Rhetorical Theory in Literature

Rhetorical Theory in Literature: Etymology/Term, Definition, and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “rhetorical” in rhetorical theory in literature has its roots in ancient Greece, deriving from the Greek word “rhetorike,” meaning the art of public speaking. It evolved into Latin as “rhetorica” and entered Middle English as “rhetorik” before taking its current form. Rhetoric has been a prominent aspect of communication throughout history, with its study aiming to understand persuasive language and effective discourse.

Definition:

Rhetorical theory in literature encompasses the systematic study of persuasive communication. It examines how language, symbols, and various strategies are employed to influence and persuade an audience. This interdisciplinary field delves into the art of discourse, analyzing the ways in which speakers or writers use language to achieve their goals, whether those involve convincing, informing, or entertaining.

Concept:

1. Persuasion and Influence: Rhetorical theory in literature centers on the understanding of persuasive techniques employed in communication. It explores how speakers or writers use ethos (credibility), pathos (emotional appeal), and logos (logical reasoning) to sway opinions and attitudes.
2. Audience Awareness: A crucial aspect of rhetoric involves being attuned to the audience. Rhetorical theorists emphasize the significance of tailoring messages to the characteristics, beliefs, and values of the audience to maximize persuasive impact.
3. Rhetorical Devices and Strategies: The study of rhetoric involves an examination of various linguistic tools and strategies, such as metaphors, similes, analogies, and rhetorical questions. These devices contribute to the artful construction of persuasive messages.
4. Cultural and Historical Context: Rhetorical theorists consider the influence of cultural and historical contexts on communication. They explore how societal norms, values, and historical events shape the effectiveness of rhetorical strategies.
5. Critical Analysis: Rhetorical theory encourages a critical examination of discourse. Scholars in this field assess speeches, texts, and media messages to uncover underlying meanings, biases, and the potential impact on the audience.

Rhetorical Theory in Literature: Major Theorists, Works, and Arguments

1. Aristotle (384-322 BCE):
   • Works: Rhetoric
   • Key Arguments: Aristotle’s Rhetoric is one of the foundational texts in rhetorical theory. He defined rhetoric as the ability to discover the available means of persuasion in any given situation. Aristotle identified three main persuasive appeals: ethos (credibility), pathos (emotion), and logos (logic).
2. Cicero (106-43 BCE):
   • Works: De Inventione, De Oratore
   • Key Arguments: Cicero, a Roman orator, emphasized the importance of eloquence and the orator’s role in civic life. He discussed the five canons of rhetoric: invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. Cicero’s ideas influenced the development of rhetorical theory in both ancient and Renaissance periods.
3. Quintilian (35-100 CE):
   • Work: Institutio Oratoria (“Institutes of Oratory”)
   • Key Arguments: Quintilian focused on the education and training of the orator. He outlined a comprehensive system of rhetorical education, covering not only the skills of persuasion but also the ethical responsibilities of the orator.
4. Kenneth Burke (1897-1993):
   • Works: A Grammar of Motives, A Rhetoric of Motives
   • Key Arguments: Burke’s rhetorical theory is centered around the concept of identification. He explored how rhetoric functions as a symbolic system for shaping motives and creating a sense of community. His ideas had a significant impact on both rhetorical theory and literary criticism.
5. Michel Foucault (1926-1984):
   • Works: Discipline and Punish, The Archaeology of Knowledge
   • Key Arguments: Foucault’s approach to rhetoric involves the study of power and discourse. He examined how language shapes social institutions and power structures. His ideas on the relationship between knowledge, power, and discourse have influenced critical and cultural studies.
6. Chaim Perelman (1912-1984) and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca (1902-1984):
   • Work: The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation
   • Key Arguments: Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca focused on the concept of argumentation and the role of the audience in persuasion. They developed the idea of the rhetorical situation and emphasized the importance of audience acceptance in argumentation.
7. I.A. Richards (1893-1979):
   • Works: The Philosophy of Rhetoric, The Meaning of Meaning
   • Key Arguments: Richards, a key figure in the development of modern rhetorical theory, explored the relationship between language, meaning, and persuasion. He introduced the concept of “rhetoric as communication” and emphasized the role of symbols in human communication.

