September 24, 2024 - English Studies

“Power” by Audre Lorde: A Critical Analysis

“Power” by Audre Lorde, first appeared in 1978 in the collection A Soldier’s Blue, is characterized by its raw, passionate exploration of identity, power dynamics, and the interconnectedness of oppression.

Introduction: “Power” by Audre Lorde

“Power” by Audre Lorde, first appeared in 1978 in the collection A Soldier’s Blue, is characterized by its raw, passionate exploration of identity, power dynamics, and the interconnectedness of oppression. Lorde uses vivid imagery and powerful language to convey her experiences as a Black woman, challenging societal norms and demanding recognition of her marginalized voice. The central theme of the poem is the importance of reclaiming power as a marginalized individual, recognizing one’s own strength, and using that power to dismantle systems of oppression.

Text: “Power” by Audre Lorde

The difference between poetry and rhetoric

is being ready to kill

yourself

instead of your children.

I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds

and a dead child dragging his shattered black

face off the edge of my sleep

blood from his punctured cheeks and shoulders

is the only liquid for miles

and my stomach

churns at the imagined taste while

my mouth splits into dry lips

without loyalty or reason

thirsting for the wetness of his blood

as it sinks into the whiteness

of the desert where I am lost

without imagery or magic

trying to make power out of hatred and destruction

trying to heal my dying son with kisses

only the sun will bleach his bones quicker.

A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens

stood over the boy with his cop shoes in childish blood

and a voice said “Die you little motherfucker” and

there are tapes to prove it. At his trial

this policeman said in his own defense

“I didn’t notice the size nor nothing else

only the color”. And

there are tapes to prove that, too.

Today that 37 year old white man

with 13 years of police forcing

was set free

by eleven white men who said they were satisfied

justice had been done

and one Black Woman who said

“They convinced me” meaning

they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame

over the hot coals

of four centuries of white male approval

until she let go

the first real power she ever had

and lined her own womb with cement

to make a graveyard for our children.

I have not been able to touch the destruction

within me.

But unless I learn to use

the difference between poetry and rhetoric

my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold

or lie limp and useless as an unconnected wire

and one day I will take my teenaged plug

and connect it to the nearest socket

raping an 85 year old white woman

who is somebody’s mother

and as I beat her senseless and set a torch to her bed

a greek chorus will be singing in 3/4 time

“Poor thing. She never hurt a soul. What beasts they are.”

Annotations: “Power” by Audre Lorde

Lines	Annotation
The difference between poetry and rhetoric	A comparison of two forms of communication: poetry, often associated with emotion and imagination, and rhetoric, often associated with persuasion and logic.
is being ready to kill	Suggests a fundamental difference between the two: poetry often involves personal sacrifice and vulnerability, while rhetoric can be used for manipulation or control.
yourself	Implies a willingness to confront one’s own pain and limitations.
instead of your children.	Highlights the destructive nature of violence and the importance of protecting the next generation.
I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds	Metaphorical representation of the traumatic experiences faced by marginalized communities.
and a dead child dragging his shattered black	Emphasizes the devastating impact of violence on children, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds.
face off the edge of my sleep	Suggests the haunting nature of trauma, which can intrude even into dreams.
blood from his punctured cheeks and shoulders	A graphic depiction of the violence inflicted on the child.
is the only liquid for miles	Highlights the isolation and desolation experienced in the face of trauma.
and my stomach	Suggests the physical and emotional toll of witnessing such violence.
churns at the imagined taste	Implies a perverse desire for revenge or retribution.
while	Contrasts the desire for revenge with the speaker’s own vulnerability and pain.
my mouth splits into dry lips	A physical manifestation of emotional distress and a loss of compassion.
without loyalty or reason	Indicates a state of desperation and a willingness to abandon moral principles.
thirsting for the wetness of his blood	A disturbing image that suggests a desire for violence and a loss of humanity.
as it sinks into the whiteness	Highlights the racial dynamics of the situation and the contrast between the victim’s dark skin and the desolate landscape.
of the desert where I am lost	Symbolizes the speaker’s feeling of being adrift and without direction in a world marked by injustice.
without imagery or magic	Suggests a loss of hope and a reliance on more primal instincts.
trying to make power out of hatred and destruction	Acknowledges the destructive nature of seeking power through violence and hatred.
trying to heal my dying son with kisses	A futile attempt to alleviate suffering and a reminder of the limitations of love in the face of overwhelming violence.
only the sun will bleach his bones quicker.	A bleak outlook on the future and a recognition of the inevitability of death.
A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens	Introduces a real-world example of police brutality and racial injustice.
stood over the boy with his cop shoes in childish blood	A graphic image that highlights the callousness and cruelty of the perpetrator.
and a voice said “Die you little motherfucker” and	A shocking example of the hatred and contempt displayed by the police officer.
there are tapes to prove it.	Emphasizes the evidence supporting the accusations against the police officer.
At his trial	Introduces the legal proceedings related to the incident.
this policeman said in his own defense	Highlights the perpetrator’s attempt to justify his actions.
“I didn’t notice the size nor nothing else	Reveals the police officer’s racist indifference and his inability to recognize the humanity of the child.
only the color”. And	Further emphasizes the racial bias underlying the crime.
there are tapes to prove that, too.	Reinforces the evidence against the police officer.
Today that 37 year old white man	Introduces the outcome of the trial.
with 13 years of police forcing	Highlights the perpetrator’s history of violence and abuse of power.
was set free	Indicates the unjust nature of the verdict.
by eleven white men who said they were satisfied	Reveals the racial bias of the jury and their failure to uphold justice.
justice had been done	A sarcastic statement that highlights the injustice of the verdict.
and one Black Woman who said	Introduces a dissenting voice among the jurors.
“They convinced me” meaning	Explains the Black woman’s capitulation to societal pressures and her internalized racism.
they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame	A metaphor for the psychological and emotional pressure exerted on the Black woman.
over the hot coals	Represents the historical and systemic racism that has shaped her worldview.
of four centuries of white male approval	Highlights the oppressive nature of white patriarchal power.
until she let go	Suggests a moment of surrender and a loss of agency.
the first real power she ever had	Ironically, the Black woman’s “power” is ultimately revealed to be a self-destructive force.
and lined her own womb with cement	A disturbing image that symbolizes the speaker’s loss of hope for the future and her willingness to sacrifice her own fertility.
to make a graveyard for our children.	A bleak outlook on the future and a recognition of the devastating consequences of systemic injustice.
I have not been able to touch the destruction	Acknowledges the speaker’s own internalized pain and the difficulty of confronting it.
within me.	Emphasizes the personal nature of trauma and its impact on the individual.
But unless I learn to use	Suggests the need for personal transformation and a new approach to dealing with injustice.
the difference between poetry and rhetoric	Returns to the central theme of the poem and emphasizes the importance of using language and communication in a constructive and empowering way.
my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold	Warns of the dangers of unchecked power and the potential for it to become destructive.
or lie limp and useless as an unconnected wire	Suggests the need for agency and action to effect change.
and one day I will take my teenaged plug	A disturbing image that suggests a potential for violence and self-destruction.
and connect it to the nearest socket	A metaphor for the speaker’s desire to lash out and inflict pain on others.
raping an 85 year old white woman	A shocking and disturbing image that highlights the potential for violence to be cyclical and indiscriminate.
who is somebody’s mother	Emphasizes the humanity of the victim and the devastating impact of violence on families.
and as I beat her senseless and set a torch to her bed	A graphic depiction of the violence that the speaker imagines committing.
a greek chorus will be singing in 3/4 time	A satirical reference to the hypocrisy and complacency of society.
“Poor thing. She never hurt a soul. What beasts they are.”	Quotes the likely response of society, which would condemn the violence while ignoring the underlying causes.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Power” by Audre Lorde

Literary Device	Definition	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.	“bleach his bones”	The repetition of the “b” sound creates a harsh tone, emphasizing the brutality of the situation.
Allusion	Reference to a well-known person, place, or event.	“a greek chorus will be singing”	Alludes to Greek tragedy, highlighting the collective societal judgment and commentary on violence.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines.	“And there are tapes to prove it”	This repetition emphasizes the stark reality and the irrefutable evidence of racism and injustice.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“cop shoes in childish blood”	The repetition of the “o” sound creates a somber, reflective tone.
Caesura	A pause or break within a line of poetry.	“I have not been able to touch the destruction within me.”	The pause adds emotional weight, showing the speaker’s struggle to confront inner turmoil.
Connotation	The implied or associative meaning of a word beyond its literal definition.	“justice had been done”	The word “justice” is used ironically, as the outcome is far from just.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line.	“without loyalty or reason / thirsting for the wetness of his blood”	The enjambment reflects the speaker’s relentless flow of thoughts, enhancing tension.
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements for effect.	“my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold”	The exaggeration highlights the speaker’s fear of her own potential for destructive power.
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.	“blood from his punctured cheeks and shoulders”	The vivid, graphic imagery immerses the reader in the physical and emotional violence of the scene.
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.	“justice had been done”	The statement is ironic because justice has clearly not been served, reflecting systemic racism.
Juxtaposition	Placing two elements close together for contrasting effect.	“A policeman who shot down a ten year old” vs. “a greek chorus will be singing”	The contrast between modern violence and ancient tragedy highlights the timelessness of injustice.
Metaphor	A direct comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“my mouth splits into dry lips without loyalty or reason”	The speaker’s mouth is metaphorically “splitting,” suggesting a loss of control and coherence.
Metonymy	A figure of speech where a related concept represents something else.	“whiteness of the desert”	“Whiteness” symbolizes both the literal desert and systemic oppression.
Oxymoron	A figure of speech in which contradictory terms appear together.	“dry lips thirsting”	The contrast between “dry” and “thirsting” intensifies the speaker’s desperation and need.
Personification	Attributing human qualities to non-human entities.	“the sun will bleach his bones quicker”	The sun is personified, as if it actively speeds up the process of death and decay.
Repetition	The intentional reuse of a word or phrase for emphasis.	“And there are tapes to prove it.”	Repetition here reinforces the undeniable evidence of police violence and racism.
Simile	A comparison using “like” or “as.”	“my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold”	The comparison of power to mold suggests it can become dangerous if not controlled.
Symbolism	Use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	“lined her own womb with cement”	The “cement” symbolizes emotional and spiritual numbness, illustrating the woman’s surrender.
Synecdoche	A figure of speech in which a part represents the whole.	“cop shoes in childish blood”	“Cop shoes” represent the entire oppressive police force, focusing on the object as a symbol of authority.
Tone	The attitude or feeling expressed in the poem.	Overall tone: angry, mournful, and accusatory	The tone expresses anger toward injustice, sorrow for lost lives, and accusation against systemic oppression.

