September 2024 - Page 4 of 17

“Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland: Summary and Critique

“Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland first appeared in 1993 in the journal Contemporary Psychoanalysis.

Introduction: “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

“Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland first appeared in 1993 in the journal Contemporary Psychoanalysis. This article highlights the importance of literature and literary theory in the field of psychoanalysis. Holland argues that literature can serve as a valuable tool for understanding the human psyche, and that literary theory can provide a framework for interpreting literary texts in a psychologically meaningful way. He emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration between psychoanalysis and literary studies, and explores the ways in which these two fields can inform and enrich each other.

Summary of “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

· Three Phases of Psychoanalysis:

First Phase (1897-1923): Freud’s foundational discoveries including the unconscious, free association, the Oedipus complex, and infantile sexuality. This phase is characterized by explaining phenomena through the relationship between the conscious and unconscious mind. Freud’s early works laid the groundwork for understanding how human psychology influences and interacts with literature, focusing on authorial intent and unconscious drives.

“Freud made his great original discoveries. I mean his discoveries of free association, unconscious processes, the oedipus complex, and infantile sexuality.”

Second Phase (1923-Present): Development of the id-ego-superego model and ego psychology. The focus shifted to understanding the interplay between ego and external forces (id, superego, and reality). This phase incorporated deeper mechanisms like defense mechanisms and structural analysis of the mind.

“Freud rethought the model… he and his colleagues in Vienna developed the structural id—ego—superego model, the principle of multiple function, and what we think of as ego-psychology.”

Third Phase (1950s-Present): Contemporary psychoanalytic approaches such as object relations theory, self-psychology (Kohut), and feminist critiques. This phase emphasizes the interaction between the self and others, shifting focus to identity, mutuality, and the dynamics of relationships.

“They replace the earlier explanations…with self and other. These are psychoanalyses of the self.”

· Three Phases of Literary Criticism:

Historical Criticism (Early 19th Century): Focused on understanding literature through historical context, examining characters and events as though they were real. The language was seen as transparent, pointing to external realities.

“We are looking for a history of Falstaff as though he were a real person…language is transparent. It only points us to things in the world which are the real objects the literary critic discusses: actions, motives, traits.”

New Criticism and Structuralism (1930s-1970s): Shifted to analyzing the text itself as a self-contained entity. Critics focused on the formal patterns and structures within the language rather than external meanings. This phase was dominant in university studies during the mid-20th century.

“Literary critics took the language of literature as an end in itself. No longer were we to read through language to events and people.”

Postmodern Criticism (1970s-Present): Emphasizes the relationship between the text and the audience, where meaning is not fixed but constructed through interaction with the text. Postmodernism rejects the monumental or self-contained text, instead embracing playfulness and intertextuality.

“In POMO, everything has quotation marks around it… the postmodernist says, I’m just playing; I don’t really mean this—it’s up to you to make sense of it.”

· Psychoanalysis in Literary Criticism:

Psychoanalysis can be applied to three “persons” in literature:
1. The Author – Exploring the unconscious drives and fantasies of the writer.
2. The Character – Analyzing the fictional person within the text.
3. The Reader – Examining the psychological dynamics and emotional responses elicited in the reader.

“Psychoanalysis does not deal with texts but with persons… there are three persons possible, the actual writer, the reader, and the person… in the text.”

· Challenges of Applying Psychoanalysis to Literature:

Psychoanalysis is fundamentally about people and their minds, while literature consists of words. Therefore, bridging the gap between psychoanalysis and literary criticism requires finding ways to connect human psychological processes with textual analysis.

“Psychoanalysis deals with people, specifically people’s minds, but literature is words. There is no way, no way!, one can apply psychoanalysis to literature directly.”

· Example of Psychoanalytic Phases Applied to Literature:

First Phase: A psychoanalyst might interpret Emily Dickinson’s poem as a reflection of her unconscious sexual fantasies, associating the bee and clover with phallic and receptive symbols.
Second Phase: Focuses on the poem’s form and structure, linking it to defense mechanisms like repression. The poem’s imagination of a prairie is seen as a sublimated sexual fantasy.

Third Phase: Contemporary criticism explores the reader’s personal associations with the poem, emphasizing the subjective and emotional responses elicited by the text.

“For her, sexual knowledge is linked with loss and death and disappearance. Hence she cannot enjoy Dickinson’s creative use of revery, and she rejects the poem.”

· Reader-Response and Feminist Criticism: Both of these approaches emphasize the role of the reader or the critic in creating meaning. Feminist psychoanalytic critics focus on the gendered experiences of readers and writers, while reader-response theory explores how individual reactions shape the interpretation of the text.

“Feminist psychoanalytic critics have addressed the real reactions of real women… both feminist critics and reader-response critics bridge between the persons of psychoanalysis and the words of literature by focusing on the real persons who read and respond to literature.”

· Conclusion: The essay concludes by emphasizing the bridge between psychoanalysis and literature: the interaction between real people (authors, readers) and the text. Literature becomes a collaborative creation of meaning through shared human responses, allowing for multiple interpretations based on personal and cultural backgrounds.

“The bridge is actual people engaging in actual literary transactions… The bridge, in short, is you—and me.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Term/Concept	Description
Psychoanalysis Phases	The three phases in psychoanalysis: conscious-unconscious (Freud), ego-nonego (ego-psychology), and self-other (object-relations and contemporary approaches).
Historical Criticism	Early 19th-century approach that treats literary characters and events as real, with language acting as a transparent medium to historical or authorial contexts.
New Criticism	A mid-20th-century critical approach that focuses on analyzing the text’s structure and form as an entity in itself, without considering external references.
Postmodern Criticism	Contemporary criticism focusing on the relationship between the text and its audience, often embracing ambiguity, intertextuality, and playful self-awareness.
Object-Relations Theory	A third phase of psychoanalysis focusing on the dynamic interactions between the self and others, used to explore identity and relationships in literature.
Reader-Response Theory	A theory emphasizing the reader’s role in interpreting a text, focusing on personal emotional reactions and subjective responses to the literature.
Feminist Psychoanalytic Criticism	A critical approach that explores how gender and socially constructed roles influence the writing and reading of texts, often critiquing male dominance.
Sublimation	A defense mechanism where unconscious desires (often sexual) are transformed into socially acceptable or creative activities, applied in literary interpretation.
Oedipus Complex	A Freudian concept where a child experiences desire for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent, frequently applied in character analysis.
Primal Scene Fantasy	A psychoanalytic idea involving a child’s imagined or real witnessing of sexual relations between parents, used to analyze unconscious dynamics in texts.

