Day: September 25, 2024

Introduction: “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

“Tragedy and Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton, first published in 2018 in the Modern Theology journal, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to Eagleton’s exploration of the complex relationship between tragedy and liberalism. Eagleton challenges the traditional understanding of tragedy as a purely aesthetic or individualistic experience, arguing instead that it is deeply intertwined with social and political structures. By examining the tension between the tragic impulse and liberal values, Eagleton offers a provocative and insightful analysis of the enduring power of tragedy in contemporary culture.

Summary of “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

• Critique of Tragedy Theorists’ Approach to Suffering
  Eagleton criticizes the historical treatment of suffering in tragedy, noting how figures like Aristotle and medieval theorists downplay the emotional depth of suffering. He argues that Idealist thinkers such as Nietzsche romanticize tragedy by focusing on notions like “victorious defeat,” where suffering is viewed as a necessary condition for art and heroism. He dismisses this as a form of “cut-price theodicy” that glorifies suffering without fully addressing its emotional or ethical weight.
  • “One gathers the impression that nothing is more spiritually stimulating or therapeutic than breakdown and loss.”
• Williams’ Rejection of Tragic Theodicy
  Eagleton praises Rowan Williams for rejecting the idea that tragedy is meant to offer spiritual consolation or justification. Instead, Williams views tragedy as an event beyond rational explanation, emphasizing the complexity and ambiguity of human suffering. Eagleton agrees that the assumption that enduring the worst implies hope is questionable, pointing to the potential for even greater future suffering.
  • “Tragedy is ‘neither a formless lament nor an emotionally sanitized fiction.’”
• The Role of Language in Tragedy
  Eagleton examines the dual nature of language in tragedy. On one hand, human expression may offer a form of solace in suffering, as suggested by Edgar’s lines in King Lear. On the other hand, these same lines imply that language may not always alleviate suffering and may, instead, hint at the possibility of even greater despair.
  • “Language by means of sounds, or better still words… is a vast liberation because it means that the sufferer is beginning to produce something.”
• Tragedy, Politics, and Liberalism
  Eagleton contrasts Williams’ liberal politics with his own view that not all forms of “otherness” should be accepted or accommodated. He argues that Williams’ liberalism overlooks the necessity of radical political change in some cases, such as the overthrow of apartheid or oppressive regimes. Williams’ view of tragedy as a “ceremony of shared pain” is criticized for not fully engaging with the need for political action and resistance.
  • “There are times when entire social orders must be overthrown and refashioned.”
• Empathy and the Limits of Tragic Understanding
  Eagleton warns against excessive empathy within tragedy, particularly toward individuals whose actions are morally indefensible, such as neo-Nazis or CIA torturers. He disputes the idea that tragedy is fundamentally about recognizing and empathizing with all forms of otherness, arguing that not all viewpoints are worthy of respect or accommodation.
  • “Tragedy cannot be reduced to a matter of recognizing the rights of others.”
• Theological Insights into Tragedy
  Eagleton highlights Williams’ theological perspective on the limits of tragic understanding. Williams acknowledges that some forms of suffering, especially extreme physical pain, are inherently meaningless and cannot be redeemed through empathy or moral understanding. Eagleton connects this to the concept of the “demonic” in tragedy, which resists redemption and denies the very notion of meaning or value.
  • “Severe physical pain… are manifestations of utter meaninglessness, and that this meaninglessness is part of what we mean by the demonic.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in “Tragedy and Liberalism”
Tragedy	A dramatic genre involving human suffering, often leading to the protagonist’s downfall, intended to evoke catharsis or insight in the audience.	Eagleton critiques how tragedy theorists, such as Idealist philosophers, romanticize suffering, turning it into a triumphalist narrative of “victorious defeat.”
Theodicy	An attempt to justify the existence of suffering and evil in the world, often by suggesting it serves a higher purpose.	Eagleton dismisses “cut-price theodicy” in tragedy, which justifies suffering as spiritually enriching or redemptive without addressing its real emotional impact.
Catharsis	A term from Aristotle’s theory of tragedy, referring to the emotional release or purification that the audience experiences after witnessing a tragedy.	Eagleton suggests that traditional theories of tragedy prioritize catharsis but fail to engage deeply with the reality of suffering.
Dionysian vs. Apollonian	Nietzschean concepts: the Dionysian represents chaos, emotion, and suffering, while the Apollonian represents order, beauty, and reason.	Eagleton discusses Nietzsche’s idea that art sublimates suffering through the Apollonian, but critiques the glorification of the suffering itself.
Romanticism	A movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and the sublime, often viewing suffering as a path to personal growth or artistic expression.	Eagleton criticizes how Idealist thinkers from the Romantic tradition, such as Nietzsche, romanticize suffering in tragedy as a necessary component for artistic greatness.
Empathy	The capacity to understand or feel what another person is experiencing, often regarded as a morally virtuous response.	Eagleton challenges Williams’ view that tragedy should invoke empathy for all forms of “otherness,” warning against empathizing with morally reprehensible figures.
Otherness	The concept of viewing individuals or groups as fundamentally different or alien, often used in discussions of cultural, social, or moral diversity.	Eagleton critiques the liberal tendency to always accommodate “otherness” in tragedy, arguing that some forms of otherness, like moral evil, should be resisted.
Agnosticism (in Tragedy)	The idea of acknowledging uncertainty and the limits of human knowledge, especially regarding future suffering and the nature of tragedy.	Williams emphasizes the “tragic provisionality” of acknowledging our ignorance about what horrors the future may bring, which Eagleton finds valuable.
The Demonic	A force or figure representing chaos, meaninglessness, or malevolence, often beyond redemption.	Eagleton uses this term to describe extreme forms of suffering in tragedy that cannot be redeemed, likening it to Iago’s nihilistic destruction in Othello.
Liberalism	A political and philosophical ideology emphasizing individual rights, equality, and the accommodation of different viewpoints.	Eagleton critiques Williams’ liberalism in the context of tragedy, arguing that it fails to acknowledge when radical change or resistance is necessary to combat moral evil.
Nihilism	The belief that life lacks meaning, purpose, or intrinsic value, often associated with cynicism or moral indifference.	Eagleton contrasts the redemptive potential of tragedy with nihilism, arguing that some forms of evil and suffering are beyond redemption and embody a nihilistic worldview.
Romantic Theories of Tragedy	Theories of tragedy that emphasize individual heroism, the sublimation of suffering into art, and the transformation of pain into personal greatness.	Eagleton critiques Romantic theories of tragedy for transforming suffering into a narrative of personal transcendence, particularly in figures like the Nietzschean Übermensch.
Hegelian Dialectic	The philosophical concept that history progresses through the conflict of opposites, often applied to tragedy as the clash of equally justified but opposing forces.	Eagleton critiques Williams’ endorsement of Hegel’s view that tragedy is the result of equally valid but conflicting positions, arguing that some tragic conflicts are more morally weighted.

Contribution of “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critique of Idealist Theories of Tragedy
   Eagleton challenges traditional Idealist approaches to tragedy, particularly those of Nietzsche and other German theorists, for glorifying suffering as a necessary pathway to artistic and heroic achievement. He argues that these theories reduce tragedy to a form of “cut-price theodicy,” justifying suffering in ways that overlook its real, emotional weight.