Themes: “Power” by Audre Lorde

Racial Injustice and Systemic Oppression: The poem highlights the pervasive nature of racial injustice, particularly through the example of a white policeman killing a young Black boy. The line, “only the color” refers to the officer’s defense, revealing the deep-seated racism that leads to the boy’s death. The trial scene, where “eleven white men” declare justice while a single Black woman is coerced into agreeing, underscores how the legal system is built to protect white power and maintain racial oppression.

The Corruption of Power: Power, in the poem, is portrayed as a corrupting force. The speaker expresses fear that without understanding “the difference between poetry and rhetoric,” her own power may “run corrupt as poisonous mold.” This metaphor suggests that unchecked power, especially when fueled by anger and hatred, can become dangerous and destructive, not only for individuals but for society as a whole. Lorde explores how power, if misused, can lead to violence and moral decay.
The Trauma of Violence: The poem vividly illustrates the emotional and psychological impact of violence, particularly on Black bodies and communities. The haunting image of “a dead child dragging his shattered black face off the edge of my sleep” conveys the ongoing trauma of witnessing or experiencing racial violence. This recurring nightmare reveals how violence leaves deep scars on the psyche, symbolizing the collective trauma of Black people in a world that dehumanizes and brutalizes them.
Moral Dilemma and Personal Responsibility: Lorde presents a complex moral struggle, particularly in the speaker’s contemplation of how to channel her anger and power. The speaker fears becoming consumed by hatred, as seen in the disturbing hypothetical scenario where she imagines committing violence against an innocent white woman. This moment reflects the internal conflict between retaliating against the systemic forces of oppression and preserving one’s humanity. The poem wrestles with the question of how to use power responsibly in the face of profound injustice.

Literary Theories and “Power” by Audre Lorde

Literary Theory	Application to “Power”	References
Feminist Theory	Lorde’s poem addresses issues of gender, race, and class oppression. It critiques patriarchal structures and the ways in which women, particularly Black women, are marginalized and denied power.	“I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds” (lines 5-6), “A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens” (lines 19-20), “Today that 37 year old white man…was set free by eleven white men” (lines 23-25)
Postcolonial Theory	The poem explores the lasting effects of colonialism and imperialism on marginalized communities. It highlights the violence and exploitation experienced by people of color, particularly those living in the diaspora.	“A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens” (lines 19-20), “they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame over the hot coals of four centuries of white male approval” (lines 33-34)
Queer Theory	While not explicitly queer, the poem can be interpreted through a queer lens, as it challenges traditional notions of gender and sexuality. Lorde’s exploration of identity and power can be seen as a critique of heteronormative and patriarchal structures.	“The difference between poetry and rhetoric” (lines 1-2), “I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds” (lines 5-6)

Critical Questions about “Power” by Audre Lorde

· How does Lorde use imagery and symbolism to convey the devastating impact of violence and oppression on marginalized communities?

Lorde employs powerful imagery and symbolism throughout “Power” to depict the devastating effects of violence and oppression on marginalized communities. She compares her experiences to a “desert of raw gunshot wounds” (lines 5-6), symbolizing the barren and desolate landscape created by trauma. The image of a “dead child dragging his shattered black face off the edge of my sleep” (lines 6-7) is particularly haunting, suggesting the persistent nature of trauma and its intrusion into even the most intimate moments of rest. These vivid images serve to highlight the emotional and psychological toll of violence on individuals and communities.

· How does Lorde explore the relationship between power, race, and gender in the poem?

Lorde’s poem interrogates the complex interplay between power, race, and gender. She demonstrates how these factors intersect to create systemic oppression and marginalization. The poem highlights the ways in which white men wield power to control and exploit women of color. For example, the trial of the policeman who shot the ten-year-old boy reveals the racial bias of the justice system, as the white man is acquitted despite overwhelming evidence. Additionally, the Black woman juror’s capitulation to societal pressures underscores the internalized racism that can limit the agency and power of marginalized individuals.

· What is the significance of the speaker’s exploration of her own internalized violence and the potential for self-destruction?

The speaker’s exploration of her own internalized violence and the potential for self-destruction is a crucial element of the poem. By acknowledging her own capacity for cruelty and aggression, Lorde highlights the ways in which trauma can lead to a cycle of violence. This self-reflection serves as a warning against the destructive nature of unchecked anger and hatred. It also suggests the importance of healing and addressing internalized trauma in order to break free from the cycle of violence.

· How does Lorde’s use of language and poetic form contribute to the overall impact of the poem?

Lorde’s use of language and poetic form is integral to the poem’s power and impact. Her language is direct, raw, and emotionally charged, reflecting the intensity of the experiences she describes. The poem’s free verse form allows for a flexible and expressive structure, enabling Lorde to shift between narrative, reflection, and emotional outbursts. This combination of direct language and poetic form creates a powerful and visceral experience for the reader, immersing them in the world of the poem and highlighting the urgency of the issues addressed.

Literary Works Similar to “Power” by Audre Lorde

“The Ballad of Birmingham” by Dudley Randall: Both poems address racial violence and the senseless killing of Black children, with Randall focusing on the bombing of a church in Birmingham, Alabama, during the Civil Rights Movement.
“We Real Cool” by Gwendolyn Brooks: Like Power, this poem reflects on the struggles of Black youth and the dangers they face in a society that marginalizes them, capturing the fragility of Black lives.
“A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay: Gay’s poem, similar to Lorde’s, confronts the killing of Black men, using the story of Eric Garner to explore themes of racial injustice and the dehumanization of Black bodies.

“Incident” by Countee Cullen: This poem, like Lorde’s, addresses a racially charged incident that has a lasting emotional impact, depicting how a simple act of racism can leave a deep scar on a child’s psyche.
“Strange Fruit” by Abel Meeropol (popularized by Billie Holiday): Both poems use powerful imagery to depict racial violence and lynching in America, focusing on the brutality inflicted on Black bodies and the legacy of hatred in society.

Representative Quotations of “Power” by Audre Lorde

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“The difference between poetry and rhetoric is being ready to kill yourself instead of your children.”	The speaker compares poetry and rhetoric, suggesting that poetry involves personal sacrifice and vulnerability, while rhetoric can be used for manipulation or control.	Feminist Theory: This quotation highlights the importance of personal empowerment and the dangers of using power to oppress others.
“I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds and a dead child dragging his shattered black face off the edge of my sleep”	The speaker describes the traumatic experiences faced by marginalized communities.	Postcolonial Theory: This quotation reflects the violence and exploitation experienced by people of color, particularly those living in the diaspora.
“trying to make power out of hatred and destruction”	The speaker acknowledges the destructive nature of seeking power through violence and hatred.	Feminist Theory: This quotation critiques the ways in which power is often achieved through oppressive means.
“A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens”	The poem introduces a real-world example of police brutality and racial injustice.	Postcolonial Theory: This quotation highlights the systemic racism and violence faced by marginalized communities.
““I didn’t notice the size nor nothing else only the color””	The police officer’s statement reveals his racist indifference and his inability to recognize the humanity of the child.	Queer Theory: This quotation challenges traditional notions of gender and sexuality, as it suggests that the police officer’s violence was motivated by a narrow and discriminatory view of masculinity.
“Today that 37 year old white man…was set free by eleven white men who said they were satisfied justice had been done”	The poem highlights the racial bias of the justice system and the failure to uphold justice.	Feminist Theory: This quotation critiques the ways in which patriarchal structures perpetuate inequality and injustice.
“they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame over the hot coals of four centuries of white male approval”	The speaker describes the psychological and emotional pressure exerted on the Black woman.	Postcolonial Theory: This quotation highlights the historical and systemic racism that has shaped the experiences of marginalized communities.
“I have not been able to touch the destruction within me”	The speaker acknowledges the internalized pain and trauma experienced by marginalized individuals.	Feminist Theory: This quotation explores the ways in which oppression can lead to self-destructive tendencies.
“But unless I learn to use the difference between poetry and rhetoric”	The speaker suggests the need for personal transformation and a new approach to dealing with injustice.	Queer Theory: This quotation challenges traditional notions of communication and suggests the importance of using language in a way that is inclusive and empowering.
“and one day I will take my teenaged plug and connect it to the nearest socket”	The speaker’s disturbing image suggests a potential for violence and self-destruction.	Feminist Theory: This quotation highlights the ways in which trauma can lead to a cycle of violence.

“The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

“The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1982 in the New Left Review journal, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its provocative exploration of the decline of literary criticism in the late 20th century. Eagleton, a renowned literary theorist and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford, argues that criticism has become increasingly marginalized and irrelevant in a postmodern era dominated by consumerism and cultural relativism. His essay challenges the prevailing assumptions about the role of criticism and offers a provocative vision for its future.