Contribution of “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories

Introduction of a Three-Phase Model for Psychoanalysis in Literature
Holland divides the development of psychoanalytic theory into three distinct phases: conscious-unconscious, ego-nonego, and self-other. This model expands the scope of psychoanalytic criticism by recognizing evolving approaches within psychoanalysis and how these approaches can be applied to literary analysis.

“We have three phases of psychoanalysis: conscious—unconscious, ego—nonego, and self and other.”

Integration of Psychoanalysis with Various Literary Theories
Holland demonstrates how psychoanalysis can be applied to different phases of literary criticism: historical, New Criticism, and postmodern. His approach shows that psychoanalysis can work in tandem with these literary frameworks to analyze texts, allowing for a deeper understanding of both the text and the reader’s engagement with it.

“Now we have three phases of psychoanalysis and three phases of literary criticism.”

Emphasis on Reader-Response Theory and Psychoanalysis
Holland contributes to reader-response criticism by emphasizing the active role of the reader in literary interpretation. He argues that the reader’s unconscious processes shape their understanding of the text, making reading a highly personal and subjective experience.

“Instead of saying the poem acts out a sublimation, these third phase psychoanalytic critics would say, The reader acts out a sublimation by means of the poem.”

Focus on the Relationship Between Text and Reader in Postmodern Criticism
Holland’s work aligns with postmodern theories that question the fixed relationship between the text and its reader. He argues that the literary text is no longer seen as an end in itself but as a medium through which readers project their psychological processes and interpretations.

“The postmodernist says, I’m just playing; I don’t really mean this—it’s up to you to make sense of it.”

Advancing the Concept of Text as a Psychological Process
Holland’s idea that a text can function as a psychological entity, similar to the human mind, allows critics to analyze not just the content of a text but also its form as a manifestation of unconscious processes. This concept advances psychoanalytic literary theory beyond simple character analysis to a broader analysis of the text’s form and the reader’s psychological interaction with it.

“The poem embodies a mental process or, more properly, an ego process that we introject.”

Application of Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theories in Literature
Holland incorporates newer psychoanalytic theories, such as object-relations and self-psychology, into the analysis of literature. This extends psychoanalytic literary criticism by allowing for more nuanced explorations of identity, relationships, and the self within texts.

“Contemporary psychoanalytic approaches such as object-relations theory, self-psychology (Kohut), and feminist critiques.”

Feminist Psychoanalytic Criticism
Holland highlights how feminist psychoanalytic critics address gender dynamics in both the reading and writing of literature. His inclusion of feminist theory demonstrates the adaptability of psychoanalysis to explore how literature shapes and is shaped by gendered experiences.

“Feminist psychoanalytic critics have addressed the real reactions of real women to a literature and criticism that are often dominated by male assumptions.”

Challenges the Limitations of Traditional Psychoanalytic Criticism
By emphasizing the importance of individual and subjective responses to texts, Holland critiques the reductionist tendencies of early psychoanalytic criticism, which often focused narrowly on authorial intent or character analysis.

“There is no way, no way!, one can apply psychoanalysis to literature directly. Psychoanalysis can only apply to a person.”

Bridge Between Psychoanalysis and Literary Criticism
Holland’s most significant contribution is his formulation of a bridge between psychoanalysis (which focuses on people and their minds) and literary criticism (which focuses on texts and language). He argues that this bridge is the interaction between the writer, the reader, and the text itself.

“The bridge is actual people engaging in actual literary transactions… the people that write and the people that read, and their very acts of writing and reading.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

Book Title	Phase of Psychoanalysis	Critique Focus
*Oedipus Rex* (Sophocles)	First Phase (Conscious-Unconscious)	Holland applies Freud’s Oedipus complex to critique the character of Oedipus and the audience’s unconscious identification with his guilt and incestuous desires. Freud’s theory illuminates the psychological impact on the audience.
*Hamlet* (Shakespeare)	First Phase (Conscious-Unconscious)	Freud’s Oedipal analysis is extended to Hamlet’s hesitation in avenging his father. Holland critiques Hamlet’s delay as stemming from repressed desires toward his mother, similar to Freud’s psychoanalysis of unconscious drives.
*Ulysses* (James Joyce)	Second Phase (Ego-Nonego)	Holland critiques the modernist structure and narrative techniques in Joyce’s Ulysses using ego-psychology, analyzing how the text reflects complex internal conflicts and defenses of the characters through stream-of-consciousness.
*Emily Dickinson’s Poetry*	Third Phase (Self and Other)	Holland uses object-relations theory to explore Dickinson’s poems as reflecting a complex interaction between imagination (revery) and reality, with a focus on the reader’s psychological response to the symbolic language of the text.

Criticism Against “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland

Over-reliance on Psychoanalytic Theory
Critics argue that Holland’s focus on psychoanalysis, particularly Freudian concepts, limits the scope of literary interpretation. Some feel that his theories overemphasize unconscious drives at the expense of other factors like cultural, historical, or political contexts.
Reduction of Literary Texts to Psychological Models
Holland’s application of psychoanalytic phases can be seen as reductive, as it often seeks to explain complex literary works purely through psychological frameworks. This may ignore other aspects of the text, such as aesthetic form, linguistic innovation, or broader thematic concerns.
Ambiguity in Reader-Response Criticism
While Holland advocates for a reader-response approach, some critics find his reliance on the reader’s psychological projections to be too subjective. This raises concerns about the validity of literary analysis when it becomes entirely dependent on individual reactions, potentially leading to a lack of consistent interpretive standards.