“A good deal of such Idealist theorizing is little more than cut-price theodicy.”

• Rejection of Tragedy as Consolation or Redemption
  Eagleton, through his reading of Rowan Williams, asserts that tragedy should not be viewed as offering spiritual consolation, redemption, or reconciliation. Instead, he highlights that some tragedies, particularly those involving severe suffering, cannot be rationalized or explained away, contributing to a more realistic and ethically sensitive understanding of the tragic genre.

“Tragic art in his view is not in the first place about consolation or reconciliation, let alone explanation or justification.”

• Language and the Limits of Expression in Tragedy
  Eagleton adds to literary theory by exploring the role of language in tragedy. He emphasizes that while language can give form to suffering, it can also fail to alleviate or even express the full depth of tragic experiences. This contribution critiques the Romantic ideal that language and art can always transmute suffering into something meaningful.

“Yet pain also marks the limit of the articulable and intelligible.”

• Political Dimension of Tragedy
  Eagleton introduces a political critique into the discussion of tragedy, contrasting liberalism’s tendency to accommodate all forms of “otherness” with the need for decisive political action in the face of moral evils. This contribution expands the scope of literary theory by framing tragedy within the context of social and political change, urging a reevaluation of tragedy’s relevance to real-world injustices.

“There are times when entire social orders must be overthrown and refashioned.”

• Challenging Hegelian Dialectics in Tragic Theory
  Eagleton critiques the Hegelian notion that tragedy arises from a conflict between two equally justified positions. He argues that this dialectical framework, often applied to plays like Sophocles’ Antigone, oversimplifies tragedy by assuming all tragic conflicts involve equally valid moral positions. This offers a nuanced challenge to the application of Hegelian thought in tragic theory.

“Williams is too quick to endorse the Hegelian case that tragedy springs from the collision of two equally justified but lopsided positions.”

• Empathy and Moral Boundaries in Tragedy
  Eagleton critiques the liberal emphasis on empathy within tragedy, particularly the assumption that all forms of “otherness” deserve understanding and accommodation. He introduces a moral boundary to tragic empathy, arguing that certain figures, such as neo-Nazis or torturers, should not be empathized with, thus adding a more ethically rigorous framework to the role of empathy in literary theory.

“Tragedy cannot be reduced to a matter of recognizing the rights of others.”

• Theological Insights into Tragic Meaninglessness
  Through his engagement with Williams, Eagleton brings theological insights into literary theory by addressing the notion of meaninglessness in extreme suffering. He argues that some forms of agony, particularly physical pain, resist redemption and meaning, contributing to the discourse on the limits of tragedy’s moral and philosophical interpretations.

“Severe physical pain… are manifestations of utter meaninglessness, and that this meaninglessness is part of what we mean by the demonic.”

• Expanding Tragedy Beyond Aesthetic Boundaries
  Eagleton challenges the traditional aesthetic boundaries of tragedy, asserting that the term should not be confined to the artistic realm alone. He argues that real-life tragedies, such as the collapse of a coalmine or a car accident, should also be recognized as tragedies, broadening the scope of what constitutes the tragic.

“Why can’t the collapse of a coalmine or a smash on the roads be seen as tragic?”

• Critique of Liberal Pluralism in Tragic Theory
  Eagleton critiques Williams’ endorsement of liberal pluralism in tragedy, where all viewpoints are seen as equally valid and in conflict with each other. He argues that not all viewpoints deserve respect or recognition, particularly those that embody moral evil. This contribution challenges the trend of applying postmodern pluralism to tragic theory.

“But all viewpoints are by no means to be respected, and tragedy cannot be reduced to a matter of recognizing the rights of others.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

Literary Work & Author	Eagleton’s Critique	Key Quote from Eagleton
King Lear by William Shakespeare	Eagleton critiques the notion of finding hope in suffering through language. He explores the ambiguity in Edgar’s line, suggesting it may not represent hope but rather a warning of worse suffering to come.	“Edgar’s declaration may mean that as long as there is still the possibility of human utterance, there can always be worse to come.”
Macbeth by William Shakespeare	He uses Ross’s lines in Macbeth to illustrate the cold comfort that tragedy offers in recognizing that calamity has reached its limit, showing a pessimistic outlook in the tragic genre.	“Things at the worst will cease, or else climb up to what they were before.”
Antigone by Sophocles	Eagleton critiques the Hegelian reading of Antigone, which views the conflict between Antigone and Creon as a clash of equally justified moral positions. He argues that this simplifies the tragedy’s moral complexity.	“Williams is too quick to endorse the Hegelian case that tragedy springs from the collision of two equally justified but lopsided positions.”
Othello by William Shakespeare	Eagleton references the character of Iago to explain how certain forms of evil, such as Iago’s, embody the demonic and are beyond redemption or meaning. This critique contributes to his broader discussion on the limits of tragedy.	“The demonic, as with Iago confronting Othello, is affronted by the very existence of meaning and value.”
The Spanish Tragedy by Thomas Kyd	Eagleton critiques the assumption that all tragic conflicts involve equally valid positions. He points out that in works like The Spanish Tragedy, one side is clearly more justified than the other.	“There is an abundance of tragic drama in which… one party is largely in the right of it and the other in the wrong.”
The Duchess of Malfi by John Webster	Eagleton extends his critique of the Hegelian view of tragedy by using The Duchess of Malfi as an example where moral positions are not equally justified, emphasizing that not all tragic conflicts are evenly balanced.	“Antigone is not a paradigm for tragedy in general, as Hegel imagines.”

Criticism Against “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Political Critique
   Some critics argue that Eagleton places too much emphasis on the political dimension of tragedy, particularly through his critique of liberalism. This focus can be seen as reducing the complexity of tragedy to ideological battles, rather than exploring its broader emotional or existential themes.
2. Narrow View of Liberalism
   Eagleton’s portrayal of liberalism as overly accommodating and passive in the face of moral evil has been critiqued for being a narrow interpretation. Critics suggest that liberalism can, in fact, engage with radical change and resistance, challenging Eagleton’s claim that it fails to address the need for decisive political action.
3. Limited Exploration of Empathy
   Eagleton’s critique of empathy, particularly his caution against empathizing with morally reprehensible figures, has been viewed by some as too restrictive. Critics argue that empathy in tragedy serves to explore the full spectrum of human experience, and limiting it could diminish the moral and emotional complexity of tragic works.
4. Simplification of Theological Insights
   While Eagleton engages with theological insights, particularly through Rowan Williams, some critics argue that his treatment of Christian theodicy and tragedy oversimplifies the theological dimensions. Eagleton’s sharp rejection of redemptive suffering in tragedy may overlook more nuanced theological perspectives on suffering and redemption.
5. Reduction of Hegelian Dialectics
   Eagleton’s critique of the Hegelian dialectic, especially in Antigone, has been criticized for reducing Hegel’s interpretation to a mere balancing of moral positions. Critics argue that Hegel’s philosophy of tragedy is more nuanced and does not simply equate to a clash of equally justified perspectives.
6. Underrepresentation of Emotional and Aesthetic Aspects
   Some have critiqued Eagleton for underrepresenting the emotional and aesthetic dimensions of tragedy. By focusing heavily on political and philosophical critiques, he may neglect the emotional catharsis and aesthetic experiences that are central to the tragic genre.
7. Overreliance on a Marxist Lens
   Eagleton’s Marxist perspective in interpreting tragedy has been seen as limiting by some critics, who argue that his political reading can sometimes overshadow the literary and artistic value of tragic works. This approach risks reducing complex literary texts to mere reflections of class struggle and social conditions.