Summary of “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

The Dilemma of Socialist Literature Teaching

Teaching Literature as Politically Relevant: Eagleton questions the political relevance of teaching literature during global capitalist crises, as most literature teachers did not choose their subject for political reasons but because of enjoyment.

Two Traditions in Socialist Thought on Literature: There are two traditions in socialist thought regarding literature:
- Humanistic/Utopian: This tradition, including figures like Marx, Engels, and Adorno, argues that literature is relevant because it can restore creative capacities oppressed by capitalism.
- Negative Hermeneutics: The second tradition, including critics like Plekhanov and Macherey, sees literature as a tool to demystify ideological contradictions.

The Challenge of Combining Both Traditions

Difficulty in Combining Positive and Negative Approaches: While theoretically possible, Eagleton explains that combining the two traditions in practice seems forced. If the goal is to demystify ideology, it seems odd to choose literature over more immediate forms of ideological discourse like advertisements or political speeches.

Questioning the Political Role of Literature

Literature’s Political Defense is Flawed: Eagleton suggests that defending literature politically is increasingly challenging, as literature appears disconnected from the lives of most people. This disconnection calls into question whether literature can genuinely serve as a vehicle for political transformation.

Redefining the Role of Literary Criticism

From Literature to Cultural Studies: Eagleton advocates for a shift from the traditional study of literature to a broader concept of “cultural studies,” which would include the analysis of ideologies, feminism, discourse, and media such as film and psychoanalysis. This shift acknowledges that literature is only one part of a broader cultural and ideological framework.
- Quotation: “Literature is the sign for that space because at the moment we have no other term: ‘cultural studies’ is certainly better.”

The Crisis of Literary Studies

Literary Studies as a Non-Subject: Eagleton argues that literary studies do not have a unified method or object. The variety of methods, from biographical analysis to linguistic techniques, reveals the lack of coherence in the field.
- Quotation: “Methodologically speaking, literary studies are a non-subject.”
Philology vs. Humanism: Literary studies have historically been split between the rigorous analysis of texts (philology) and the broader humanistic approach inherited from figures like Arnold and Leavis, leading to an ideological conflict within the discipline.

The Failure of Positivism in Literary Criticism

Positivism and Humanism in Literary Criticism: Literary criticism has often tried to blend empiricism with idealism. Figures like Leavis, Frye, and New Critics sought to marry rigorous analysis with humanistic values, though this approach ultimately led to contradictions and a crisis within the field.

The Illusion of Literary Unity

No Unity in Object or Method: Eagleton argues that there is no stable object (i.e., “literature”) or method that unites literary studies. What defines literature is often subjective, based on arbitrary decisions about what is “well written” or “valuable.”
- Quotation: “The unity of the object is every bit as illusory as the unity of the method.”

The Political End of Literary Criticism

Rhetoric as a Replacement for Literary Criticism: Eagleton proposes replacing literary criticism with the study of rhetoric, defined as the analysis of how discourse produces effects in the social and ideological realm. This shift aligns criticism with political goals, analyzing all forms of discourse, from bus tickets to TV advertisements.
- Quotation: “Our present aim should be to abolish ‘literary criticism’ and revive rhetoric in its place.”
Rhetoric as a Tool for Political Transformation: For Eagleton, the ultimate purpose of studying discourse is to understand and challenge its role in maintaining power structures, contributing to the broader goal of political transformation.

Conclusion: Political Transformation Through Discourse

Literature’s Role in Ideological Critique: Eagleton suggests that instead of viewing literary criticism as an isolated practice, it should be incorporated into broader political critique. The study of discourse, whether literary or otherwise, should focus on its political and ideological effects, with the aim of contributing to revolutionary culture.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation
Humanistic/Utopian Tradition	A tradition in socialist thought that views literature as politically relevant because it can help restore creative capacities oppressed by capitalism.
Negative Hermeneutics	A critical approach that uses literature to expose and demystify ideological contradictions, viewing literature as a tool for ideological critique.
Demystification	The process of revealing and critiquing hidden ideologies within cultural products (like literature) that support capitalist or bourgeois society.
Philology	The study of texts through linguistic, historical, and textual criticism, often seen as a more rigorous, technical, and professional approach to literature.
Bourgeois Humanism	A tradition in literary studies, particularly associated with figures like Arnold and Leavis, emphasizing the humanistic and moral dimensions of literature.
Positivism	An empirical approach that seeks to apply scientific methods to literary criticism, aiming for objective and systematic analysis.
Rhetoric	Eagleton advocates for reviving rhetoric, the study of how discourse (any form of communication) produces effects, linking it to the analysis of power and ideology.
Discourse	Broadly refers to any form of communication (literature, film, advertisements, etc.), focusing on its ideological effects and the ways it constructs social relations.
Cultural Studies	A proposed replacement for traditional literary studies, encompassing a broader analysis of cultural practices, ideologies, and discourses beyond just literature.
Ideology Critique	The analysis of how cultural products, including literature, reinforce or challenge dominant ideologies, often used in Marxist criticism.
Liberal Humanism	A tradition in literary criticism focused on the moral, ethical, and humanizing effects of literature, often criticized for its idealistic or abstract approach to literature.
Structuralism	A theoretical approach that analyzes cultural phenomena (including literature) through the underlying structures and systems (such as language or signs) that shape them.
Signifying Practices	Refers to the ways in which signs, symbols, and discourses create meaning within cultural and ideological contexts.
Performative	A term from speech act theory (introduced by Austin), focusing on how discourse not only describes the world but also acts to produce effects in the world.

Contribution of “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Critique of Traditional Literary Studies

Challenges the Unity of Literary Studies: Eagleton argues that literary studies lack a coherent method or object, making them a “non-subject” in academic discourse.
- Quotation: “Methodologically speaking, literary studies are a non-subject.”
Questions the Relevance of Literature in Ideological Critique: Eagleton critiques the idea that literature, especially “high” literature, is the best tool for ideological critique in a capitalist society.
- Quotation: “Why lay bare the operations of ideology in D. H. Lawrence rather than in television advertisements, women’s magazines, and John Locke?”

Shift from Literature to Cultural Studies

Proposes Expanding Literary Criticism into Cultural Studies: Eagleton suggests broadening the field to encompass other signifying practices like film, advertisements, and everyday life, calling for a shift to “cultural studies.”
- Quotation: “‘Literature’ is the sign for that space because at the moment we have no other term: ‘cultural studies’ is certainly better.”

Revival of Rhetoric as a Critical Tool

Advocates for the Return of Rhetoric: Eagleton calls for the revival of rhetoric, not just as the study of literary devices but as an analysis of how any discourse produces social and ideological effects.
- Quotation: “Our present aim should be to abolish ‘literary criticism’ and revive rhetoric in its place.”

Politicization of Literary Criticism

Promotes Politically Engaged Criticism: Eagleton emphasizes the need for literary criticism to be explicitly political, aligning itself with broader social and revolutionary goals.
- Quotation: “It is a unity not of discourses or objects but of intentional practices… It is a question, not of what we do to ‘literature’ or what ‘literature’ does to us, but of what all this doing is for in the first place.”

Criticism of Humanist and Positivist Approaches

Critiques the Humanist and Positivist Blending in Literary Criticism: Eagleton critiques the hybrid of idealism and positivism found in much of modern literary criticism, particularly in the works of figures like Leavis and Frye.
- Quotation: “Leavis and Richards yoked the distressing vagueness of Arnoldian humanism to the thorough business of technical analysis.”

Destabilization of the Literary Canon

Questions the Definition of “Literature” as a Distinct Object: Eagleton destabilizes the idea of literature as a unified, inherently valuable object, arguing that the categorization of literature is socially and ideologically constructed.
- Quotation: “You have a choice between maintaining the increasingly implausible thesis that there is indeed an inherently definable object named Literature… or of frankly conceding that they have something in common because you and your friends have decided that they do.”

Pluralistic Approach to Discourse Analysis

Advocates for Methodological Pluralism in Criticism: Eagleton promotes a pluralistic approach to the study of discourse, allowing for various methods as long as they contribute to the political goal of ideological critique.
- Quotation: “Rhetorical critics are unashamed pluralists: anything which contributes to the goal of political transformation is acceptable.”

Examples of Critiques Through “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s Framework
D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers	Critique through Negative Hermeneutics: Instead of focusing on its literary qualities, Eagleton would argue for using Sons and Lovers to reveal the ideological contradictions in Lawrence’s representation of family and individual desire. This novel could be seen as crystallizing middle-class anxieties around sexuality and social mobility under capitalism. Quotation: “Why lay bare the operations of ideology in D. H. Lawrence rather than in television advertisements, women’s magazines, and John Locke?”
William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and Experience	Critique through Utopian-Humanistic Tradition: Blake’s poetry, particularly in Songs of Innocence and Experience, could be analyzed as an expression of the human spirit’s creative potential, oppressed by industrial capitalism. Eagleton would likely see value in Blake’s visionary literature for restoring awareness of human capacities that capitalism represses. Quotation: “Literature is politically relevant because it can restore to us that sense of creative capacities repressed by capitalism and realisable under socialism.”
Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice	Cultural Critique and Rhetoric: Through Eagleton’s framework, Pride and Prejudice could be critiqued not only for its subtle social critique but for its role in reinforcing class ideologies and bourgeois morality. The novel’s discourse on marriage and class mobility can be analyzed as a reflection of how literature produces and sustains bourgeois ideology. Quotation: “Our present aim should be to abolish ‘literary criticism’ and revive rhetoric in its place. By rhetoric, I mean the study of the ways in which any discourse whatsoever produces its effects.”
James Joyce’s Ulysses	Destabilization of the Literary Canon: Eagleton would critique Ulysses not for its modernist innovations but for how literary critics and institutions have canonized it as a symbol of high culture, reinforcing elitist distinctions between “literature” and other cultural forms. Joyce’s work, though experimental, does not inherently possess more value than other forms of discourse like advertisements or films. Quotation: “You have a choice between maintaining the increasingly implausible thesis that there is indeed an inherently definable object named Literature… or of frankly conceding that they have something in common because you and your friends have decided that they do.”