Neglect of Contemporary Critical Theories
Holland’s work is seen by some as being out of step with newer critical theories like deconstruction, post-colonialism, and queer theory. His emphasis on psychoanalysis may limit engagement with these diverse, contemporary approaches that challenge the traditional psychoanalytic focus on universal experiences.
Inadequate Bridging Between Psychoanalysis and Literature
Although Holland attempts to bridge psychoanalysis and literature through the interaction of writers, readers, and texts, critics argue that his model often lacks clarity in demonstrating how psychological theories directly enhance literary understanding without imposing artificial connections.
Limited Engagement with Textual Formalism
Some critics feel that Holland downplays the importance of formal elements like narrative structure, syntax, and style, which are crucial to understanding literature. His psychoanalytic focus can sometimes overshadow the technical and formal analysis of literary texts.

Oversimplification of Complex Psychoanalytic Theories
While Holland integrates psychoanalysis into literary criticism, some argue that he oversimplifies intricate psychoanalytic theories, particularly Lacanian and post-Freudian developments, reducing their depth in favor of more generalized interpretations.

Representative Quotations from “Psychoanalysis and Literature: Past and Present” by Norman N. Holland with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Psychoanalysis does not deal with texts but with persons.”	Holland emphasizes that psychoanalysis is fundamentally about human psychology, and when applied to literature, it must focus on the psychological experiences of the author, character, or reader rather than the text itself.
“We have three phases of psychoanalysis: conscious—unconscious, ego—nonego, and self and other.”	This outlines Holland’s categorization of the development of psychoanalysis, marking the evolution from Freud’s theories to contemporary psychoanalytic schools.
“In POMO, everything has quotation marks around it. The postmodernist says, I’m just playing; I don’t really mean this—it’s up to you to make sense of it.”	Holland critiques postmodernism for its playful, ambiguous approach to art and literature, where meaning is decentralized and left for the audience to interpret, reflecting the postmodern skepticism of fixed meaning.
“Feminist psychoanalytic critics have addressed the real reactions of real women to a literature and criticism that are often dominated by male assumptions.”	This highlights how feminist critics use psychoanalytic frameworks to explore the gendered nature of literature, addressing issues of male dominance in both the creation and interpretation of texts.
“The postmodern art is jokey and tricky. It self-consciously builds on other art forms.”	Here, Holland describes postmodern art and literature as self-referential and ironic, with a focus on intertextuality and the relationship between the work and its audience, rather than the work standing as a self-contained entity.
“Reader-response critics address the real reactions of real people.”	Holland advocates for reader-response theory, where the focus shifts from the author and the text to how individual readers interact with and interpret a literary work based on their personal experiences and psychology.
“Psychoanalytic criticism was a considerable advance over first phase, but there is that peculiar assumption that the poem is a mind that the critic can see.”	Holland critiques second-phase psychoanalytic criticism for its tendency to treat the text itself as if it were a mind, leading to oversimplified interpretations that assume direct parallels between textual structure and psychological processes.
“The poem embodies a mental process or, more properly, an ego process that we introject.”	This quote reflects Holland’s view that literature can be understood as a reflection of psychological processes, particularly ego functions, which readers internalize and process through their own mental frameworks.
“There is no way, no way!, one can apply psychoanalysis to literature directly.”	Holland asserts that psychoanalysis must focus on people, not texts. Therefore, literary critics must find ways to apply psychological analysis to authors, characters, or readers rather than to words or narrative structures alone.
“The bridge is actual people engaging in actual literary transactions… the people that write and the people that read, and their very acts of writing and reading.”	This highlights Holland’s central thesis that the connection between psychoanalysis and literature lies in the interaction between readers and texts, where personal, psychological experiences shape literary interpretation and meaning.

“Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton was first published in 1982 as part of the Royal Institute of Philosophy Lecture Series (Volume 14).

Introduction: “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

“Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton was first published in 1982 as part of the Royal Institute of Philosophy Lecture Series (Volume 14). This essay holds significant importance in the realms of literature and literary theory due to its insightful exploration of Pierre Macherey’s Marxist approach to literary analysis. Eagleton delves into Macherey’s concept of the “transcendental unconscious” and its implications for understanding the underlying ideological structures at play within literary texts. By examining Macherey’s work, Eagleton sheds light on the ways in which literature can both reflect and challenge dominant social and political ideologies, offering valuable insights for scholars and students alike.

Summary of “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

Macherey’s Critique of Neo-Hegelianism:
- Pierre Macherey attempts to liberate Marxist literary criticism from neo-Hegelian and empirical ideologies.
- He emphasizes moving away from the concept of the “author as producer” that focuses on art’s relation to its material base and superstructure.
- Quotation: “Macherey’s project is nothing less than the liberation of Marxist criticism from every taint of Hegelianism and empiricism.”
Macherey’s Althusserian Approach:
- He applies Althusserian epistemology to literary criticism, distinguishing criticism from its object, the text.
- For Macherey, criticism produces a new discourse that reveals what the text does not explicitly say, unlike empirical criticism that treats the text as a spontaneous given.
- Quotation: “Criticism is not an ‘instrument’ or ‘passage’ to the truth of a text, but a transformative labor which makes its object appear other than it is.”

Text as a Determinate Object:
- The literary text is seen as a determinate object shaped by specific conditions and labor. The author does not “create” but “discovers” the narrative, indicating that the text has its own necessity that cannot be altered.
- Quotation: “The necessity of the text is not the reflection of the author’s sustaining, unifying intention.”

Internal Contradictions and Ruptures:
- According to Macherey, every text is characterized by internal ruptures and contradictions, which are essential to its identity. These internal diversities are not merely a reflection of an underlying unity but the very structure of the text itself.
- Quotation: “The work is constituted by an interior ‘rupture’ or ‘decentrement’ worked upon its initial situation.”

