in the base.

Criticism Against “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton

Overemphasis on Economic Determinism
- While Eagleton critiques overly deterministic interpretations of the base-superstructure model, some critics might argue that his framework still places too much emphasis on the economic base as the primary determinant of cultural and ideological forms. This could lead to reductive readings of literature and culture, where complex cultural phenomena are overly simplified as reflections of economic conditions.

Limited Scope of Cultural Autonomy
- Eagleton’s claim that culture gains “relative autonomy” from the economic base may be criticized for not fully accounting for the true independence of cultural production. Some critics might argue that Eagleton’s view of autonomy is too constrained by Marxist orthodoxy, not allowing for a fuller recognition of how culture can operate independently of economic forces.
Neglect of Postmodernist Insights
- Eagleton’s dismissal of postmodernist skepticism toward power and ideology may be seen as overly harsh. Critics could argue that postmodernism offers valuable insights into the fragmentation of power and the multiplicity of cultural narratives, which Eagleton seems to downplay in favor of a more unified, Marxist view of cultural production.
Simplistic View of Superstructure Functions
- Eagleton’s approach to the superstructure, which he argues functions primarily to manage social contradictions in favor of the ruling class, may be viewed as reductive. Critics might claim that this overlooks the complexity and diversity of superstructural institutions, many of which may serve purposes beyond simply maintaining the status quo.

Lack of Engagement with Non-Western Perspectives
- Eagleton’s analysis, like much Marxist theory, tends to focus primarily on Western capitalist societies. Some critics may point out that his framework does not sufficiently engage with non-Western or postcolonial contexts, where the relationship between base and superstructure may operate differently due to different historical and material conditions.
Resistance to Post-Marxist Theories
- Eagleton’s insistence on the continued relevance of the base-superstructure model may be critiqued by those who favor post-Marxist or neo-Marxist theories, which incorporate more flexible, pluralistic approaches to culture and economics. Some might argue that Eagleton’s defense of the model is outdated in light of these more contemporary frameworks.
Potential for Ideological Dogmatism
- By maintaining a strong commitment to historical materialism, Eagleton runs the risk of promoting a somewhat dogmatic approach to literary and cultural criticism. Critics may argue that his reliance on Marxist categories limits the scope of analysis, potentially excluding alternative perspectives on culture that do not fit neatly into the base-superstructure dichotomy.

Underdeveloped Treatment of Aesthetic Experience
- Although Eagleton touches on the autonomy of art and culture, some critics may argue that his treatment of aesthetic experience and the role of art in society is underdeveloped. The focus on the political and economic aspects of culture may overlook the personal, emotional, and subjective dimensions of literary and artistic works.
Ambiguity in Defining Cultural Autonomy
- Eagleton’s concept of “relative autonomy” may be seen as ambiguous or vague, leading to confusion about the exact relationship between culture and material conditions. Some critics may argue that he does not provide a clear enough framework for determining how and when culture can resist or transcend economic forces.

Representative Quotations from “Base and Superstructure Revisited” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The base/superstructure model has something valuable to say…though this is nowadays a proportion smaller than those who believe in the Virgin Birth.”	Eagleton humorously acknowledges that the base-superstructure model is widely rejected in contemporary theory, but argues for its continued relevance. He critiques the dismissal of Marxist theory and calls for a more nuanced understanding of its contributions to analyzing culture and economics.
“Art becomes relatively autonomous of its material conditions precisely by being more firmly integrated into the economic.”	This paradoxical statement highlights Eagleton’s argument that culture gains autonomy by becoming deeply intertwined with the economic base. Art can critique its own conditions while still being economically produced, which is key to understanding culture under capitalism.
“Superstructures are necessary…because the productive activity to which these bodies give rise generates certain social contradictions.”	Here, Eagleton explains why superstructures exist in Marxist theory. They are not independent phenomena but arise from the contradictions within the economic base, helping to manage and maintain the stability of the ruling class’s interests.
“Only liberals or postmodernists can afford to be suspicious of power.”	Eagleton critiques postmodernist and liberal theorists for their abstract distrust of power, arguing that power is not inherently negative. He suggests that materialist thinkers must recognize the importance of power in shaping and sustaining cultural and social structures.
“One thing which only money can buy is of course socialism.”	This ironic statement underscores the necessity of advanced material conditions for establishing socialism. Eagleton draws on Marxist theory to argue that socialism cannot succeed without sufficient productive forces, which must be developed under capitalism.
“Culture is itself superfluity, that which is strictly surplus to biological need.”	Eagleton emphasizes that culture exists beyond mere survival needs, as something that exceeds material necessity. He argues that culture is a form of surplus, not required for basic biological functioning but essential for the richness of human life.
“A school forms part of the superstructure when it has its students salute the national flag, but not when it teaches them to tie their shoelaces.”	This quote exemplifies Eagleton’s view that not all functions of institutions are superstructural. Certain activities within institutions may serve ideological purposes, while others do not, highlighting the complexity of how the base and superstructure interact in specific contexts.
“The point of a materialist criticism, then, is to bring to the artifact a kind of double optic.”	Eagleton advocates for a materialist approach to cultural criticism that recognizes both the cultural artifact’s aesthetic value and its embeddedness in material conditions. This “double optic” involves examining how art is shaped by, and can resist, its economic context.
“Autonomy frees you from being the hired hack of the rulers, allows art to become for the first time critique.”	Eagleton discusses how the relative autonomy of art under capitalism allows it to act as a form of critique. By becoming less directly tied to state or elite control, art can offer resistance to dominant ideologies and critique the social conditions from which it emerges.
“The economic is certainly foundational in the sense that it is what most men and women, most of the time, have had to concern themselves with.”	Eagleton reinforces the Marxist argument that the economic base is foundational to human life. He asserts that material concerns have historically dominated human activity, influencing the superstructure and shaping social and cultural institutions.

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