Criticism Against “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Overemphasis on Political Criticism

Reduction of Literature to Ideology: Critics argue that Eagleton reduces all literary value to its political and ideological functions, ignoring aesthetic, emotional, or philosophical aspects of literature that might transcend political contexts.
- Counterpoint: By focusing solely on political engagement, the richness and diversity of literary experiences are overlooked.

Dismissal of Aesthetic and Humanistic Values

Neglect of Aesthetic Appreciation: Eagleton’s critique dismisses the idea that literature can be appreciated purely for its artistic or humanistic qualities, such as beauty, emotional resonance, or exploration of universal themes.
- Counterpoint: Critics argue that literature offers more than political utility, and limiting it to that role undermines its broader cultural and artistic contributions.

Undermining the Literary Canon

Destabilizing the Canon is Problematic: By challenging the very concept of a “literary canon,” Eagleton opens the door to a relativistic view where the distinction between high literature and other forms of discourse, such as advertisements, becomes blurry.
- Counterpoint: This could lead to the devaluation of literary studies and weaken the defense of literature as an important cultural practice.

Excessive Pluralism in Methodology

Lack of Rigor in Pluralistic Approach: Eagleton’s call for methodological pluralism, where any approach that serves political transformation is valid, can be criticized for lacking academic rigor or coherence.
- Counterpoint: The absence of a unified method might lead to an incoherent or fragmented field of study, reducing the legitimacy of literary criticism as an academic discipline.

Marginalization of Traditional Literary Scholarship

Rejection of Traditional Scholarship: Eagleton’s critique marginalizes traditional literary scholarship (such as philology, textual criticism, and close reading), which has been fundamental to the field. This dismissal undermines centuries of academic work and critical analysis.
- Counterpoint: Critics argue that traditional methods have value in understanding texts, their historical context, and their formal properties, even outside political dimensions.

Idealism in the Call for Revolutionary Culture

Utopian Call for Revolutionary Culture: Eagleton’s call for literary studies to contribute to the creation of revolutionary culture may be seen as overly idealistic or impractical, especially in contemporary academic institutions.
- Counterpoint: This focus on revolutionary culture might alienate scholars who are not politically radical or aligned with socialist ideology.

Limited Scope in Defining Discourse

Narrow Definition of Discourse: Eagleton’s expansion of discourse to include all cultural texts (e.g., advertisements, bus tickets) risks trivializing the study of literature by treating it as one among many discourses, without acknowledging its unique characteristics or impact.
- Counterpoint: By equating literature with other discourses, Eagleton potentially minimizes the distinctive role that literature has played in shaping cultural, philosophical, and artistic thought.

Representative Quotations from “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Literary studies are a non-subject.”	Eagleton critiques the lack of a unified method or coherent subject in literary studies, arguing that the field is fragmented and inconsistent in its methodologies and objectives.
“Literature is politically relevant because it can restore to us that sense of creative capacities repressed by capitalism.”	This quotation reflects the utopian-humanistic tradition in socialist thought, where literature is seen as having the potential to reawaken human creativity, which is otherwise suppressed under capitalist systems.
“Why lay bare the operations of ideology in D. H. Lawrence rather than in television advertisements, women’s magazines, and John Locke?”	Eagleton questions why literature, particularly high literature, is chosen as the primary tool for demystifying ideology when other cultural forms, such as advertisements or popular media, may have a more direct impact on people’s lives.
“Our present aim should be to abolish ‘literary criticism’ and revive rhetoric in its place.”	Eagleton advocates for a shift from traditional literary criticism to the study of rhetoric, which he defines as analyzing how any form of discourse produces its effects, including ideological and social influences.
“The unity of the object is every bit as illusory as the unity of the method.”	Here, Eagleton critiques the notion that literature is a stable and unified object of study, arguing that the definition of “literature” is arbitrary and ideologically constructed, just as there is no singular method that governs its study.
“Rhetorical critics are unashamed pluralists: anything which contributes to the goal of political transformation is acceptable.”	Eagleton promotes a pluralistic approach to criticism, arguing that any method or discourse that aids in political transformation is valid, rejecting the idea that literary criticism must adhere to strict or traditional methods.
“Socialism is moral or it is nothing.”	Eagleton emphasizes that the core of socialism, and by extension socialist literary criticism, is moral in nature. It is motivated by the ethical objection to the exploitation and degradation of human lives under capitalist systems.
“You have a choice between maintaining the increasingly implausible thesis that there is indeed an inherently definable object named Literature… or of frankly conceding that they have something in common because you and your friends have decided that they do.”	Eagleton critiques the arbitrary nature of literary canon formation, suggesting that what counts as “literature” is not an inherent quality of texts but a decision made by those in positions of cultural power.
“It is a unity not of discourses or objects but of intentional practices.”	Eagleton argues that the “unity” of literary studies should not be found in methods or objects (i.e., literary texts), but in the political intentions and practices of those who engage with the discipline.
“The study of what has traditionally been called literature will not of course merely dissolve within this new space.”	Although Eagleton calls for a shift towards cultural studies and rhetoric, he acknowledges that the study of traditional literature will not disappear entirely but will become one part of a broader, more inclusive field focused on cultural critique.

“Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Marx, Freud, and Morality” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in New Blackfriars in January 1977, has become a cornerstone in the fields of literature and literary theory.

Introduction: “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

“Marx, Freud, and Morality” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in New Blackfriars in January 1977, has become a cornerstone in the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s exploration of the interplay between Marxist and Freudian thought offers a profound understanding of how these intellectual frameworks can illuminate the complexities of human morality and behavior.

Summary of “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Marxism and Morality

Eagleton argues that Marxism, focused on changing material conditions, has little to say about morality. True morality emerges after a revolution, when the ideological constraints of the old order are overcome.
- Quotation: “Until that condition is fulfilled, our ‘moral’ discourse is bound to remain imprisoned within the ideological.”

Marxism Needs Psychoanalysis

Marxism lacks a theory of how individuals become subjects, which Eagleton suggests can be provided by psychoanalysis.
- Quotation: “The science of psychoanalysis is the science of how historical individuals come to be constituted as subjects.”

Freud’s Pessimistic Rationalism

Freud’s outlook is bleak. Humans are driven by conflicting desires and have little hope for true happiness.
- Quotation: “The message of Freud’s work, then, is clear: we just aren’t going to make it.”

The Limits of Human Subjects

Becoming a subject involves repressing the unconscious, creating a permanent tension within us and making true knowledge and complete fulfillment impossible.
- Quotation: “The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”

Subjects and Social Formations

Social formations create subjects who are unaware of the forces shaping them. This “misrecognition” is necessary for the social order to function.
- Quotation: “The social formation has its reasons, of which the subject knows nothing.”

Language and Desire

Language is a system of differences and absences. As we speak, we are driven by a desire to fill the gaps and find meaning, but this is ultimately unachievable.
- Quotation: “To speak is to lack: and it’s in this lack that the movement of desire is set up.”

The Unconscious Speaks Through Us

The Freudian concept of the “parapraxis” (Freudian slip) reveals that the unconscious constantly disrupts our conscious attempts to control language.
- Quotation: “When, in a sentence, I refer to myself as ‘I’, when I make use of the personal pronoun, the ‘I’ I refer to is the coherent subject Terry Eagleton; but the ‘I’ which speaks that ‘I’, that coherent subject, has no such coherence.”

The Subject and the Social Formation

Both subjects and social formations are constituted by forces they are unaware of.
- Quotation: “The unconscious has its reasons of which the subject knows nothing, and the same is true about the subject in relation to the social formation.”

A Tragic Scenario

Both Marxism and Freudianism paint a tragic picture of the human condition. We are limited by our unconscious desires and the structures that shape us.
- Quotation: “The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”

The Foolishness of Love

Freud’s view of love as limited by human nature contrasts with the Christian message to “love thy neighbor as thyself.”
- Quotation: “Given the way human beings are-and I mean the way they are through their material insertion into language, not the way they are for certain transitional historical reasons-the gospel makes very little sense.”