Silences and Absences in the Text:
- Macherey argues that the truth of a literary work lies not in what it explicitly states, but in its silences and absences. This absence becomes a key feature of the text, revealing the gaps and limits in the ideological structure.
- Quotation: “The text puts the ideology into contradiction by illuminating its gaps and limits, revealing ideology as a structure of absences.”

Distancing Ideology Through Literary Form:
- The contradictions within the text reveal its ideological limits, showing how the text distances itself from ideology. However, this distancing does not automatically subvert ideology; it can also support it, depending on the historical and ideological context.
- Quotation: “Form distantiates the ideological, but whether it subverts or underwrites depends… upon the historical and ideological situation in which the text is situated.”

Rejection of Structuralism:
- Macherey critiques the structuralist approach, which seeks to decode hidden meanings within the text. For him, the significance of the text is not found in its “depth” but in its external relation to ideology and other texts.
- Quotation: “The work hides nothing, keeps no secret, is entirely ‘readable’ and offered to view.”

Literary Text as an Active Force:
- The literary text does not merely reflect ideology but actively engages with it, transforming it in the process. This interaction reveals the ideological absences and contradictions that underlie the work.
- Quotation: “The literary work, in thus transforming the ideological illusion, implicitly yields a critique of its own ideological status.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Explanation from the Text
Author as Producer	A Marxist concept emphasizing the role of the author in relation to the material base and superstructure, often seen as politically indeterminate in certain contexts.	“The ‘author as producer’ concept is one which must, as it were, lie dormant over certain spans of literary history.”
Epistemological Break	A concept by Althusser, applied by Macherey to establish a radical distinction between literary criticism and the text it analyzes.	“Macherey’s intention is to inaugurate a radical ‘epistemological break’ with what has come before.”
Text as a Determinate Object	The idea that the literary text is not a reflection of the author’s intent but the result of specific historical and material conditions, with its own internal necessity.	“The literary object is determinate, and so can be the object of rational study.”
Internal Ruptures	The concept that a literary work is characterized by contradictions and breaks, which are essential to its structure and meaning.	“The work is constituted by an interior ‘rupture’ or ‘decentrement’ worked upon its initial situation.”
Silences and Absences	Refers to the unspoken elements within a text that reveal deeper ideological tensions and contradictions, shaping the text’s meaning.	“Criticism…makes speak the text’s silences.”
Normative Illusion	A critical error that measures the text against an ideal model or normative expectations, ignoring the text’s specific materiality and conditions of production.	“The normative illusion constitutes a refusal of the object as it is: it ‘corrects’ it against an independent, pre-existent model.”
Ideological Contradiction	The idea that texts do not merely reflect ideology but engage with its contradictions, revealing ideological limits and absences.	“The text puts the ideology into contradiction by illuminating its gaps and limits.”
Empiricism	A critical approach critiqued by Macherey for treating texts as given objects, which can be known merely through observation without transformation.	“Scientific criticism is the antagonist of empiricist critical ‘knowledge’.”
Form as Distantiation	The idea that literary form distances itself from ideology, potentially subverting or supporting it based on historical and ideological contexts.	“Form distantiates the ideological.”

Contribution of “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Critique of Empiricism in Literary Criticism:
- Eagleton highlights Macherey’s rejection of empiricist approaches that treat the text as a given object to be passively interpreted. Instead, Macherey advocates for a transformative critique where criticism actively produces new knowledge by engaging with the silences of the text.
- Quotation: “Criticism…is a transformative labor which makes its object appear other than it is.”

Rejection of the “Author as Creator” Concept:
- The theory disputes the romanticized idea of the author as a creator who imposes unity on the text. Macherey sees the author as a discoverer rather than an inventor, operating under the constraints of ideological and narrative structures.
- Quotation: “It is mere mystification to speak of the author as a ‘creator’.”

Focus on Internal Contradictions and Silences:
- Macherey introduces the concept that the contradictions, ruptures, and silences within a text are integral to its meaning. These silences reveal the ideological limits within the text, moving beyond traditional readings that seek a unified meaning.
- Quotation: “The task of criticism is to theorize the necessity of this diversity.”

Text as a Site of Ideological Conflict:
- Macherey views the literary text not as a reflection of ideology but as an active space where ideology is produced and contested. This positions the text as a battleground of conflicting ideologies rather than a passive vessel of ideological content.
- Quotation: “The text produces ideology…and in doing so it reveals in its own internal dislocations the gaps and limits.”

Contribution to the Althusserian Tradition:
- Macherey applies Althusserian epistemology to literary criticism, focusing on how criticism and literature belong to different realms of knowledge production. This epistemological break is a radical departure from both Hegelian dialectics and empiricism.
- Quotation: “His intention is to inaugurate a radical ‘epistemological break’ with what has come before.”

Revolutionary Approach to Literary Form:
- Macherey challenges traditional formalist theories, proposing that form is not a mere reflection of ideological content but a distancing mechanism that reveals the ideological tensions and absences within a text.
- Quotation: “Form distantiates the ideological, but whether it subverts or underwrites depends…upon the historical and ideological situation.”

Criticism as a Science:
- He proposes that criticism is not simply a hermeneutic task of interpreting a text’s hidden meanings, but rather a scientific process of constructing new knowledge that highlights the conditions of a text’s possibility, including its inherent contradictions.
- Quotation: “Scientific criticism…establishes a decisive rupture between itself and the object, distancing itself to produce a new knowledge of it.”