Representative Quotations from “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A good deal of such Idealist theorizing is little more than cut-price theodicy.”	Eagleton criticizes how Idealist thinkers like Nietzsche romanticize suffering in tragedy, reducing it to a justification for higher spiritual or artistic gain, akin to theodicy.
“Tragic art in his view is not in the first place about consolation or reconciliation.”	Eagleton, referencing Rowan Williams, argues that tragedy should not aim to offer spiritual consolation or reconciliation, but rather reflect the raw, irredeemable nature of suffering.
“Language by means of sounds, or better still words… is a vast liberation because it means that the sufferer is beginning to produce something.”	Eagleton discusses how tragedy uses language as a means to give form to suffering, allowing the sufferer to transform their pain into something that can be expressed and understood.
“There are times when entire social orders must be overthrown and refashioned.”	Eagleton critiques liberalism for its hesitancy to acknowledge when radical political change is necessary, using this to argue that tragedy often reflects the need for such upheaval.
“Tragedy cannot be reduced to a matter of recognizing the rights of others.”	He critiques the liberal view that tragedy is about recognizing and empathizing with “otherness,” arguing that not all forms of otherness, particularly those tied to evil, deserve empathy.
“Severe physical pain… are manifestations of utter meaninglessness, and that this meaninglessness is part of what we mean by the demonic.”	Eagleton highlights the limits of tragic meaning, particularly in cases of extreme suffering, which he connects to the “demonic”—a form of nihilism that resists redemption or meaning.
“Williams is too quick to endorse the Hegelian case that tragedy springs from the collision of two equally justified but lopsided positions.”	Eagleton critiques Williams for adhering to the Hegelian view that tragedy emerges from two equally valid conflicting positions, arguing that not all tragedies present morally equivalent conflicts.
“Antigone is not a paradigm for tragedy in general, as Hegel imagines.”	Eagleton challenges the idea that Antigone is a universal example of tragic conflict, arguing that many tragedies involve a clearer moral imbalance between the conflicting parties.
“The demonic… is a form of nihilism or cynicism, one which revels in absurdity, wallows in the farcical and cannot be redeemed because it cannot see the point of redemption.”	Eagleton characterizes the “demonic” as a nihilistic force in tragedy that cannot be redeemed, representing the ultimate meaninglessness of some forms of suffering.
“The orthodox Christian belief is that faith is itself a form of certainty, though not of a scientific or empirical kind.”	Here, Eagleton engages with theological insights, arguing that faith provides certainty in a way that is distinct from scientific certainty, adding a philosophical layer to his analysis of tragedy.

Suggested Readings: “Tragedy And Liberalism” By Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic. Blackwell, 2003.
2. Williams, Rowan. The Tragic Imagination. Oxford University Press, 2016.
   https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-tragic-imagination-9780198753859
3. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy. Translated by Shaun Whiteside, Penguin Classics, 1993. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/289021/the-birth-of-tragedy-by-friedrich-nietzsche/
4. Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by S. H. Butcher, Oxford University Press, 1951.
   http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/poetics.html
5. Hegel, G. W. F. Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art. Translated by T. M. Knox, Clarendon Press, 1975.
   https://archive.org/details/aestheticshegel/page/n5/mode/2up
6. Berlin, Isaiah. Four Essays on Liberty. Oxford University Press, 1969.
   https://global.oup.com/academic/product/four-essays-on-liberty-9780192810343

Introduction: “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

“The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1983 in the New Literary History journal. Eagleton’s essay has been influential in shaping discussions about the role of rhetoric in literature and literary theory, particularly in the context of postmodernism and the decline of traditional literary criticism. His argument, that rhetoric has been marginalized or dismissed in favor of other critical approaches, has sparked debates about the importance of language and style in understanding literary texts.

Summary of “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

• Poetry as Performative and Rhetorical:
  • Poetry emphasizes the experience of meaning rather than just extracting abstract truths.
  • “No poem reports on an experience without casting a continual sideways glance at itself.”
  • Poetic language is not merely reflective but constitutive of meaning, focusing on its rhetorical effect.
• T.S. Eliot’s Poetic Technique:
  • Eliot’s poetry, such as in “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”, deliberately plays with meaning.
  • The unusual metaphors, such as the evening resembling a “patient etherized upon a table,” serve to illustrate the dislocation of modern sensibility rather than provide direct meaning.
  • “The image concerns form, not content.”
• Poetry’s Corporeal Nature:
  • Poetry engages not just the mind but the body, infiltrating the reader’s unconscious.
  • “The poem goes about its proper task of raiding the reader’s unconscious and stimulating his nerve endings.”
  • The physicality of language in poetry restores the material richness that everyday speech loses.
• Rhetoric’s Decline:
  • Historically, rhetoric analyzed verbal strategies and their effects in social and political contexts.
  • Over time, “rhetoric” became a term for manipulative language, signaling the decline of its true meaning.
  • “It is a symptom of the loss of this legacy that the term ‘rhetoric’ ended up denoting bombastic or manipulative language.”
• The Sensory Basis of Human Rationality:
  • Eagleton draws on Thomas Aquinas’ idea that human rationality is shaped by our bodily existence, suggesting we are inherently poetic beings.
  • “We think the way we do because of the kind of bodies we have.”
• Failure to Grasp Performative Aspects:
  • Many literature students struggle to engage with the rhetorical and performative aspects of texts, focusing too much on content over form.
  • “They are able to produce statements like ‘Heathcliff may be full of erotic energy’ but not, by and large, statements such as ‘The poem’s exuberant tone is curiously at odds with its shambling syntax.’”
• Instrumentalization of Language:
  • The commodification of language in modern society has dulled its aesthetic and rhetorical richness.
  • “Beneath the failure to grasp literary texts as performative lies a language that has grown commodified and bureaucratized.”
• Cultural and Social Influences on Literary Sensitivity:
  • The lack of sensitivity to literary forms is not due to students’ lack of intelligence but is a result of broader cultural and socio-political conditions.
  • “In the end, they are a question of culture in the broad, anthropological meaning of the term rather than of culture in its literary or aesthetic sense.”
• Hope for Literary Education:
  • Despite the bleak outlook on the state of rhetoric, Eagleton argues that sensitivity to language and its forms can be taught.
  • “The good news, however, is that sensitivity to verbal forms and devices can most certainly be taught.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Reference from the Article
Rhetoric	The art of persuasion and analysis of verbal strategies and their effects, especially in social and political contexts.	“Rhetoric meant both the analysis of verbal strategies and their performative effects within certain social and political contexts.”
Performative Language	Language that emphasizes its own form and effect rather than just conveying a meaning.	“What matters is its rhetorical effect, not its abstractable sense.”
Metaphor	A figure of speech that describes one thing as if it were another, used here to highlight human sensory rationality.	“Metaphor…was the most suitable medium for our discourse…we are, so to speak, intrinsically poetic beings.”
Form vs. Content	The distinction between the structure and style of a text (form) and its meaning (content).	“The image concerns form, not content.”
Aesthetic	Initially a term referring to sensation and perception; later associated with art and beauty.	“The opposite of aesthetics is not philistinism but anesthetics.”
Signifier and Signified	Terms from structural linguistics; the signifier is the form of a word, while the signified is the concept it represents.	“Most students of literature…fail to see the signified in terms of the signifier.”
Close Reading	A detailed analysis of a literary text focusing on its form, language, and structure.	“Literary theory may have its vices, but a failure to read closely, with due attention to formal strategies, is not among them.”
Commodification of Language	The reduction of language to a mere tool for communication, stripped of its aesthetic and rhetorical richness.	“Beneath the failure to grasp literary texts as performative lies a language that has grown commodified and bureaucratized.”
Phenomenology	A philosophical approach that emphasizes the role of lived experience in shaping perception and understanding.	“Two centuries later, the term for this sensory rationality would be…phenomenology.”