Marxism vs. The Gospel

While Marxism can improve material lives, it offers no solution to the problem of love. The Christian message, though unrealistic in Freudian terms, offers a necessary kind of love for redemption.
- Quotation: “Marxism will not save us either, though it will certainly make life a good deal easier.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevant Context in Eagleton’s Essay
Ideology	A system of ideas that unconsciously shape and constrain the subject’s thinking, creating illusions about the nature of reality.	Eagleton argues that “ideology” is central to understanding how individuals are unknowingly shaped by social structures. Marxism critiques ideology by showing how it hides true social relations, while Freud exposes the unconscious forces that shape human behavior.
Subjectivity	The experience of being a coherent, autonomous individual, which, according to both Marx and Freud, is an illusion produced by ideology and unconscious forces.	Eagleton explains how the subject, while believing themselves to be the master of their thoughts and actions, is actually decentered by unconscious processes (Freud) and shaped by social formations (Marx). He emphasizes the need to recognize that individuals are not truly in control of their own discourse or consciousness.
Historical Materialism	Marxist theory that social and economic structures determine the development of human societies and their ideologies.	Eagleton references Marxism’s focus on historical materialism as the basis for understanding social formations and their reproduction, contrasting it with psychoanalysis as a tool for understanding individual subject formation. He notes that Marxism traditionally lacks a fully developed theory of the subject, which psychoanalysis can help provide.
Unconscious	In Freudian theory, the part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness, influencing thoughts, behaviors, and emotions.	The essay argues that unconscious forces, such as repressed desires and drives, play a major role in shaping the subject’s speech and actions. Eagleton connects this to the way ideology operates, suggesting that just as unconscious drives influence behavior, ideology shapes consciousness in ways subjects cannot fully comprehend.
Oedipus Complex	Freudian concept referring to the child’s unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent, crucial to the development of the ego.	Eagleton refers to the Oedipus complex to explain how individuals are constituted as “sexed” beings through processes of repression and identification, which in turn integrate them into the social order. This complex also exemplifies the way subject formation involves the repression of knowledge, both personal and social.
Symbolic Order	A Lacanian concept referring to the domain of language and social laws that the subject enters after the Oedipus complex, in which meaning is structured by difference.	Eagleton uses this term to describe how individuals are caught in a network of signifiers that endlessly defer meaning. The symbolic order is the realm of language, where identity and meaning are always constructed in relation to absent or excluded terms. This creates an ongoing “lack,” which drives desire and destabilizes the subject’s coherence.
Castration Complex	The psychoanalytic concept of the child’s realization of sexual difference and the anxiety this produces, leading to repression and the formation of the unconscious.	Eagleton likens this complex to other fundamental losses (such as birth, separation from the mother, etc.) that shape human subjectivity. He uses it to illustrate how language and culture impose a continual chain of losses, absences, and lacks that disrupt any sense of subjective unity or completeness.
Desire	In psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious drive that is never fully satisfied, continually moving the subject from one object or signifier to another.	Eagleton draws on Freud and Lacan to argue that desire is structured by lack and that language itself generates this movement of desire. This process reveals the subject’s dependence on absence and difference, contradicting the illusion of wholeness or control in both personal and ideological discourse.
Cultural Revolution	A Marxist concept referring to the transformation of social and individual consciousness as part of the larger political revolution.	Eagleton suggests that Marxism, beyond political revolution, must involve a “cultural revolution,” which entails the transformation of individual subjectivity and consciousness. He implies that psychoanalysis can inform this process by addressing the deep-seated psychological resistances to such transformation.

Contribution of “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Marxist Literary Theory

Ideology and the Unconscious: Eagleton challenges the Marxist notion of ideology as merely a system of false beliefs imposed by the ruling class. Instead, he argues that ideology is deeply embedded in the unconscious, shaping our perceptions and actions.
- Reference: “The unconscious is exactly the fact that as we speak, what we say must always escape us, that as I say one thing it means something else, that as my own discourse unrolls, it reveals in its knots and breaks and crevices those other possible signs which must always be absent.”
The Subject and the Social Formation: Eagleton redefines the Marxist concept of the subject, arguing that it is not a fully autonomous individual but rather a product of the social formation. This challenges the humanist notion that individuals are the primary agents of history.
- Reference: “The human subject is a product of the social formation, but must, at the same time, conceal it-must be unaware of its true determinants, of the process of its production.”

2. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

The Unconscious and Discourse: Eagleton expands on Freud’s theories of the unconscious, arguing that it shapes not only our individual psyches but also our cultural discourses.
- Reference: “The unconscious has its reasons of which the subject knows nothing, and the same is true about the subject in relation to the social formation.”

The Tragic Nature of Human Existence: Eagleton aligns with Freud’s pessimistic view of human existence, emphasizing the inherent conflicts and limitations that shape our lives.
- Reference: “The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”

3. New Historicism

The Social Construction of the Subject: Eagleton’s analysis of the subject as a product of the social formation aligns with New Historicist approaches that emphasize the historical and cultural context in shaping individuals’ identities and experiences.
- Reference: “The human subject is a product of the social formation.”

4. Cultural Studies

Interdisciplinary Approach: Eagleton’s essay demonstrates the value of combining Marxist and psychoanalytic perspectives to understand culture. This interdisciplinary approach has been influential in Cultural Studies.
- Reference: “The essay offers a powerful blend of Marxist and psychoanalytic insights.”

5. Post-Structuralism

Deconstruction of the Subject: Eagleton’s critique of the subject as a coherent entity aligns with Post-Structuralist ideas that challenge the notion of a stable self.
- Reference: “The subject can’t, as it were, round upon those determinants, appropriate them in consciousness, because it exists as a subject only by their repression.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through Marxism (Eagleton’s Lens)	Critique through Psychoanalysis (Eagleton’s Lens)
*Great Expectations* by Charles Dickens	Through a Marxist perspective, the novel illustrates class struggle and social mobility. Pip’s journey from a poor orphan to a gentleman reflects the ideologies of capitalism. The “ideological” illusion Pip suffers from—believing wealth and status can lead to happiness—can be critiqued as masking the exploitative class structures of Victorian England.	Pip’s internal conflict and guilt can be analyzed through Freud’s theory of the unconscious. His desire for social advancement, driven by his love for Estella, can be seen as rooted in repressed desires and the Oedipal complex. Pip’s obsession with becoming a gentleman reflects deeper anxieties about identity, desire, and his relationship with parental figures like Joe and Miss Havisham.
*Wuthering Heights* by Emily Brontë	The novel’s portrayal of Heathcliff’s rise to power could be interpreted as a Marxist critique of the capitalist drive for ownership and control. Heathcliff’s revenge on the Earnshaw and Linton families illustrates how class oppression and economic inequalities drive individuals to destructive actions.	Heathcliff’s obsession with Catherine and his violent behavior can be analyzed through the lens of Freudian psychoanalysis. His destructive tendencies could be seen as an expression of repressed desires and unresolved childhood trauma. The novel’s focus on intense emotions, violence, and love mirrors Freud’s notion of the death drive (Thanatos) and Eros in human behavior.
*Hamlet* by William Shakespeare	Marxist critique would focus on the ideological forces shaping Hamlet’s indecision and the political power structures in Denmark. The play reflects feudal and class power relations, where Hamlet is caught between his princely duties and his moral qualms, mirroring larger societal contradictions.	Freud’s psychoanalytic interpretation of *Hamlet* famously focuses on the Oedipus complex. Hamlet’s hesitation in avenging his father’s death can be linked to repressed desires for his mother, Gertrude. His struggle with madness and internal turmoil reflects the unconscious forces at play, where Hamlet’s ego is torn between the id (desires) and the superego (moral expectations).
*The Great Gatsby* by F. Scott Fitzgerald	A Marxist critique would emphasize the novel’s exploration of the American Dream as an ideological construct. Gatsby’s pursuit of wealth and status masks the inherent inequalities of capitalist society. The novel critiques the false promises of class mobility, with Gatsby’s downfall symbolizing the failure of this ideology.	Gatsby’s obsessive desire for Daisy can be analyzed through psychoanalysis as a manifestation of deeper unconscious desires. His fixation on the past and his idealized image of Daisy reflect Freud’s concept of the repetition compulsion, where Gatsby is driven by unresolved desires and emotional wounds. The symbolic death drive is present in Gatsby’s reckless pursuit, ultimately leading to his tragic demise.

Criticism Against “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Overemphasis on Ideology and Repression:
- Critics argue that Eagleton’s interpretation places excessive emphasis on ideology, viewing individuals primarily as passive products of unconscious and social forces, downplaying human agency and individual autonomy.
Limited Scope of Morality Discussion:
- Some may criticize the work for offering an insufficient exploration of morality itself. Eagleton’s Marxist and Freudian analysis focuses more on how morality is shaped by external forces, but less on the content of moral principles or how individuals might challenge these ideologies.

Reductionism in Psychoanalysis:
- Eagleton’s reliance on Freudian psychoanalysis has been critiqued for its reductionist approach. Critics argue that Freudian concepts such as the Oedipus complex and repression oversimplify complex human behaviors and ignore other psychological or philosophical explanations.
Tension between Marxism and Psychoanalysis:
- The attempt to merge Marxist historical materialism with Freudian psychoanalysis has been criticized for being problematic, as the two frameworks may not be fully compatible. While Marxism focuses on social structures, psychoanalysis emphasizes individual psychology, creating a potential conceptual mismatch.
Neglect of Humanism and Ethical Agency:
- Some critics believe that Eagleton’s approach neglects humanism and ethical agency, reducing morality to ideological constructs rather than considering the potential for moral progress or ethical behavior outside of ideology and repression.

Pessimism in the Concept of Subjectivity:
- Eagleton’s portrayal of subjectivity as fundamentally shaped by absence, lack, and repression, influenced by Lacan and Freud, has been criticized for its pessimism. This perspective can be seen as overly fatalistic, suggesting that humans are perpetually alienated from their desires and true meaning.
Christianity vs. Marxism Conflation:
- Eagleton’s analysis of the relationship between Christianity and Marxism, particularly the argument that Marxism needs a discourse of love beyond its materialist framework, has been criticized as overly idealistic or inconsistent with the materialist foundations of Marxist thought.