Rhetorical Theory in Literature: Key Principles with Examples

1. Ethos, Pathos, Logos:
   • Principle: Aristotle’s three modes of persuasion – ethos (credibility), pathos (emotion), and logos (logic) – are essential for effective communication.
   • Example: In a persuasive speech about environmental conservation, the speaker may establish credibility (ethos) by citing relevant qualifications, evoke emotions (pathos) by describing the impact of pollution on wildlife, and use logical arguments (logos) to present data supporting the need for conservation.
2. Rhetorical Situation:
   • Principle: The context, audience, purpose, and constraints define the rhetorical situation, shaping the persuasive strategies employed.
   • Example: A politician tailors their message differently when addressing a group of environmentalists (emphasizing green policies) compared to a gathering of business owners (highlighting economic benefits).
3. Kairos:
   • Principle: The opportune moment or timely delivery of an argument is crucial for its effectiveness.
   • Example: A company launching a new product capitalizes on kairos by unveiling it during a high-profile event or when market demand is particularly high.
4. Audience Adaptation:
   • Principle: Effective communicators tailor their message to resonate with the beliefs, values, and interests of their specific audience.
   • Example: A teacher adapts their lesson plan to match the learning styles and interests of their students, ensuring better engagement and understanding.
5. Symbolic Action:
   • Principle: Rhetoric is a form of symbolic action that can influence beliefs and attitudes through the use of language and symbols.
   • Example: A national flag serves as a powerful symbol, representing a country’s identity, history, and values, and influencing patriotic sentiments.
6. Identification:
   • Principle: Kenneth Burke’s concept of identification emphasizes finding common ground with the audience to create a sense of unity.
   • Example: A leader identifying with the struggles of their constituents fosters a connection, making the audience more receptive to their message and leadership.
7. Topoi (Common Topics):
   • Principle: Common topics or shared arguments can be drawn upon to support a persuasive case.
   • Example: When arguing for increased funding in education, a speaker might use the common topic of societal progress, emphasizing that investing in education benefits everyone by fostering an educated and skilled workforce.
8. Rhetorical Devices:
   • Principle: The use of rhetorical devices, such as metaphor, simile, and hyperbole, enhances persuasive communication by creating vivid and memorable expressions.
   • Example: “The world is a stage, and all the men and women merely players” (Shakespeare) uses metaphor to convey a complex idea about life and existence.
9. Stasis Theory:
   • Principle: Stasis theory involves identifying and defining points of disagreement or uncertainty in an argument to address them systematically.
   • Example: In a debate about gun control, stasis theory might involve clarifying whether the focus should be on Second Amendment rights, public safety, or mental health.

Understanding and applying these principles can enhance the effectiveness of persuasive communication in various contexts.

Rhetorical Theory in Literature: Criticism Against It

1. Subjectivity and Relativism:
   • Criticism: Critics argue that rhetorical theory can be overly subjective and relativistic, as it often depends on the persuader’s ability to manipulate language and appeal to emotions.
   • Example: The same rhetorical strategies could be used to argue for conflicting positions, leading to concerns about the relativistic nature of persuasive communication.
2. Lack of Moral Clarity:
   • Criticism: Some critics suggest that rhetorical theory, especially in the context of persuasive appeals like pathos, may lack a clear moral foundation. It can be used for both ethical and unethical purposes.
   • Example: Manipulative advertising campaigns that play on emotions to sell products may be seen as ethically questionable uses of rhetorical strategies.
3. Overemphasis on Style over Substance:
   • Criticism: Rhetorical theory is sometimes accused of placing too much emphasis on the stylistic aspects of communication rather than the substance of the argument.
   • Example: A charismatic speaker may sway an audience with eloquent speech, but the actual content of the message may lack depth or accuracy.
4. Cultural and Historical Bias:
   • Criticism: Some critics argue that rhetorical theories, particularly classical ones, may carry cultural and historical biases that limit their applicability to diverse contemporary contexts.
   • Example: The classical rhetorical canon may not fully address the communication needs and styles of cultures that were not well-represented in ancient Greece or Rome.
5. Neglect of Structural and Systemic Issues:
   • Criticism: Rhetorical theory is accused of sometimes neglecting broader structural and systemic issues in communication, such as power dynamics, institutional influences, and media structures.
   • Example: An exclusive focus on individual persuasion may overlook the impact of systemic inequalities on communication and influence.
6. Ignorance of Cognitive Processes:
   • Criticism: Some critics argue that rhetorical theory does not sufficiently engage with cognitive science and psychology to understand the deeper processes of persuasion.
   • Example: Modern research in psychology might offer insights into cognitive biases that shape how people respond to persuasive messages, but traditional rhetorical theories may not account for these factors.
7. Limited Applicability in Non-Persuasive Contexts:
   • Criticism: Rhetorical theory is primarily designed to analyze persuasive communication, and critics argue that it may not be as applicable or relevant in non-persuasive contexts.
   • Example: The theory’s emphasis on persuasion may be less relevant when analyzing informational or instructional communication where the goal is not to convince or persuade.