Contribution of “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution from “The Death of Rhetoric”	Reference from the Article
Rhetorical Theory	Eagleton reaffirms the centrality of rhetoric as an analytical tool for understanding language’s performative effects and social function.	“Rhetoric meant both the analysis of verbal strategies and their performative effects within certain social and political contexts.”
Formalism/New Criticism	The article underscores the importance of form and style, suggesting that the meaning of a text emerges from its rhetorical and formal properties.	“Poetry is the place where the performative, rhetorical dimensions of speech rise to supreme self-consciousness.”
Post-Structuralism	Echoing post-structuralist concerns, Eagleton highlights how meaning is deferred, stressing that language works through its form rather than a fixed meaning.	“Conscious meaning keeps the mind harmlessly preoccupied while the poem goes about its proper task of raiding the reader’s unconscious and stimulating his nerve endings.”
Phenomenology	Eagleton draws from phenomenology, particularly its focus on lived experience and the material nature of language, to stress that poetry engages bodily and sensory experience.	“Language for Wittgenstein takes the shape it does because of the specific form of life with which it is interwoven.”
Marxist Literary Theory	The article critiques the commodification of language under capitalist conditions, linking it to a loss of aesthetic and rhetorical sensitivity in society.	“The sign does not fare well in social orders dominated by a crassly instrumental rationality. It is stripped of its sensuous specificity and reduced to a mere communicative token.”
Structuralism	Eagleton engages with the structuralist notion of the relationship between signifier and signified, emphasizing the importance of analyzing the materiality of the sign.	“Most students of literature…fail to see the signified in terms of the signifier.”
Aesthetic Theory	The concept of aesthetics as a sensory rationality, historically linked to Enlightenment thought, is extended to show how modern societies have lost this sensitivity.	“The aesthetic in its modern sense began life as a kind of prosthesis to Enlightenment reason.”
Critical Pedagogy	Eagleton discusses the challenges of teaching sensitivity to language in a commodified culture, pointing to the need for a more engaged form of literary education.	“Sensitivity to verbal forms and devices can most certainly be taught. The question is who is going to teach it…who will educate the educators.”
Cultural Theory	Eagleton suggests that the decline of rhetorical reading is tied to broader cultural shifts in late-modern civilization, especially regarding language and its commodification.	“In the end, they are a question of culture in the broad, anthropological meaning of the term rather than of culture in its literary or aesthetic sense.”

Key Contributions:

1. Rhetorical Theory: Eagleton revitalizes rhetoric as a lens for literary analysis, emphasizing its social and political significance beyond mere stylistic ornamentation.
2. Formalism/New Criticism: He advocates for close attention to form, tone, rhythm, and rhetorical strategies, which are essential to understanding the meaning of a text.
3. Post-Structuralism: Eagleton aligns with post-structuralist views by stressing the indeterminacy of meaning and the centrality of form over content in literary texts.
4. Marxist Literary Theory: The article critiques how capitalist societies devalue language by reducing it to an instrument for communication, thus undermining its aesthetic and performative qualities.
5. Phenomenology & Aesthetic Theory: Drawing on phenomenology, Eagleton emphasizes the embodied and sensory dimensions of language, especially in poetry, where form is as critical as content.
6. Cultural Theory: The piece links the decline of literary sensitivity to the broader socio-political context, particularly under late-modern capitalism, where language becomes commodified.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Focus	Critique Through Eagleton’s Lens	Reference from Eagleton
The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S. Eliot	Form vs. Content and Rhetoric	Eliot’s use of dislocated metaphors (e.g., “patient etherized upon a table”) prioritizes rhetorical effect over determinate meaning.	“What matters is its rhetorical effect, not its abstractable sense.”
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Rhetorical and Performative Dimensions of Language	Hamlet’s final words (“The rest is silence”) emphasize the performative nature of language, reflecting the broader rhetorical framework of the play.	“Beneath the failure to grasp literary texts as performative lies a language that has grown commodified and bureaucratized.”
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Complexity of Form and Sensory Experience	The fragmented form of The Waste Land engages the reader’s sensory experience, emphasizing form over coherence, reflecting modern dislocation.	“The poem goes about its proper task of raiding the reader’s unconscious and stimulating his nerve endings.”
Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë	Failure to Grasp Performative and Rhetorical Elements	The complex narrative structure and unreliable narrators in Wuthering Heights are often overlooked, though they play a key performative role.	“Most students of literature today…fail to see the signified in terms of the signifier.”

Criticism Against “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

• Overemphasis on Form Over Content:
  • Critics may argue that Eagleton places too much importance on the form and rhetorical elements of a text, potentially downplaying the significance of thematic content and narrative meaning.
• Romanticizing the Past:
  • Eagleton laments the decline of rhetoric in modern civilization, but some may view this as a romanticization of the past, idealizing earlier rhetorical traditions without fully acknowledging the evolution of language and its current uses.
• Neglect of Popular or Non-Elite Texts:
  • The article primarily focuses on high literary works and neglects the performative aspects of more popular or non-elite texts, which may also demonstrate complex rhetorical strategies.
• Cultural Determinism:
  • Eagleton’s argument that the commodification of language is tied to socio-political and economic factors may be seen as overly deterministic, not allowing for individual agency in the use and appreciation of language.
• Lack of Practical Solutions for Teaching Rhetorical Sensitivity:
  • While Eagleton critiques the loss of rhetorical awareness in literary education, he provides limited practical advice for educators on how to reintroduce or teach these skills effectively.
• Dismissal of Modern Theoretical Approaches:
  • Eagleton critiques late-modern language use but may be seen as dismissive of more contemporary literary theories (e.g., postmodernism, deconstruction) that embrace the fluidity of meaning and the transformation of language.
• Elitist View of Language and Literature:
  • Some may argue that Eagleton’s perspective aligns with an elitist view of language, focusing on high art and literary sophistication, potentially alienating more accessible or diverse forms of expression.