Literature as Ideological Production, Not Reproduction:
- Eagleton emphasizes Macherey’s view that literature does not reflect reality or ideology but produces it. This is a key distinction in Marxist theory, asserting that literature actively shapes and transforms the ideological world rather than simply mirroring it.
- Quotation: “Rather than ‘reproducing’ ideology, the text produces it, setting it in motion and endowing it with a form.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through Macherey’s Theory	Quotation/Explanation from the Text
*Jules Verne’s Fiction*	Verne’s fiction attempts to represent bourgeois progress but is ideologically constrained to use images from the past. This contradiction creates an internal ideological torsion.	“Verne’s fiction ‘wants’ to represent bourgeois progress as a march forward to the future, yet finds itself enforced to represent this march in images bound to the past.”
*Henry James’ Novels*	James’ aesthetic redefinition of fiction as organic form is tied to material shifts in literary production but does not necessarily reflect an ideological transformation.	“The aesthetic redefinition of fiction as ‘organic form’ which develops in late nineteenth-century England…is not clear how such material mutations become an active element.”
*Thackeray’s Henry Esmond*	While this novel differs in its production mode from Thackeray’s serialized works, it does not fundamentally alter his ideological stance, illustrating the gap between form and ideology.	“Though this difference of productive mode undoubtedly impresses itself on the novel’s form, it leaves the ‘Thackerayan ideology’ essentially intact.”
*Tolstoy’s Works (Lenin’s Critique)*	Tolstoy’s work is described as a selective mirror of the Russian Revolution, reflecting fragmented and partial images rather than a straightforward ideological reproduction.	“If Tolstoy’s work is indeed a mirror, then it is an angled, selective one thronged by fragmented images, as notable for what it does not, as for what it does, reflect.”

Criticism Against “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton

Risk of Formalism:
- Macherey’s focus on literary form as a site of ideological distantiation can lead to a Marxist variety of formalism, where form is treated as having an essential and unchanging function.
- Quotation: “Though his contention that form distantiates the ideological is suggestive, why should this distantiation automatically be subversive?”

Neglect of Reader Reception:
- Macherey’s early work focuses solely on the production of the text, neglecting the role of reader reception and the historical context in which a text is interpreted. This overlooks how texts “live” through their interactions with readers.
- Quotation: “His early work…completely suppresses the reality of the literary text as an historically mutable practice which ‘lives’ only in the process of its transaction with particular readers.”

Overemphasis on Ideology as Homogeneous:
- Macherey, following Althusser, tends to treat ideology as a non-contradictory and homogeneous illusion. This downplays the internal contradictions and class struggles that shape ideology, leading to an overly rigid understanding of how texts engage with ideology.
- Quotation: “Ideology, however, has no such homogeneity…it is certainly homogenizing in tendency, but it nowhere, fortunately, has the success which Macherey assigns to it.”

Abstract View of Ideology and Art:
- By focusing on how texts distort or transform ideology, Macherey’s theory risks treating literary works as abstract constructions, distancing them from the material and historical realities they engage with.
- Quotation: “Macherey’s formalism is in part a result of his Althusserian notion of ideology…as a structure of absences rather than something engaged with historical contradictions.”

Representative Quotations from “Macherey and Marxist Literary Theory” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Criticism is not an ‘instrument’ or ‘passage’ to the truth of a text, but a transformative labor which makes its object appear other than it is.”	Macherey views criticism as an active process that transforms the text, rather than merely uncovering an already present truth.
“The necessity of the text is not the reflection of the author’s sustaining, unifying intention.”	This challenges the traditional view of the author as the unifying force of a text, emphasizing instead the text’s own internal structure and necessity.
“The text puts the ideology into contradiction by illuminating its gaps and limits, revealing ideology as a structure of absences.”	Macherey’s theory focuses on the ideological gaps and contradictions within a text, showing how the text exposes the limits of its own ideology.
“Form distantiates the ideological, but whether it subverts or underwrites depends…upon the historical and ideological situation.”	Here, Eagleton emphasizes that the distancing function of form does not always lead to subversion; its impact is contingent on historical context.
“Every work is constituted by an interior ‘rupture’ or ‘decentrement’ worked upon its initial situation.”	Macherey asserts that every literary text is internally divided, characterized by contradictions and ruptures, rather than a harmonious unity.
“The ‘author as producer’ concept is one which must, as it were, lie dormant over certain spans of literary history.”	Eagleton critiques the applicability of the “author as producer” concept, arguing that it may not be relevant across all periods of literary history.
“The work’s ‘necessity’ is not an initial ‘given’ but a product…the meeting-place of several diverse ‘lines of necessity’.”	The text’s internal necessity is not pre-determined by the author but emerges from the interaction of various conflicting elements within the work.
“The text produces ideology…and in doing so it reveals in its own internal dislocations the gaps and limits.”	Rather than simply reflecting ideology, Macherey suggests that literary texts actively produce ideology, while also exposing its limitations.
“It is necessary to determine what a text lacks—lacks without which it would not exist, would have nothing to say.”	This quotation highlights the importance of the absences in a text, which are crucial to its meaning and existence according to Macherey’s theory.
“The postulate of the work’s unity, which has always more or less haunted bourgeois criticism, must be unequivocally denounced.”	Macherey rejects the notion that literary works possess a unified meaning, a view prevalent in traditional, bourgeois criticism.

“Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr: A Critical Analysis

“Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr was first written by Joseph Mohr in 1816 as a poem during his time as an assistant priest in Mariapfarr, Austria.

Introduction: “Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr

“Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr was first written by Joseph Mohr in 1816 as a poem during his time as an assistant priest in Mariapfarr, Austria. The lyrics were later set to music by Franz Gruber in 1818 for the Christmas Eve mass in Oberndorf. The song’s qualities include its simple melody, heartfelt lyrics, and peaceful atmosphere. The main idea of the carol is to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and the quiet wonder of the night.

Text: “Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr

Silent night, holy night!
All is calm, all is bright
Round yon virgin mother and Child.
Holy Infant, so tender and mild,
Sleep in heavenly peace,
Sleep in heavenly peace.
Silent night, holy night!
Shepherds quake at the sight;
Glories stream from heaven afar,
Heav’nly hosts sing Alleluia!
Christ the Savior is born,
Christ the Savior is born!