While these criticisms highlight potential limitations, it’s essential to recognize that rhetorical theory has evolved over time, and contemporary scholars often address these concerns by incorporating interdisciplinary perspectives and adapting the theories to a changing communicative landscape.

Rhetorical Theory in Literature: Application in Critiques

1. William Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”:
   • Rhetorical Analysis: Shakespeare’s “Hamlet” features complex characters engaged in political intrigue. The use of soliloquies, such as Hamlet’s famous “To be or not to be” speech, showcases rhetorical devices to explore the character’s internal conflicts. The play’s use of pathos and logos contributes to its lasting emotional impact and intellectual depth.
2. Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”:
   • Rhetorical Analysis: Austen employs irony and satire to critique societal norms, particularly regarding marriage and class. The novel uses ethos to establish the credibility of characters, logos in the development of plot and reasoning, and pathos to evoke reader empathy. The rhetorical choices contribute to a subtle but powerful critique of the social constructs of the time.
3. George Orwell’s “1984”:
   • Rhetorical Analysis: Orwell’s dystopian novel is a rhetorical commentary on totalitarianism. The deliberate manipulation of language, exemplified by the concept of Newspeak, illustrates the power dynamics between the ruling class and the masses. The novel serves as a persuasive warning about the dangers of unchecked authority and propaganda, employing logos, pathos, and ethos to make its case.
4. Toni Morrison’s “Beloved”:
   • Rhetorical Analysis: Morrison’s novel uses a nonlinear narrative and symbolic language to address the traumatic legacy of slavery. The rhetoric of trauma is expressed through vivid imagery and emotional appeals (pathos). The novel’s structure, which invites reader engagement, is an example of rhetorical strategies shaping both the content and form of the work.
5. Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude”:
   • Rhetorical Analysis: Marquez employs magical realism as a rhetorical device to convey the history of the Buendía family. The blending of the fantastical with the historical serves as a commentary on the complexities of Latin American history. The novel’s rhetorical choices, including vivid imagery and allegorical elements, contribute to its unique style and thematic richness.

In each case, the application of rhetorical theory allows for a deeper understanding of the author’s persuasive techniques, the impact of language choices, and the ways in which the works engage with and influence their audiences. The analysis of ethos, pathos, logos, and other rhetorical elements provides a nuanced perspective on the literary merit and social commentary within these works.

Rhetorical Theory in Literature: Main Terms Used in It

Term	Definition
Ethos	Credibility and character of the speaker or writer.
Pathos	Emotional appeal aimed at evoking specific feelings in the audience.
Logos	Logical appeal based on reasoning, evidence, and rational argumentation.
Rhetorical Situation	Context, audience, purpose, and constraints influencing communication.
Kairos	Seizing the opportune moment for effective communication or persuasion.
Audience Adaptation	Tailoring the message to resonate with the beliefs, values, and interests of the specific audience.
Symbolic Action	The use of language and symbols to influence beliefs and attitudes.
Identification	Establishing common ground with the audience to create a sense of unity.
Topoi (Common Topics)	Shared arguments that can be drawn upon to support a persuasive case.
Rhetorical Devices	Stylistic elements, such as metaphor and simile, enhancing persuasive communication.
Stasis Theory	Identifying and defining points of disagreement or uncertainty in an argument.

Rhetorical Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. On Rhetoric: A Theory of Civic Discourse. Translated by George A. Kennedy, Oxford UP, 2007.
2. Bitzer, Lloyd F. “The Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy & Rhetoric, vol. 1, no. 1, 1968, pp. 1-14.
3. Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. University of California Press, 1969.
4. Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Translated by A. M. Sheridan Smith, Vintage Books, 2010.
5. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
6. Richards, I. A. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford UP, 1965.
7. Vatz, Richard E. “The Myth of the Rhetorical Situation.” Philosophy & Rhetoric, vol. 6, no. 3, 1973, pp. 154-161.