Representative Quotations from “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Poetry is the place where the performative, rhetorical dimensions of speech rise to supreme self-consciousness.”	Eagleton emphasizes that poetry is the pinnacle of language’s self-awareness, where the way words are used (rhetoric) is as important as their meaning.
“No poem reports on an experience without casting a continual sideways glance at itself.”	This highlights how poetry reflects on its own form and structure, drawing attention to the act of its creation, not just the content or message it conveys.
“The image concerns form, not content.”	Eagleton explains how in modern poetry (especially in Eliot’s work), images and metaphors are more about their rhetorical and formal effects than any concrete meaning.
“Conscious meaning keeps the mind harmlessly preoccupied while the poem goes about its proper task of raiding the reader’s unconscious.”	The quotation illustrates Eagleton’s view that poetry operates on a deeper, unconscious level, affecting the reader’s emotions and instincts rather than delivering clear meaning.
“Rhetoric meant both the analysis of verbal strategies and their performative effects within certain social and political contexts.”	Here, Eagleton recalls the classical meaning of rhetoric as not just style, but a means of analyzing the broader social and political implications of language.
“Beneath the failure to grasp literary texts as performative lies a language that has grown commodified and bureaucratized.”	He criticizes the way modern society treats language, reducing it to a functional tool rather than appreciating its rich, performative potential.
“The aesthetic in its modern sense began life as a kind of prosthesis to Enlightenment reason.”	This reflects Eagleton’s argument that the concept of aesthetics originally developed as a way to bridge reason and sensory experience, helping rationality connect with lived experience.
“Most students of literature today…fail to see the signified in terms of the signifier.”	Eagleton critiques the current state of literary education, arguing that many students cannot appreciate the formal properties of language (signifier) in relation to meaning (signified).
“In the end, they are a question of culture in the broad, anthropological meaning of the term rather than of culture in its literary or aesthetic sense.”	He suggests that literary sensitivity is shaped by larger socio-political and cultural forces, not just literary theory or academic teaching.
“To eradicate the past is to help abolish the future, since the past…contains precious emancipator resources for ages to come.”	Eagleton expresses concern about the modern disregard for history, arguing that the loss of memory and tradition undermines society’s potential for progress and liberation.

Suggested Readings: “The Death of Rhetoric” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. The Event of Literature. Yale University Press, 2012.
2. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
3. Barthes, Roland. S/Z: An Essay. Translated by Richard Miller, Hill and Wang, 1974.
   https://us.macmillan.com/books/9780374521677/sz
4. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1980.
   https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674467262

·  Academic Articles:

• Jameson, Fredric. “Postmodernism, or the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism.” New Left Review, no. 146, 1984, pp. 53-92.
• Ricoeur, Paul. “The Function of Fiction in Shaping Reality.” Man and World, vol. 12, no. 2, 1979, pp. 123-141.
  https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF01252424
• Waugh, Patricia. Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction. Methuen, 1984. https://www.routledge.com/Metafiction-The-Theory-and-Practice-of-Self-Conscious-Fiction/Waugh/p/book/9780416326304

Introduction: “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

“Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland first appeared in 1993 in the journal Contemporary Psychoanalysis. This article highlights the importance of literature and literary theory in the field of psychoanalysis. Holland argues that literature can serve as a valuable tool for understanding the human psyche, and that literary theory can provide a framework for interpreting literary texts in a psychologically meaningful way. He emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration between psychoanalysis and literary studies, and explores the ways in which these two fields can inform and enrich each other.

Summary of “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Term/Concept	Description
Psychoanalysis Phases	The three phases in psychoanalysis: conscious-unconscious (Freud), ego-nonego (ego-psychology), and self-other (object-relations and contemporary approaches).
Historical Criticism	Early 19th-century approach that treats literary characters and events as real, with language acting as a transparent medium to historical or authorial contexts.
New Criticism	A mid-20th-century critical approach that focuses on analyzing the text’s structure and form as an entity in itself, without considering external references.
Postmodern Criticism	Contemporary criticism focusing on the relationship between the text and its audience, often embracing ambiguity, intertextuality, and playful self-awareness.
Object-Relations Theory	A third phase of psychoanalysis focusing on the dynamic interactions between the self and others, used to explore identity and relationships in literature.
Reader-Response Theory	A theory emphasizing the reader’s role in interpreting a text, focusing on personal emotional reactions and subjective responses to the literature.
Feminist Psychoanalytic Criticism	A critical approach that explores how gender and socially constructed roles influence the writing and reading of texts, often critiquing male dominance.
Sublimation	A defense mechanism where unconscious desires (often sexual) are transformed into socially acceptable or creative activities, applied in literary interpretation.
Oedipus Complex	A Freudian concept where a child experiences desire for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent, frequently applied in character analysis.
Primal Scene Fantasy	A psychoanalytic idea involving a child’s imagined or real witnessing of sexual relations between parents, used to analyze unconscious dynamics in texts.

Contribution of “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories

• Introduction of a Three-Phase Model for Psychoanalysis in Literature
  Holland divides the development of psychoanalytic theory into three distinct phases: conscious-unconscious, ego-nonego, and self-other. This model expands the scope of psychoanalytic criticism by recognizing evolving approaches within psychoanalysis and how these approaches can be applied to literary analysis.

“We have three phases of psychoanalysis: conscious—unconscious, ego—nonego, and self and other.”

• Integration of Psychoanalysis with Various Literary Theories
  Holland demonstrates how psychoanalysis can be applied to different phases of literary criticism: historical, New Criticism, and postmodern. His approach shows that psychoanalysis can work in tandem with these literary frameworks to analyze texts, allowing for a deeper understanding of both the text and the reader’s engagement with it.

“Now we have three phases of psychoanalysis and three phases of literary criticism.”

• Emphasis on Reader-Response Theory and Psychoanalysis
  Holland contributes to reader-response criticism by emphasizing the active role of the reader in literary interpretation. He argues that the reader’s unconscious processes shape their understanding of the text, making reading a highly personal and subjective experience.

“Instead of saying the poem acts out a sublimation, these third phase psychoanalytic critics would say, The reader acts out a sublimation by means of the poem.”

• Focus on the Relationship Between Text and Reader in Postmodern Criticism
  Holland’s work aligns with postmodern theories that question the fixed relationship between the text and its reader. He argues that the literary text is no longer seen as an end in itself but as a medium through which readers project their psychological processes and interpretations.

“The postmodernist says, I’m just playing; I don’t really mean this—it’s up to you to make sense of it.”

• Advancing the Concept of Text as a Psychological Process
  Holland’s idea that a text can function as a psychological entity, similar to the human mind, allows critics to analyze not just the content of a text but also its form as a manifestation of unconscious processes. This concept advances psychoanalytic literary theory beyond simple character analysis to a broader analysis of the text’s form and the reader’s psychological interaction with it.

“The poem embodies a mental process or, more properly, an ego process that we introject.”

• Application of Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theories in Literature
  Holland incorporates newer psychoanalytic theories, such as object-relations and self-psychology, into the analysis of literature. This extends psychoanalytic literary criticism by allowing for more nuanced explorations of identity, relationships, and the self within texts.

“Contemporary psychoanalytic approaches such as object-relations theory, self-psychology (Kohut), and feminist critiques.”

• Feminist Psychoanalytic Criticism
  Holland highlights how feminist psychoanalytic critics address gender dynamics in both the reading and writing of literature. His inclusion of feminist theory demonstrates the adaptability of psychoanalysis to explore how literature shapes and is shaped by gendered experiences.

“Feminist psychoanalytic critics have addressed the real reactions of real women to a literature and criticism that are often dominated by male assumptions.”