Representative Quotations from “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Until that condition is fulfilled, our ‘moral’ discourse is bound to remain imprisoned within the ideological.”	This statement highlights the importance of social and political change in achieving true morality. Eagleton argues that morality is often constrained by the dominant ideology.
“The science of psychoanalysis is the science of how historical individuals come to be constituted as subjects.”	This quotation emphasizes the role of psychoanalysis in understanding the formation of individual identity and consciousness.
“The message of Freud’s work, then, is clear: we just aren’t going to make it.”	This quote reflects Freud’s pessimistic view of human nature and the limitations imposed by our unconscious desires.
“The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”	This statement emphasizes the tragic nature of human existence, as revealed by Freud’s analysis of the ego’s internal conflicts and limitations.
“The social formation has its reasons, of which the subject knows nothing.”	This quote highlights the power of social structures to shape individuals’ lives without their conscious awareness.
“To speak is to lack: and it’s in this lack that the movement of desire is set up.”	This statement emphasizes the fundamental nature of desire as a result of language and its inherent lack of meaning.
“When, in a sentence, I refer to myself as ‘I’, when I make use of the personal pronoun, the ‘I’ I refer to is the coherent subject Terry Eagleton; but the ‘I’ which speaks that ‘I’, that coherent subject, has no such coherence.”	This quote illustrates the fragmented nature of the subject, as revealed by the unconscious’s influence on our discourse.
“The unconscious has its reasons of which the subject knows nothing, and the same is true about the subject in relation to the social formation.”	This statement highlights the unconscious nature of many of our actions and beliefs, both as individuals and as members of society.
“The human subject is a product of the social formation, but must, at the same time, conceal it-must be unaware of its true determinants, of the process of its production.”	This quote challenges the humanist notion of the individual as a fully autonomous agent, emphasizing the role of social structures in shaping identity.
“The gospel may be true or it may not be; but if Freud is right, as I think he is, then nothing short of the gospel will save us.”	This statement suggests that the Christian gospel, despite its unrealistic nature, may be the only hope for salvation in a world shaped by Freud’s tragic vision.

“Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton is a seminal piece that first appeared in the esteemed journal New Blackfriars in 2002.

Introduction: “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

“Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton is a seminal piece that first appeared in the esteemed journal New Blackfriars in 2002. This insightful exploration of the relationship between irony and the Eucharist has significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s analysis delves into the complexities of irony as a literary device and its potential to challenge traditional religious beliefs. His work has been widely cited and continues to be a valuable resource for scholars and students alike.

Summary of “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

Metaphor and Transubstantiation:
Eagleton begins by drawing a parallel between metaphor and transubstantiation, explaining how a word like “fire” can change its meaning (to anger or passion) while retaining its original form. Similarly, in the Eucharist, bread and wine retain their outward appearance but are understood to become the body and blood of Christ. Eagleton explains, “The bread and wine of the eucharist still look and behave like bread and wine,” but their “substance” has changed through metaphorical transformation. This comparison highlights the mystery of transubstantiation where physical signs take on profound spiritual meaning.
Semiotics of the Eucharist – The Concept of Meta-signs:
Eagleton introduces the idea of the Eucharistic elements as meta-signs, meaning they not only signify but also comment on the nature of signification itself. He explains, “The eucharistic elements are meta-signs in more senses than one,” signifying both the presence and absence of meaning. In this sense, the Eucharist functions as a meta-signification, reflecting on signs and meanings beyond their literal forms.

Irony in Signification:
The Eucharist, Eagleton argues, carries an inherent irony. While it appears to be bread and wine, it symbolizes a reality beyond mere physical presence: the body of Christ. This is “a kind of symbolic face-to-faceness” where the elements signify both the presence of Christ and the transcendence of earthly signs. Eagleton emphasizes the irony in signifying the “non-discursive discursively,” pointing out the paradox that the bread and wine, though symbols, transcend the very concept of signification.
The Role of the Body as a Sign:
Eagleton discusses the body of Christ as both a sign and a meta-sign. The human body, like Christ’s body, is inherently expressive, making it a “sign” already. This expressivity is fully realized in the risen body, where “the material body itself becomes pure communication.” The Eucharistic bread and wine, therefore, signify a deeper form of expressivity and signification, encapsulating the fullness of spiritual meaning.
Death and Fulfillment of Signs:
One of Eagleton’s core arguments is that the Eucharist symbolizes both the death and consummation of the sign. In the Kingdom of God, signs give way to a state of pure expressivity – the body of Christ – rendering signs redundant. This duality, Eagleton argues, highlights the Eucharist as a self-cancelling semiotic system, where signs “bounce” the participant beyond their immediate meaning, much like “a trampoline.”

Conclusion – Irony as the Ultimate Signification:
Eagleton concludes by reinforcing the irony within the Eucharist. The bread and wine signify “their own emptiness” while remaining physically present, reflecting a semiotic system in which “there must be a signifier which stands in for its own impossibility.” For Christian faith, the Eucharist is a paradoxical representation of presence and absence, encapsulating the divine reality that cannot be fully represented within earthly systems of meaning.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in “Irony and the Eucharist”
Metaphor	A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable.	Eagleton draws an analogy between metaphor and transubstantiation, explaining how bread and wine can signify the body and blood of Christ, just as “fire” can mean anger or passion.
Transubstantiation	The change of the substance of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ during the Eucharist, while retaining their appearances.	Central to Eagleton’s argument, transubstantiation is discussed as a change in the “substance” of the Eucharistic elements while their form remains the same, likened to the operation of metaphor.
Meta-sign	A sign that reflects on or comments on the nature of signification itself.	The Eucharistic elements are described as meta-signs, as they not only signify the body of Christ but also comment on the process of signification, going beyond mere representation.
Irony	A rhetorical device or figure of speech in which the intended meaning is opposite to the literal meaning.	Eagleton identifies irony in the Eucharist, where the elements appear as bread and wine but signify something far more profound—the body of Christ—creating a paradox of meaning and non-meaning.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation.	The entire essay revolves around a semiotic interpretation of the Eucharist, exploring how signs like bread and wine can hold and transcend meaning within Christian theology.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	The Eucharist is heavily symbolic, with the bread and wine symbolizing Christ’s body and blood, but also representing the broader theological concepts of sacrifice, redemption, and divine presence.
Paradox	A seemingly contradictory statement that may nonetheless be true.	The Eucharist embodies a paradox: the bread and wine signify Christ’s body, yet remain bread and wine. This contradiction is central to the theological and semiotic understanding of the ritual.
Signifier and Signified	In semiotics, the signifier is the form that a sign takes, and the signified is the concept it represents.	Eagleton uses this structuralist concept to explain how the Eucharist functions as a sign where the signifier (bread and wine) represents the signified (body and blood of Christ) but also transcends these meanings.
Expressivity	The capacity of a form (such as language or the body) to express meaning.	Eagleton highlights how the body of Christ is itself expressive, embodying meaning as a sign. The risen body, in particular, is described as “pure communication.”

Contribution of “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Semiotics and Meta-signs

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton extends semiotic theory by analyzing how religious symbols, like the bread and wine in the Eucharist, function as meta-signs—signs that comment on the nature of signification itself. His discussion moves beyond traditional signifier/signified relationships, exploring the role of absence and transcendence within religious symbols.

Reference:
Eagleton describes the Eucharistic elements as meta-signs, “signs of an absence of signification” (p. 513). He likens the bread and wine to meta-signs that reflect not only on their immediate meaning but also on the broader system of signification in which they exist.
Impact on Theory:
By analyzing the Eucharist through a semiotic lens, Eagleton contributes to religious semiotics, showing how theological symbols can transcend their ordinary signifying function. This aligns with the post-structuralist notion that signs often point to gaps or absences in meaning, challenging the stability of signification in language and symbolism.

2. Irony and the Theory of Signification

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton deepens the theory of irony by connecting it to religious symbolism. He argues that the Eucharist is an inherently ironic sign, signifying something that it is not while remaining itself. This paradoxical structure of meaning aligns with theories of irony in postmodernism and deconstruction, where the gap between signifier and signified creates layers of meaning.
Reference:
Eagleton discusses irony in the Eucharist, noting how the bread and wine “signify the non-being of the future by the non-being of its own ironic self-destruction” (p. 514). The Eucharist, as a symbolic act, carries an ironic tension: it signifies Christ’s body, yet remains bread and wine.
Impact on Theory:
This contribution aligns with deconstructive approaches to irony, where Eagleton’s analysis suggests that irony arises from the instability of meaning within religious symbols. The Eucharist, as a semiotic system, self-negates to represent a condition beyond signification, a notion akin to Derrida’s deconstruction of language where meaning is constantly deferred.

3. Post-structuralism and the Transcendence of Signifiers

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton’s analysis of the Eucharist contributes to post-structuralist understandings of the instability of signifiers. He argues that religious symbols like the Eucharist do not simply point to a fixed signified (Christ’s body) but point to a condition beyond signification itself, echoing post-structuralist concerns about the impossibility of final meaning.
Reference:
Eagleton argues, “the bread has to behave like bread but not actually be it” (p. 514), emphasizing the instability and paradox of signification. He further notes that the Eucharist “has to signify a condition beyond signification,” thus transcending the usual boundaries of semiotic systems.

Impact on Theory:
This analysis resonates with Jacques Derrida’s notion of différance, where the Eucharist represents a signifier that points to its own absence and the impossibility of fully representing the transcendent “real.” The analysis challenges traditional semiotic relationships, positioning religious symbols as fluid, contingent, and beyond full representation.

4. Religious Semiotics and the Sublime

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton links the Eucharist to theory of the sublime, particularly in its ironic representation of infinity. He connects religious semiotics with the sublime by arguing that the Eucharist gestures toward a reality that is beyond human comprehension or representation—aligning this with the classical sublime, where overwhelming forces like God or nature can only be represented indirectly or negatively.

Reference:
Eagleton draws parallels to the sublime when he states, “infinity can be represented only in negative guise, by the representation drawing attention to its own stringent limits” (p. 514). Here, he aligns the Eucharist with the sublime, where signs can only point to their own limits when trying to signify the infinite.
Impact on Theory:
This contribution resonates with Immanuel Kant’s and Edmund Burke’s theories of the sublime, where representations of the divine or infinite can only be rendered indirectly. Eagleton’s interpretation of the Eucharist as a representation of the “beyond-sign” ties theological semiotics to broader aesthetic and philosophical discussions of the sublime.