Silent night, holy night!
Son of God, love’s pure light
Radiant beams from Thy holy face
With the dawn of redeeming grace,
Jesus, Lord, at Thy birth,
Jesus, Lord, at Thy birth.
Silent night, holy night!
Wondrous star, lend thy light;
With the angels let us sing,
Alleluia to our King;
Christ the Savior is born,
Christ the Savior is born!

Annotations: “Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr

Line	Annotation
Silent night, holy night!	The song begins with a peaceful and solemn invocation of the night.
All is calm, all is bright	The atmosphere is described as peaceful and serene.
Round yon virgin mother and Child.	The focus is on the newborn Jesus and his mother.
Holy Infant, so tender and mild,	The child Jesus is depicted as innocent and gentle.
Sleep in heavenly peace,	A wish for a peaceful sleep for the infant Jesus.
Sleep in heavenly peace.	Repetition of the wish for peace.
Silent night, holy night!	Reiteration of the peaceful night.
Shepherds quake at the sight;	The shepherds, witnesses to the miraculous birth, are filled with awe.
Glories stream from heaven afar,	The heavenly light and glory associated with the birth.
Heav’nly hosts sing Alleluia!	The angels rejoice in the birth of Christ.
Christ the Savior is born,	The central message of the song: the birth of Jesus as the Savior.
Christ the Savior is born!	Repetition of the message of the Savior’s birth.
Silent night, holy night!	Again, emphasizing the peaceful night.
Son of God, love’s pure light	Jesus is described as the Son of God and a symbol of pure love.
Radiant beams from Thy holy face	The divine light emanating from Jesus.
With the dawn of redeeming grace,	The birth of Jesus is seen as the beginning of salvation.
Jesus, Lord, at Thy birth,	A direct address to Jesus, celebrating his birth.
Jesus, Lord, at Thy birth.	Repetition of the celebration of Jesus’ birth.
Silent night, holy night!	Final invocation of the peaceful night.
Wondrous star, lend thy light;	A reference to the Star of Bethlehem, guiding the wise men.
With the angels let us sing,	An invitation to join the angels in singing.
Alleluia to our King;	Praising Jesus as the King.
Christ the Savior is born,	Final reiteration of the birth of the Savior.
Christ the Savior is born!	Final repetition of the message of the Savior’s birth.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr

Literary Device	Definition	Example from “Silent Night”	Explanation
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.	“Silent night, holy night”	The repeated “s” and “h” sounds create a soothing and calm tone.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.	“Silent night, holy night!” (repeated in every stanza)	The repetition emphasizes the significance of the night being described.
Apostrophe	Addressing someone or something that is not present as if it were.	“Wondrous star, lend thy light”	The star is personified and spoken to as though it could respond.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“Sleep in heavenly peace”	The long “e” sound in “sleep” and “peace” creates a melodic harmony.
Consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds within or at the end of words.	“Round yon virgin mother and Child”	The “n” sound is repeated in “round,” “yon,” and “virgin,” creating internal cohesion.
End Rhyme	Rhyming of the final words of lines.	“Night / bright” and “mild / Child”	The rhyming words at the end of lines create a musical quality.
Epistrophe	Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses.	“Christ the Savior is born, Christ the Savior is born!”	The repetition emphasizes the significance of the birth of Christ.
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis or effect.	“Glories stream from heaven afar”	The imagery exaggerates the divine presence through vivid descriptions.
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.	“Radiant beams from Thy holy face”	This visual imagery helps the reader picture the radiant light from the Christ child.
Inversion	Reversing the normal word order for emphasis.	“With the angels let us sing”	The usual word order (“let us sing with the angels”) is reversed for poetic effect.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“Love’s pure light”	Love is compared to a light, symbolizing purity and divinity.
Mood	The atmosphere or emotional feeling of the text.	Overall, the mood is peaceful and reverent.	The calm and serene tone evokes a feeling of reverence and holiness.
Onomatopoeia	A word that imitates a natural sound.	“Alleluia!”	The word mimics the sound of praise, contributing to the song’s celebratory mood.
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but reveals a deeper truth.	“Sleep in heavenly peace”	Peace and sleep, though peaceful, are juxtaposed with the divine and eternal, suggesting a paradox of mortality and divinity.
Personification	Giving human characteristics to non-human things.	“Wondrous star, lend thy light”	The star is given the ability to “lend” light, as though it were a person.
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis.	“Silent night, holy night”	The repeated phrase emphasizes the sacredness and stillness of the night.
Rhyme Scheme	The ordered pattern of rhymes at the ends of lines.	AABB (e.g., “Night / bright,” “mild / Child”)	The consistent rhyme scheme contributes to the song’s melodic flow.
Simile	A comparison using “like” or “as.”	Implied in “Jesus, Lord, at Thy birth,” where the divinity of Jesus is compared to light.	While not direct, the comparison likens Jesus to a source of pure light and salvation.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	“Wondrous star”	The star symbolizes guidance and divine presence.
Tone	The author’s attitude toward the subject.	Reverent and peaceful	The tone conveys reverence for the sacred event being described.

Themes: “Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr

Peace and Tranquility: A central theme in “Silent Night” is peace, reflected in the quiet, serene atmosphere of the poem. The repeated phrase “Sleep in heavenly peace” symbolizes not only the physical rest of the Holy Infant but also the spiritual peace that His birth brings to the world. The calmness is further emphasized by the imagery of a “silent” and “holy” night, where all is “calm” and “bright,” creating a mood of tranquility and sacred stillness.