• Challenges the Limitations of Traditional Psychoanalytic Criticism
  By emphasizing the importance of individual and subjective responses to texts, Holland critiques the reductionist tendencies of early psychoanalytic criticism, which often focused narrowly on authorial intent or character analysis.

“There is no way, no way!, one can apply psychoanalysis to literature directly. Psychoanalysis can only apply to a person.”

• Bridge Between Psychoanalysis and Literary Criticism
  Holland’s most significant contribution is his formulation of a bridge between psychoanalysis (which focuses on people and their minds) and literary criticism (which focuses on texts and language). He argues that this bridge is the interaction between the writer, the reader, and the text itself.

“The bridge is actual people engaging in actual literary transactions… the people that write and the people that read, and their very acts of writing and reading.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

Book Title	Phase of Psychoanalysis	Critique Focus
Oedipus Rex (Sophocles)	First Phase (Conscious-Unconscious)	Holland applies Freud’s Oedipus complex to critique the character of Oedipus and the audience’s unconscious identification with his guilt and incestuous desires. Freud’s theory illuminates the psychological impact on the audience.
Hamlet (Shakespeare)	First Phase (Conscious-Unconscious)	Freud’s Oedipal analysis is extended to Hamlet’s hesitation in avenging his father. Holland critiques Hamlet’s delay as stemming from repressed desires toward his mother, similar to Freud’s psychoanalysis of unconscious drives.
Ulysses (James Joyce)	Second Phase (Ego-Nonego)	Holland critiques the modernist structure and narrative techniques in Joyce’s Ulysses using ego-psychology, analyzing how the text reflects complex internal conflicts and defenses of the characters through stream-of-consciousness.
Emily Dickinson’s Poetry	Third Phase (Self and Other)	Holland uses object-relations theory to explore Dickinson’s poems as reflecting a complex interaction between imagination (revery) and reality, with a focus on the reader’s psychological response to the symbolic language of the text.

Criticism Against “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

• Over-reliance on Psychoanalytic Theory
  Critics argue that Holland’s focus on psychoanalysis, particularly Freudian concepts, limits the scope of literary interpretation. Some feel that his theories overemphasize unconscious drives at the expense of other factors like cultural, historical, or political contexts.
• Reduction of Literary Texts to Psychological Models
  Holland’s application of psychoanalytic phases can be seen as reductive, as it often seeks to explain complex literary works purely through psychological frameworks. This may ignore other aspects of the text, such as aesthetic form, linguistic innovation, or broader thematic concerns.
• Ambiguity in Reader-Response Criticism
  While Holland advocates for a reader-response approach, some critics find his reliance on the reader’s psychological projections to be too subjective. This raises concerns about the validity of literary analysis when it becomes entirely dependent on individual reactions, potentially leading to a lack of consistent interpretive standards.
• Neglect of Contemporary Critical Theories
  Holland’s work is seen by some as being out of step with newer critical theories like deconstruction, post-colonialism, and queer theory. His emphasis on psychoanalysis may limit engagement with these diverse, contemporary approaches that challenge the traditional psychoanalytic focus on universal experiences.
• Inadequate Bridging Between Psychoanalysis and Literature
  Although Holland attempts to bridge psychoanalysis and literature through the interaction of writers, readers, and texts, critics argue that his model often lacks clarity in demonstrating how psychological theories directly enhance literary understanding without imposing artificial connections.
• Limited Engagement with Textual Formalism
  Some critics feel that Holland downplays the importance of formal elements like narrative structure, syntax, and style, which are crucial to understanding literature. His psychoanalytic focus can sometimes overshadow the technical and formal analysis of literary texts.
• Oversimplification of Complex Psychoanalytic Theories
  While Holland integrates psychoanalysis into literary criticism, some argue that he oversimplifies intricate psychoanalytic theories, particularly Lacanian and post-Freudian developments, reducing their depth in favor of more generalized interpretations.

Representative Quotations from “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Psychoanalysis does not deal with texts but with persons.”	Holland emphasizes that psychoanalysis is fundamentally about human psychology, and when applied to literature, it must focus on the psychological experiences of the author, character, or reader rather than the text itself.
“We have three phases of psychoanalysis: conscious—unconscious, ego—nonego, and self and other.”	This outlines Holland’s categorization of the development of psychoanalysis, marking the evolution from Freud’s theories to contemporary psychoanalytic schools.
“In POMO, everything has quotation marks around it. The postmodernist says, I’m just playing; I don’t really mean this—it’s up to you to make sense of it.”	Holland critiques postmodernism for its playful, ambiguous approach to art and literature, where meaning is decentralized and left for the audience to interpret, reflecting the postmodern skepticism of fixed meaning.
“Feminist psychoanalytic critics have addressed the real reactions of real women to a literature and criticism that are often dominated by male assumptions.”	This highlights how feminist critics use psychoanalytic frameworks to explore the gendered nature of literature, addressing issues of male dominance in both the creation and interpretation of texts.
“The postmodern art is jokey and tricky. It self-consciously builds on other art forms.”	Here, Holland describes postmodern art and literature as self-referential and ironic, with a focus on intertextuality and the relationship between the work and its audience, rather than the work standing as a self-contained entity.
“Reader-response critics address the real reactions of real people.”	Holland advocates for reader-response theory, where the focus shifts from the author and the text to how individual readers interact with and interpret a literary work based on their personal experiences and psychology.
“Psychoanalytic criticism was a considerable advance over first phase, but there is that peculiar assumption that the poem is a mind that the critic can see.”	Holland critiques second-phase psychoanalytic criticism for its tendency to treat the text itself as if it were a mind, leading to oversimplified interpretations that assume direct parallels between textual structure and psychological processes.
“The poem embodies a mental process or, more properly, an ego process that we introject.”	This quote reflects Holland’s view that literature can be understood as a reflection of psychological processes, particularly ego functions, which readers internalize and process through their own mental frameworks.
“There is no way, no way!, one can apply psychoanalysis to literature directly.”	Holland asserts that psychoanalysis must focus on people, not texts. Therefore, literary critics must find ways to apply psychological analysis to authors, characters, or readers rather than to words or narrative structures alone.
“The bridge is actual people engaging in actual literary transactions… the people that write and the people that read, and their very acts of writing and reading.”	This highlights Holland’s central thesis that the connection between psychoanalysis and literature lies in the interaction between readers and texts, where personal, psychological experiences shape literary interpretation and meaning.