5. Political Semiotics and Revolution

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton makes a unique contribution by tying the Eucharist to political semiotics, particularly in the revolutionary context. He compares the Eucharist to avant-garde poetics and Marxist ideas of revolution, where the sign points toward a future condition in which it will be unnecessary—reflecting Marx’s notion that “the content goes beyond the phrase.”
Reference:
Eagleton uses Marxist semiotics to describe the Eucharist: “what socialist transformation envisages outstrips the language in which we might now describe it” (p. 515). He likens the Eucharist to revolutionary symbols that simultaneously negate themselves while pointing to a future utopian reality.
Impact on Theory:
Eagleton’s interpretation aligns with Marxist literary theory, where signs, particularly revolutionary symbols, are understood as pointing to a future state that negates the need for current discourses. The Eucharist, in this context, becomes a revolutionary symbol that gestures toward a future redemption, blending theology with political and social semiotics.

6. The Body as Language and Communication

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton’s discussion of the body as a form of language contributes to theories of embodiment and expressivity in literary and cultural theory. He argues that the body of Christ in the Eucharist is not only a sign but also the most expressive form of communication, thus merging linguistic and corporeal forms of signification.
Reference:
Eagleton notes, “the body as Word” and argues that “the risen body is the flesh as pure expressivity” (p. 513). He highlights how the body in the Eucharist serves as both a physical and semiotic presence, merging material and linguistic forms of expression.

Impact on Theory:
This connects to cultural theories of embodiment, such as those by Maurice Merleau-Ponty, where the body is seen as a central site of meaning and expression. Eagleton’s analysis of the Eucharist enhances discussions of the body as signifier, positioning it as a crucial intersection of language, semiotics, and theology.

Examples of Critiques Through “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through “Irony and the Eucharist”	Explanation
*The Waste Land* by T.S. Eliot	Semiotic Breakdown and Meta-Signs	Using Eagleton’s concept of the meta-sign, Eliot’s fragmented style in *The Waste Land* can be seen as a breakdown of traditional signifiers, reflecting a world in which meaning has become disjointed. Just as Eagleton discusses the Eucharist as a sign pointing to the absence of meaning, Eliot’s work can be interpreted as a commentary on the disintegration of meaning in the modern world.
*Waiting for Godot* by Samuel Beckett	Irony and the Absence of Meaning	Beckett’s play parallels Eagleton’s discussion of irony, where the bread and wine in the Eucharist represent something that they are not. In *Waiting for Godot, the anticipation of Godot symbolizes a quest for meaning that never materializes. Beckett uses irony* to show that the act of waiting itself becomes meaningless, much like Eagleton’s depiction of the Eucharist signifying its own emptiness.
*Heart of Darkness* by Joseph Conrad	Signifier and Signified Gap	Eagleton’s exploration of the gap between signifier and signified can be applied to *Heart of Darkness*, where Kurtz symbolizes the ineffable nature of imperialism’s horrors. Just as Eagleton argues that the Eucharist’s signified (Christ’s body) transcends representation, Conrad’s portrayal of Kurtz suggests that the true nature of colonialism is beyond the grasp of language and signification.
*The Brothers Karamazov* by Fyodor Dostoevsky	Religious Semiotics and the Sublime	Through the lens of Eagleton’s analysis of religious semiotics, the Eucharistic themes in *The Brothers Karamazov* can be critiqued as a struggle between material and spiritual realms. The character of Alyosha represents the sublime faith that transcends reason, aligning with Eagleton’s notion that religious symbols like the Eucharist signify something beyond rational or material comprehension.

Criticism Against “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

Complexity and Accessibility:
Eagleton’s use of dense philosophical language, particularly his engagement with semiotics and meta-signs, may render the essay inaccessible to readers unfamiliar with advanced literary theory or theological concepts.
Over-reliance on Semiotic Analysis:
Critics might argue that Eagleton’s heavy focus on semiotics could reduce the rich theological significance of the Eucharist to a mere play of signs, downplaying its spiritual and sacramental aspects.

Lack of Theological Depth:
Some may claim that Eagleton’s literary and semiotic approach lacks sufficient engagement with theological scholarship on the Eucharist, potentially oversimplifying or misrepresenting its deep religious significance.
Limited Application to Broader Christian Practices:
While Eagleton focuses on the Eucharist, his analysis may be too narrow in scope, failing to address how irony and signification play a role in other Christian sacraments or religious experiences.
Philosophical Generalization:
Eagleton’s linking of the Eucharist with post-structuralist theories of signification and irony could be seen as an overextension of literary theory into theology, making generalizations that may not resonate with traditional religious interpretations.

Irony as Reductionist:
By emphasizing the irony in the Eucharist, Eagleton might be accused of reducing the profundity of the ritual to a philosophical paradox, neglecting the emotional, communal, and devotional dimensions of the sacrament.

Representative Quotations from “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The bread and wine of the eucharist still look and behave like bread and wine.”	Eagleton begins by illustrating the mystery of transubstantiation, where the physical elements remain the same while their spiritual essence changes, introducing the central theme of irony.
“Flame has transubstantiated into fury.”	This metaphor explains how words change their meaning while retaining their form, paralleling how bread and wine transform into the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist.
“The eucharistic elements are meta-signs in more senses than one.”	Eagleton introduces the concept of meta-signs, emphasizing that the Eucharist is not just symbolic but reflects on the very nature of signification and meaning.
“It has to signify a condition beyond signification.”	The Eucharist is presented as a paradox: it must communicate something (divine presence) that inherently transcends ordinary forms of communication and representation.
“The sign is where degradation and redemption intersect.”	Eagleton connects the Eucharist to the idea of redemption through the degradation of signs, suggesting that it symbolizes both the suffering (degradation) and the salvation (redemption) of Christ.
“The irony of this love-feast is that it has to convey the non-discursive discursively.”	The Eucharist is described as inherently ironic because it tries to represent a non-verbal, divine mystery using the human medium of language and ritual.
“There must be a signifier which stands in for its own impossibility.”	Eagleton highlights a core irony in the Eucharist: the bread and wine serve as signs of something (the body of Christ) that cannot be fully signified or represented within the system of signs.
“The symbol is the death of the thing.”	Borrowing from Jacques Lacan, Eagleton argues that symbols replace the actual objects they represent, and this applies to the Eucharist, where Christ’s body is symbolized through bread and wine.
“The risen body is the flesh as pure expressivity.”	Eagleton describes the resurrected body of Christ as the ultimate form of communication, where the physical body itself becomes pure expression and meaning.
“In this sense, the death of the sign is also the consummation of it.”	This phrase captures the paradox at the heart of the Eucharist, where the end of signification (death of the sign) is also its fulfillment, mirroring the death and resurrection of Christ.

“Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1976 in the journal New Blackfriars, in its Volume 57, Number 671, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory.

Introduction: “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

“Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1976 in the journal New Blackfriars, in its Volume 57, Number 671, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory. It explores the concept of decentering God, challenging the traditional centrality of divine authority in Western thought. Eagleton’s critique offers a profound reexamination of religious discourse and its influence on literary works, paving the way for new perspectives and interpretations.

Summary of “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Christian-Marxist Dialogue and Humanism

Christian and Marxist common ground in humanism: In the past, Christian-Marxist dialogue found a shared focus on humanistic values. Eagleton highlights this connection: “Whatever the divergences between the two camps, they were at least united by their profoundly humanistic dimension.”

Humanism now criticized by Marxism: Marxism, however, has shifted its stance, moving away from humanism as seen in Louis Althusser’s declaration: “Marxism is not a Humanism.” This indicates Marxism’s growing rejection of humanism as a bourgeois ideology.

Decentering the Human Subject

Human subject dethroned: Eagleton discusses how European Marxism and structuralism have moved to dethrone the human subject. The bourgeois idea of “Man” as the center of history is rejected: “It is history… which ‘speaks’ man, which constitutes the human subject.”

Focus on structures and laws over individuals: Instead of centering on individual humans or collective subjects, Marxism focuses on social structures and discourses: “The study of history is the science of these rule-bound discourses… its aim is to disengage those laws… situated on a terrain quite other than ‘human experience’.”

God and the Fetish of Central Meaning

Atheistic critique of central meaning: Eagleton points out that atheistic Marxism criticizes the idea of a central essence or ultimate meaning (such as God) as a mystifying fetish. As he notes, “Christian theology and atheistic humanism seem to share a belief in some ultimate essence or origin of meaning… but it is precisely this trust in some single enshrined essence of meaning which atheistic Marxism attacks as a fetish.”

Derrida and decentering authority: Jacques Derrida and other Marxist semioticians argue that authority figures like God or monarchs act as centralizing fetishes that suppress pluralistic meanings: “God, the Father, the monarch, gold, the phallus… protect us from the terror of being liberated into the unfounded, decentred process of our history.”

Milton and the Tragic Absence of God

Milton’s portrayal of God’s withdrawal: Eagleton draws on Milton’s Paradise Lost to explore how God’s withdrawal from history leads to a loss of meaning, particularly for the English Protestant bourgeoisie. He describes this withdrawal as both a source of value and a threat: “God seems to have withdrawn his presence from history, abandoning the revolutionary venture of his chosen people.”

Satan as a failed revolutionary figure: Satan’s attempt to dethrone God in Paradise Lost is described as a decentering gone wrong, where one repressive authority is merely replaced with another: “Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone the poem’s aloof, coldly bureaucratic God and falls to hell… setting up a substitute kingdom.”

Decentering of Both God and Man

Christ’s decentering of the Father: Eagleton argues that, from a Christian perspective, Christ’s incarnation is a revolutionary decentering of the Father. However, Milton fails to recognize this because of his theological stance: “In Christ, the Father decentres himself among men… but Milton cannot understand this due to his Arianism.”

Simultaneous decentering of Man: Eagleton claims that the decentering of God leads to the decentering of Man, aligning Christian thought with traditional Marxism: “The Christian stands… with the more traditional Marxist who decentres both [God and Man].”