Divine Love: The poem conveys the theme of divine love, particularly through the depiction of Christ’s birth as a symbol of God’s love for humanity. The phrase “love’s pure light” refers to Christ, who is portrayed as the embodiment of divine love. His birth is a moment of “redeeming grace,” where God’s love and salvation are made manifest. The light radiating from His face represents the purity and holiness of divine love, which is central to the Christian celebration of Christmas.
Salvation and Redemption: Salvation is a prominent theme, highlighted through the repeated declaration, “Christ the Savior is born.” The birth of Christ is presented as a moment of divine intervention, bringing redemption to the world. The “dawn of redeeming grace” marks a new era of spiritual salvation, where Christ’s birth offers a path to redemption for humanity. This theme of salvation is central to the Christian message celebrated in the poem.
Wonder and Reverence: The poem also reflects the theme of wonder and reverence toward the miraculous event of Christ’s birth. The imagery of shepherds quaking “at the sight” of the heavenly glories, and the “wondrous star” that lends its light, creates a sense of awe. The reverence is further expressed through the angels’ song of “Alleluia” and the repeated adoration of Christ as the Savior. The entire poem conveys a profound sense of worship and wonder at the divine mystery of the Nativity.

Literary Theories and “Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr

Literary Theory	Application to “Silent Night”	References
Symbolism	The poem employs various symbols to convey deeper meanings. For example, the “Silent Night” symbolizes peace and tranquility, while the “Infant” represents innocence and purity. The “Star” is a symbol of guidance and hope.	“Silent night, holy night!”, “Holy Infant, so tender and mild”, “Wondrous star, lend thy light;”
Religious Allegory	“Silent Night” is a religious allegory, using the birth of Jesus as a metaphor for spiritual salvation. The poem’s imagery and symbolism reinforce this allegorical interpretation.	“Christ the Savior is born”, “Son of God, love’s pure light”, “With the dawn of redeeming grace”
Romantic Idealism	The poem aligns with Romantic idealism, emphasizing the beauty of nature, the power of emotion, and the importance of the individual. The focus on the infant Jesus and the peaceful night reflects these Romantic ideals.	“All is calm, all is bright”, “Round yon virgin mother and Child”, “Sleep in heavenly peace”

Critical Questions about “Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr

· How does the poem’s simple language and repetitive structure contribute to its enduring popularity?

The simplicity of “Silent Night” is a key factor in its enduring popularity. The poem’s use of straightforward language and repetitive structure makes it easily accessible to a wide audience, regardless of age or educational background. The refrain, “Silent night, holy night!”, serves as a unifying element, reinforcing the central theme of peace and joy. This accessibility, combined with the poem’s heartfelt message, has ensured its continued relevance and appreciation throughout the centuries.

· What is the significance of the setting of the night in the poem?

The night setting in “Silent Night” creates a sense of mystery, wonder, and anticipation. The darkness of the night contrasts with the light and joy of the birth of Jesus, symbolizing the triumph of good over evil. The night also suggests a time of peace and quiet, emphasizing the sacredness of the event. This setting contributes to the poem’s overall atmosphere of reverence and awe.

· How does the poem portray the relationship between humanity and divinity?

“Silent Night” presents a portrayal of the relationship between humanity and divinity that is both intimate and accessible. The birth of Jesus is depicted as a divine event, yet it is also portrayed as a human experience. The shepherds, who represent ordinary people, are witnesses to the miracle, emphasizing the possibility of human connection to the divine. This portrayal suggests that God is not distant or inaccessible but rather present and involved in the lives of individuals.

· What is the significance of the repetition of the phrase “Silent night, holy night!” throughout the poem?

The repetition of “Silent night, holy night!” serves as a refrain, emphasizing the central theme of the poem and creating a sense of peace and tranquility. It also reinforces the idea of a sacred and special night, setting the scene for the miraculous birth of Jesus. By repeating this phrase throughout the poem, the author creates a sense of unity and rhythm, making the poem more memorable and impactful.

Literary Works Similar to “Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr

“O Holy Night” by Adolphe Adam: Both works celebrate the birth of Christ, focusing on themes of divine love, peace, and redemption, using sacred and reverent language.

“Hark! The Herald Angels Sing” by Charles Wesley: Like “Silent Night”, this carol emphasizes the glory of Christ’s birth and the message of peace and salvation brought to the world.
“Away in a Manger” (traditional): This hymn shares the theme of the peaceful nativity scene, with imagery of the baby Jesus lying peacefully, much like in “Silent Night”.
“It Came Upon the Midnight Clear” by Edmund Sears: Similar to “Silent Night”, this carol highlights the serenity of the night of Christ’s birth and the message of peace conveyed by angels.

“The First Noel” (traditional): Both works focus on the birth of Christ, with angelic figures and the peaceful, holy atmosphere surrounding the nativity scene

Representative Quotations of “Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Silent night, holy night!”	Opening line, setting the tone for the poem.	Symbolism: The night symbolizes peace and tranquility.
“All is calm, all is bright”	Describing the peaceful atmosphere surrounding the birth.	Romantic Idealism: Emphasizes the beauty of nature and the power of emotion.
“Round yon virgin mother and Child”	Focusing on the central figures of the poem.	Religious Allegory: Uses the birth of Jesus as a metaphor for spiritual salvation.
“Holy Infant, so tender and mild”	Portraying the innocence and purity of Jesus.	Symbolism: The infant symbolizes hope and new beginnings.
“Sleep in heavenly peace”	Expressing a wish for Jesus’ well-being.	Romantic Idealism: Emphasizes the importance of peace and harmony.
“Shepherds quake at the sight”	Describing the awe and wonder of the shepherds.	Religious Allegory: The shepherds represent humanity’s response to the divine.
“Glories stream from heaven afar”	Emphasizing the divine nature of the event.	Symbolism: The light symbolizes divine presence and guidance.
“Christ the Savior is born”	Central message of the poem.	Religious Allegory: The birth of Jesus as a central event in Christian theology.
“Son of God, love’s pure light”	Describing Jesus’ divine nature.	Symbolism: Light represents divine wisdom and knowledge.
“With the angels let us sing”	Invitation to join in the heavenly celebration.	Religious Allegory: The angels represent the heavenly realm and the divine message.