Suggested Readings: “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

1. Holland, Norman N. The Dynamics of Literary Response. Oxford University Press, 1968.
2. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by A.A. Brill, Macmillan, 1913.
3. Lacan, Jacques. Ecrits: A Selection. Translated by Bruce Fink, W. W. Norton & Company, 2006.
4. Showalter, Elaine. The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830–1980. Pantheon Books, 1985.
5. Flynn, Elizabeth A., and Patrocinio Schweickart, editors. Gender and Reading: Essays on Readers, Texts, and Contexts. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986. https://www.amazon.com/Gender-Reading-Essays-Readers-Contexts/dp/0801833064
6. Kristeva, Julia. Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art. Translated by Leon S. Roudiez, Columbia University Press, 1980.
   https://www.amazon.com/Desire-Language-Semiotic-Approach-Literature/dp/0231048077
7. Jameson, Fredric. Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Duke University Press, 1991.
   https://www.amazon.com/Postmodernism-Cultural-Late-Capitalism-Theories/dp/0822310902
8. Wright, Elizabeth. Psychoanalytic Criticism: A Reappraisal. Routledge, 1998.
   https://www.routledge.com/Psychoanalytic-Criticism-A-Reappraisal/Wright/p/book/9780415156818
9. Brooks, Peter. Psychoanalysis and Storytelling. Blackwell, 1994.
   https://www.amazon.com/Psychoanalysis-Storytelling-Peter-Brooks/dp/0631186783

Introduction: “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

“Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton was first published in 1982 as part of the Royal Institute of Philosophy Lecture Series (Volume 14). This essay holds significant importance in the realms of literature and literary theory due to its insightful exploration of Pierre Macherey’s Marxist approach to literary analysis. Eagleton delves into Macherey’s concept of the “transcendental unconscious” and its implications for understanding the underlying ideological structures at play within literary texts. By examining Macherey’s work, Eagleton sheds light on the ways in which literature can both reflect and challenge dominant social and political ideologies, offering valuable insights for scholars and students alike.

Summary of “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

• Macherey’s Critique of Neo-Hegelianism:
  • Pierre Macherey attempts to liberate Marxist literary criticism from neo-Hegelian and empirical ideologies.
  • He emphasizes moving away from the concept of the “author as producer” that focuses on art’s relation to its material base and superstructure.
  • Quotation: “Macherey’s project is nothing less than the liberation of Marxist criticism from every taint of Hegelianism and empiricism.”
• Macherey’s Althusserian Approach:
  • He applies Althusserian epistemology to literary criticism, distinguishing criticism from its object, the text.
  • For Macherey, criticism produces a new discourse that reveals what the text does not explicitly say, unlike empirical criticism that treats the text as a spontaneous given.
  • Quotation: “Criticism is not an ‘instrument’ or ‘passage’ to the truth of a text, but a transformative labor which makes its object appear other than it is.”
• Text as a Determinate Object:
  • The literary text is seen as a determinate object shaped by specific conditions and labor. The author does not “create” but “discovers” the narrative, indicating that the text has its own necessity that cannot be altered.
  • Quotation: “The necessity of the text is not the reflection of the author’s sustaining, unifying intention.”
• Internal Contradictions and Ruptures:
  • According to Macherey, every text is characterized by internal ruptures and contradictions, which are essential to its identity. These internal diversities are not merely a reflection of an underlying unity but the very structure of the text itself.
  • Quotation: “The work is constituted by an interior ‘rupture’ or ‘decentrement’ worked upon its initial situation.”
• Silences and Absences in the Text:
  • Macherey argues that the truth of a literary work lies not in what it explicitly states, but in its silences and absences. This absence becomes a key feature of the text, revealing the gaps and limits in the ideological structure.
  • Quotation: “The text puts the ideology into contradiction by illuminating its gaps and limits, revealing ideology as a structure of absences.”
• Distancing Ideology Through Literary Form:
  • The contradictions within the text reveal its ideological limits, showing how the text distances itself from ideology. However, this distancing does not automatically subvert ideology; it can also support it, depending on the historical and ideological context.
  • Quotation: “Form distantiates the ideological, but whether it subverts or underwrites depends… upon the historical and ideological situation in which the text is situated.”
• Rejection of Structuralism:
  • Macherey critiques the structuralist approach, which seeks to decode hidden meanings within the text. For him, the significance of the text is not found in its “depth” but in its external relation to ideology and other texts.
  • Quotation: “The work hides nothing, keeps no secret, is entirely ‘readable’ and offered to view.”
• Literary Text as an Active Force:
  • The literary text does not merely reflect ideology but actively engages with it, transforming it in the process. This interaction reveals the ideological absences and contradictions that underlie the work.
  • Quotation: “The literary work, in thus transforming the ideological illusion, implicitly yields a critique of its own ideological status.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Explanation from the Text
Author as Producer	A Marxist concept emphasizing the role of the author in relation to the material base and superstructure, often seen as politically indeterminate in certain contexts.	“The ‘author as producer’ concept is one which must, as it were, lie dormant over certain spans of literary history.”
Epistemological Break	A concept by Althusser, applied by Macherey to establish a radical distinction between literary criticism and the text it analyzes.	“Macherey’s intention is to inaugurate a radical ‘epistemological break’ with what has come before.”
Text as a Determinate Object	The idea that the literary text is not a reflection of the author’s intent but the result of specific historical and material conditions, with its own internal necessity.	“The literary object is determinate, and so can be the object of rational study.”
Internal Ruptures	The concept that a literary work is characterized by contradictions and breaks, which are essential to its structure and meaning.	“The work is constituted by an interior ‘rupture’ or ‘decentrement’ worked upon its initial situation.”
Silences and Absences	Refers to the unspoken elements within a text that reveal deeper ideological tensions and contradictions, shaping the text’s meaning.	“Criticism…makes speak the text’s silences.”
Normative Illusion	A critical error that measures the text against an ideal model or normative expectations, ignoring the text’s specific materiality and conditions of production.	“The normative illusion constitutes a refusal of the object as it is: it ‘corrects’ it against an independent, pre-existent model.”
Ideological Contradiction	The idea that texts do not merely reflect ideology but engage with its contradictions, revealing ideological limits and absences.	“The text puts the ideology into contradiction by illuminating its gaps and limits.”
Empiricism	A critical approach critiqued by Macherey for treating texts as given objects, which can be known merely through observation without transformation.	“Scientific criticism is the antagonist of empiricist critical ‘knowledge’.”
Form as Distantiation	The idea that literary form distances itself from ideology, potentially subverting or supporting it based on historical and ideological contexts.	“Form distantiates the ideological.”

Contribution of “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton  to Literary Theory/Theories