Pluralistic Meaning in History and Faith

Ceaseless decentering in history and faith: Eagleton concludes that, for Christian faith, the process of decentering in history is mirrored by the triune God, whose meaning is dispersed and pluralistic: “The ceaseless decentring and deconstructing of Man by the discourses that ‘live’ him is part of that deeper movement… which is, for Christian faith, the triune God.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference/Context in Text
Humanism	A belief in the value and agency of human beings, typically focusing on human experiences and achievements.	Eagleton critiques how Marxism rejects humanism, once central to the Christian-Marxist dialogue. “Marxism is not a Humanism.”
Structuralism	A theoretical approach that sees human culture as a structure, where elements are interrelated and governed by rules.	Marxism and structuralism work together to “de-centre” the human subject, focusing on structures instead of individuals.
Decentering	The process of challenging and removing something or someone from the center of meaning or authority.	Central theme in Eagleton’s work, especially regarding the dethroning of “Man” and “God” from history.
Historical Materialism	A Marxist theory that history develops through material conditions rather than ideas or beliefs.	Eagleton discusses how traditional Marxism moves away from humanism toward a more structural analysis.
Fetishism	The attribution of inherent value or power to an object, often in a way that masks its true function or origin.	A critique of how centralizing ideas (God, the monarch, gold) act as fetishes, obscuring the plurality of meanings.
Atheism	The absence of belief in deities, often used in contrast to theism.	Eagleton notes how atheism becomes politically relevant in rejecting the centralized authority of God in society.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols, particularly how meaning is created and communicated.	Eagleton refers to Marxist semioticians who explore how language and signs structure society and thought.
Discourse	A system of knowledge and meaning that governs how we speak, think, and act in society.	History is seen as a set of discourses that ‘speak’ man, rather than the other way around.
Arianism	A theological belief that Jesus Christ is subordinate to God the Father, contrary to the doctrine of the Trinity.	Eagleton discusses how Milton’s Arianism affects his understanding of the decentering of God and Man.
Deconstruction	A method of critical analysis that seeks to uncover multiple meanings within a text, showing how they undermine their own logic.	Eagleton applies Derrida’s concept of deconstruction to explore how authority figures like God or monarchs are decentered.
Transcendence	The belief in something that goes beyond ordinary experience, often related to God or an ultimate truth.	Eagleton critiques both Christian and Marxist humanism for seeking a transcendental meaning or essence.

Contribution of “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Marxist Theory

Critique of Humanist Marxism: Eagleton critiques the humanistic interpretation of Marxism, focusing on structural and materialist interpretations.
- “Marxism is not a Humanism.” – Aligns with Althusser’s rejection of humanist Marxism.

Decentering the Human Subject: Eagleton argues that history is shaped by social structures, not individual human beings or collective subjects.
- “It is history… which ‘speaks’ man, which constitutes the human subject.”
Emphasis on Social Formations: Eagleton shifts the focus from human subjects to social formations as key players in history.
- “The subjects of history are not ‘men’, not even ‘social classes’, but… social formations.”

Structuralism

Focus on Structures Over Individuals: Eagleton applies structuralist principles by emphasizing that human beings are products of larger societal structures.
- “The study of history is the science of these rule-bound discourses… its aim is to disengage those laws.”
Human Experience Subordinated to Structures: Eagleton argues that societal structures shape history rather than individual human experience.
- “Like the unconscious, [history] has its reasons of which ‘living individuals’ know nothing.”

Poststructuralism

Decentering and Plurality of Meaning: Reflecting poststructuralist ideas, Eagleton emphasizes the ceaseless decentering of meaning, rejecting any fixed or centralized authority.
- “The ceaseless decentring and deconstructing of Man… is part of that deeper movement.”

Critique of Centralized Authority: Eagleton critiques the concept of centralized meaning, such as God or Man, as oppressive and misleading.
- “Atheistic Marxism attacks… some single enshrined essence of meaning… as a fetish.”
Instability of Meaning: Aligning with Derrida’s deconstruction, Eagleton argues that meaning is fluid and always being remade, rejecting any notion of fixed truths.
- “We are always already in the midst of meaning, traversed by the multiple codes which ‘speak‘ us.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s “Decentering God”	Reference/Explanation
*Paradise Lost* by John Milton	Decentering of God’s authority: Milton’s portrayal of God reflects a distant, bureaucratic authority figure, leading to Satan’s failed rebellion.	“God seems to have withdrawn his presence from history… Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone… God.”
	Milton’s struggle with God’s authority: Eagleton critiques Milton’s failure to resolve the tension between free will and divine authority.	“Milton… torn as he is between the absolute authority of God and the revolutionary freedom of man.”
*The Hidden God* by Lucien Goldmann	God as an absent, unintelligible force: Goldmann critiques how God’s withdrawal from history leaves the world unintelligible, a reflection of a historical deadlock.	“God is at once present and absent in the world, robbing it of value because of his withdrawal.”
	Historical context of God’s absence: Eagleton uses Goldmann’s analysis to show how the emergence of bourgeois rationalism led to God’s withdrawal.	“Goldmann situates this ideology in… a deadlocked transitional phase… between absolutist-monarchical and bourgeois society.”
*Samson Agonistes* by John Milton	Decentering of God in history: Eagleton applies decentering to Milton’s portrayal of God as distant and arbitrary, leading to the tragic isolation of Samson.	“By the time of Samson Agonistes… God is the utterly remote presence whose arbitrary decrees you obey.”
	Failure to de-center the human subject: Milton does not manage to decenter the human subject in history due to his theological stance.	“Milton… is incapable of recognising… that Christ’s decentring of the Father is simultaneously a decentring of Man.”
*The Fall of Man* (Biblical Narrative)	Critique of authority and rebellion: Eagleton critiques the Biblical Fall of Man as a revolutionary decentering attempt (by Satan) that fails and re-establishes repressive authority.	“Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone the poem’s aloof, coldly bureaucratic God and falls to hell.”
	Theological implications of decentering: Eagleton suggests that both God’s authority and human freedom are at odds, creating contradictions within the narrative.	“The Christian stands… with the more traditional Marxist who decentres both.”

Criticism Against “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Overemphasis on Structuralism

Neglect of Human Agency: Critics may argue that Eagleton’s focus on social structures over individual agency dismisses the role of human experience in shaping history.
- By asserting “history… constitutes the human subject,” Eagleton downplays individual contributions, which could be seen as reductive.

Excessive Reliance on Marxist Framework

Reduction of Complex Religious Thought to Materialism: Eagleton’s Marxist analysis might oversimplify religious belief systems, reducing them to mere ideological constructs without engaging with their spiritual or metaphysical dimensions.
- The claim that “the centrality of Man is merely a displacement of the supremacy of God” may be seen as an overly simplistic interpretation of religious humanism.

Dismissal of Humanism

Critique of Humanism as Dated: Some may argue that Eagleton’s rejection of humanism is unnecessarily dismissive, ignoring how humanistic principles can coexist with more structural analyses.
- Eagleton’s statement that “humanism… forestalls us from thinking through society as structure” overlooks the continuing relevance of human-centered perspectives.

Ambiguity in Deconstruction

Potential for Theoretical Vagueness: Eagleton’s embrace of poststructuralist ideas, such as deconstruction, may lead to a lack of clarity or practical application, as meaning becomes constantly deferred and fluid.
- The notion that “meaning is ceaselessly exterior to itself” could be criticized for creating interpretive instability, making it difficult to engage with concrete political or literary critique.

Underestimation of Theological Complexity

Simplification of Christian Theology: Critics may argue that Eagleton simplifies complex theological debates, particularly regarding Milton and the decentering of God, without fully exploring the spiritual and philosophical nuances.
- His critique of Milton’s Arianism, for example, may be seen as reductive: “Milton… incapable of recognising the other side of that truth.”

Representative Quotations from “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Marxism is not a Humanism.”	Eagleton aligns with Althusser’s view, rejecting the idea that Marxism should focus on human-centered perspectives.
“It is history… which ‘speaks’ man, which constitutes the human subject.”	Eagleton emphasizes that history, shaped by social structures and discourses, creates individuals rather than vice versa.
“The subjects of history are not ‘men’, not even ‘social classes’, but… social formations.”	This challenges the humanistic view by centering on social structures rather than human subjects or collective groups.
“Atheistic Marxism attacks… some single enshrined essence of meaning… as a fetish.”	Eagleton critiques both religious and humanist ideologies for focusing on a central, fixed meaning, which he views as limiting.
“Like the unconscious, [history] has its reasons of which ‘living individuals’ know nothing.”	This reflects Eagleton’s structuralist influence, suggesting that individuals are unaware of the larger social forces shaping them.
“Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone the poem’s aloof, coldly bureaucratic God and falls to hell.”	Eagleton uses Milton’s Paradise Lost as an example of a failed attempt to decenter authority, illustrating the dangers of misguided rebellion.
“We are always already in the midst of meaning, traversed by the multiple codes which ‘speak’ us.”	Eagleton emphasizes the poststructuralist idea that meaning is never fixed, but constantly shaped by various cultural codes.
“For it is not that Christ is the medium by which the privileged subject of the Father reduplicates itself in the privileged subject of Man.”	Eagleton critiques the Christian humanist idea that Christ serves to restore the central authority of Man, offering a different theological reading.
“The ceaseless decentring and deconstructing of Man by the discourses that ‘live’ him is part of that deeper movement.”	This quotation illustrates Eagleton’s alignment with poststructuralism and Marxism, advocating for continuous deconstruction of both God and Man.
“Milton… torn as he is between the absolute authority of God and the revolutionary freedom of man.”	Eagleton identifies the central tension in Milton’s work, where the conflict between divine authority and human freedom remains unresolved.

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