• Critique of Empiricism in Literary Criticism:
  • Eagleton highlights Macherey’s rejection of empiricist approaches that treat the text as a given object to be passively interpreted. Instead, Macherey advocates for a transformative critique where criticism actively produces new knowledge by engaging with the silences of the text.
  • Quotation: “Criticism…is a transformative labor which makes its object appear other than it is.”
• Rejection of the “Author as Creator” Concept:
  • The theory disputes the romanticized idea of the author as a creator who imposes unity on the text. Macherey sees the author as a discoverer rather than an inventor, operating under the constraints of ideological and narrative structures.
  • Quotation: “It is mere mystification to speak of the author as a ‘creator’.”
• Focus on Internal Contradictions and Silences:
  • Macherey introduces the concept that the contradictions, ruptures, and silences within a text are integral to its meaning. These silences reveal the ideological limits within the text, moving beyond traditional readings that seek a unified meaning.
  • Quotation: “The task of criticism is to theorize the necessity of this diversity.”
• Text as a Site of Ideological Conflict:
  • Macherey views the literary text not as a reflection of ideology but as an active space where ideology is produced and contested. This positions the text as a battleground of conflicting ideologies rather than a passive vessel of ideological content.
  • Quotation: “The text produces ideology…and in doing so it reveals in its own internal dislocations the gaps and limits.”
• Contribution to the Althusserian Tradition:
  • Macherey applies Althusserian epistemology to literary criticism, focusing on how criticism and literature belong to different realms of knowledge production. This epistemological break is a radical departure from both Hegelian dialectics and empiricism.
  • Quotation: “His intention is to inaugurate a radical ‘epistemological break’ with what has come before.”
• Revolutionary Approach to Literary Form:
  • Macherey challenges traditional formalist theories, proposing that form is not a mere reflection of ideological content but a distancing mechanism that reveals the ideological tensions and absences within a text.
  • Quotation: “Form distantiates the ideological, but whether it subverts or underwrites depends…upon the historical and ideological situation.”
• Criticism as a Science:
  • He proposes that criticism is not simply a hermeneutic task of interpreting a text’s hidden meanings, but rather a scientific process of constructing new knowledge that highlights the conditions of a text’s possibility, including its inherent contradictions.
  • Quotation: “Scientific criticism…establishes a decisive rupture between itself and the object, distancing itself to produce a new knowledge of it.”
• Literature as Ideological Production, Not Reproduction:
  • Eagleton emphasizes Macherey’s view that literature does not reflect reality or ideology but produces it. This is a key distinction in Marxist theory, asserting that literature actively shapes and transforms the ideological world rather than simply mirroring it.
  • Quotation: “Rather than ‘reproducing’ ideology, the text produces it, setting it in motion and endowing it with a form.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through Macherey’s Theory	Quotation/Explanation from the Text
Jules Verne’s Fiction	Verne’s fiction attempts to represent bourgeois progress but is ideologically constrained to use images from the past. This contradiction creates an internal ideological torsion.	“Verne’s fiction ‘wants’ to represent bourgeois progress as a march forward to the future, yet finds itself enforced to represent this march in images bound to the past.”
Henry James’ Novels	James’ aesthetic redefinition of fiction as organic form is tied to material shifts in literary production but does not necessarily reflect an ideological transformation.	“The aesthetic redefinition of fiction as ‘organic form’ which develops in late nineteenth-century England…is not clear how such material mutations become an active element.”
Thackeray’s Henry Esmond	While this novel differs in its production mode from Thackeray’s serialized works, it does not fundamentally alter his ideological stance, illustrating the gap between form and ideology.	“Though this difference of productive mode undoubtedly impresses itself on the novel’s form, it leaves the ‘Thackerayan ideology’ essentially intact.”
Tolstoy’s Works (Lenin’s Critique)	Tolstoy’s work is described as a selective mirror of the Russian Revolution, reflecting fragmented and partial images rather than a straightforward ideological reproduction.	“If Tolstoy’s work is indeed a mirror, then it is an angled, selective one thronged by fragmented images, as notable for what it does not, as for what it does, reflect.”

Criticism Against “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton  

• Risk of Formalism:
  • Macherey’s focus on literary form as a site of ideological distantiation can lead to a Marxist variety of formalism, where form is treated as having an essential and unchanging function.
  • Quotation: “Though his contention that form distantiates the ideological is suggestive, why should this distantiation automatically be subversive?”
• Neglect of Reader Reception:
  • Macherey’s early work focuses solely on the production of the text, neglecting the role of reader reception and the historical context in which a text is interpreted. This overlooks how texts “live” through their interactions with readers.
  • Quotation: “His early work…completely suppresses the reality of the literary text as an historically mutable practice which ‘lives’ only in the process of its transaction with particular readers.”
• Overemphasis on Ideology as Homogeneous:
  • Macherey, following Althusser, tends to treat ideology as a non-contradictory and homogeneous illusion. This downplays the internal contradictions and class struggles that shape ideology, leading to an overly rigid understanding of how texts engage with ideology.
  • Quotation: “Ideology, however, has no such homogeneity…it is certainly homogenizing in tendency, but it nowhere, fortunately, has the success which Macherey assigns to it.”
• Abstract View of Ideology and Art:
  • By focusing on how texts distort or transform ideology, Macherey’s theory risks treating literary works as abstract constructions, distancing them from the material and historical realities they engage with.
  • Quotation: “Macherey’s formalism is in part a result of his Althusserian notion of ideology…as a structure of absences rather than something engaged with historical contradictions.”

Representative Quotations from “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Criticism is not an ‘instrument’ or ‘passage’ to the truth of a text, but a transformative labor which makes its object appear other than it is.”	Macherey views criticism as an active process that transforms the text, rather than merely uncovering an already present truth.
“The necessity of the text is not the reflection of the author’s sustaining, unifying intention.”	This challenges the traditional view of the author as the unifying force of a text, emphasizing instead the text’s own internal structure and necessity.
“The text puts the ideology into contradiction by illuminating its gaps and limits, revealing ideology as a structure of absences.”	Macherey’s theory focuses on the ideological gaps and contradictions within a text, showing how the text exposes the limits of its own ideology.
“Form distantiates the ideological, but whether it subverts or underwrites depends…upon the historical and ideological situation.”	Here, Eagleton emphasizes that the distancing function of form does not always lead to subversion; its impact is contingent on historical context.
“Every work is constituted by an interior ‘rupture’ or ‘decentrement’ worked upon its initial situation.”	Macherey asserts that every literary text is internally divided, characterized by contradictions and ruptures, rather than a harmonious unity.
“The ‘author as producer’ concept is one which must, as it were, lie dormant over certain spans of literary history.”	Eagleton critiques the applicability of the “author as producer” concept, arguing that it may not be relevant across all periods of literary history.
“The work’s ‘necessity’ is not an initial ‘given’ but a product…the meeting-place of several diverse ‘lines of necessity’.”	The text’s internal necessity is not pre-determined by the author but emerges from the interaction of various conflicting elements within the work.
“The text produces ideology…and in doing so it reveals in its own internal dislocations the gaps and limits.”	Rather than simply reflecting ideology, Macherey suggests that literary texts actively produce ideology, while also exposing its limitations.
“It is necessary to determine what a text lacks—lacks without which it would not exist, would have nothing to say.”	This quotation highlights the importance of the absences in a text, which are crucial to its meaning and existence according to Macherey’s theory.
“The postulate of the work’s unity, which has always more or less haunted bourgeois criticism, must be unequivocally denounced.”	Macherey rejects the notion that literary works possess a unified meaning, a view prevalent in traditional, bourgeois criticism.

Suggested Readings: “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1983. https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory.
2. Althusser, Louis. Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 1971. https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/althusser/1970/lenin-philosophy.htm.
3. Macherey, Pierre. A Theory of Literary Production. Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1978. https://www.routledge.com/A-Theory-of-Literary-Production/Macherey/p/book/9780415772860.
4. Lukács, Georg. The Theory of the Novel: A Historico-philosophical Essay on the Forms of Great Epic Literature. MIT Press, 1971. https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262620208/the-theory-of-the-novel/.
5. Brecht, Bertolt. Brecht on Theatre: The Development of an Aesthetic. Methuen Drama, 1964. https://www.bloomsbury.com/us/brecht-on-theatre-9780413388001/.
6. Benjamin, Walter. Illuminations: Essays and Reflections. Schocken Books, 1968. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/176085/illuminations-by-walter-benjamin/.
7. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981. https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801492228/the-political-unconscious/.
8. Balibar, Étienne, and Pierre Macherey. Reading Capital. NLB, 1970. https://www.versobooks.com/products/1718-reading-capital.
9. Williams, Raymond. Marxism and Literature. Oxford University Press, 1977. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/marxism-and-literature-9780198760610.