“The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

“The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1982 in the New Left Review journal, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its provocative exploration of the decline of literary criticism in the late 20th century. Eagleton, a renowned literary theorist and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford, argues that criticism has become increasingly marginalized and irrelevant in a postmodern era dominated by consumerism and cultural relativism. His essay challenges the prevailing assumptions about the role of criticism and offers a provocative vision for its future.

Summary of “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

The Dilemma of Socialist Literature Teaching

Teaching Literature as Politically Relevant: Eagleton questions the political relevance of teaching literature during global capitalist crises, as most literature teachers did not choose their subject for political reasons but because of enjoyment.

Two Traditions in Socialist Thought on Literature: There are two traditions in socialist thought regarding literature:
- Humanistic/Utopian: This tradition, including figures like Marx, Engels, and Adorno, argues that literature is relevant because it can restore creative capacities oppressed by capitalism.
- Negative Hermeneutics: The second tradition, including critics like Plekhanov and Macherey, sees literature as a tool to demystify ideological contradictions.

The Challenge of Combining Both Traditions

Difficulty in Combining Positive and Negative Approaches: While theoretically possible, Eagleton explains that combining the two traditions in practice seems forced. If the goal is to demystify ideology, it seems odd to choose literature over more immediate forms of ideological discourse like advertisements or political speeches.

Questioning the Political Role of Literature

Literature’s Political Defense is Flawed: Eagleton suggests that defending literature politically is increasingly challenging, as literature appears disconnected from the lives of most people. This disconnection calls into question whether literature can genuinely serve as a vehicle for political transformation.

Redefining the Role of Literary Criticism

From Literature to Cultural Studies: Eagleton advocates for a shift from the traditional study of literature to a broader concept of “cultural studies,” which would include the analysis of ideologies, feminism, discourse, and media such as film and psychoanalysis. This shift acknowledges that literature is only one part of a broader cultural and ideological framework.
- Quotation: “Literature is the sign for that space because at the moment we have no other term: ‘cultural studies’ is certainly better.”

The Crisis of Literary Studies

Literary Studies as a Non-Subject: Eagleton argues that literary studies do not have a unified method or object. The variety of methods, from biographical analysis to linguistic techniques, reveals the lack of coherence in the field.
- Quotation: “Methodologically speaking, literary studies are a non-subject.”
Philology vs. Humanism: Literary studies have historically been split between the rigorous analysis of texts (philology) and the broader humanistic approach inherited from figures like Arnold and Leavis, leading to an ideological conflict within the discipline.

The Failure of Positivism in Literary Criticism

Positivism and Humanism in Literary Criticism: Literary criticism has often tried to blend empiricism with idealism. Figures like Leavis, Frye, and New Critics sought to marry rigorous analysis with humanistic values, though this approach ultimately led to contradictions and a crisis within the field.

The Illusion of Literary Unity

No Unity in Object or Method: Eagleton argues that there is no stable object (i.e., “literature”) or method that unites literary studies. What defines literature is often subjective, based on arbitrary decisions about what is “well written” or “valuable.”
- Quotation: “The unity of the object is every bit as illusory as the unity of the method.”

The Political End of Literary Criticism

Rhetoric as a Replacement for Literary Criticism: Eagleton proposes replacing literary criticism with the study of rhetoric, defined as the analysis of how discourse produces effects in the social and ideological realm. This shift aligns criticism with political goals, analyzing all forms of discourse, from bus tickets to TV advertisements.
- Quotation: “Our present aim should be to abolish ‘literary criticism’ and revive rhetoric in its place.”
Rhetoric as a Tool for Political Transformation: For Eagleton, the ultimate purpose of studying discourse is to understand and challenge its role in maintaining power structures, contributing to the broader goal of political transformation.

Conclusion: Political Transformation Through Discourse

Literature’s Role in Ideological Critique: Eagleton suggests that instead of viewing literary criticism as an isolated practice, it should be incorporated into broader political critique. The study of discourse, whether literary or otherwise, should focus on its political and ideological effects, with the aim of contributing to revolutionary culture.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation
Humanistic/Utopian Tradition	A tradition in socialist thought that views literature as politically relevant because it can help restore creative capacities oppressed by capitalism.
Negative Hermeneutics	A critical approach that uses literature to expose and demystify ideological contradictions, viewing literature as a tool for ideological critique.
Demystification	The process of revealing and critiquing hidden ideologies within cultural products (like literature) that support capitalist or bourgeois society.
Philology	The study of texts through linguistic, historical, and textual criticism, often seen as a more rigorous, technical, and professional approach to literature.
Bourgeois Humanism	A tradition in literary studies, particularly associated with figures like Arnold and Leavis, emphasizing the humanistic and moral dimensions of literature.
Positivism	An empirical approach that seeks to apply scientific methods to literary criticism, aiming for objective and systematic analysis.
Rhetoric	Eagleton advocates for reviving rhetoric, the study of how discourse (any form of communication) produces effects, linking it to the analysis of power and ideology.
Discourse	Broadly refers to any form of communication (literature, film, advertisements, etc.), focusing on its ideological effects and the ways it constructs social relations.
Cultural Studies	A proposed replacement for traditional literary studies, encompassing a broader analysis of cultural practices, ideologies, and discourses beyond just literature.
Ideology Critique	The analysis of how cultural products, including literature, reinforce or challenge dominant ideologies, often used in Marxist criticism.
Liberal Humanism	A tradition in literary criticism focused on the moral, ethical, and humanizing effects of literature, often criticized for its idealistic or abstract approach to literature.
Structuralism	A theoretical approach that analyzes cultural phenomena (including literature) through the underlying structures and systems (such as language or signs) that shape them.
Signifying Practices	Refers to the ways in which signs, symbols, and discourses create meaning within cultural and ideological contexts.
Performative	A term from speech act theory (introduced by Austin), focusing on how discourse not only describes the world but also acts to produce effects in the world.

Contribution of “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Critique of Traditional Literary Studies

Challenges the Unity of Literary Studies: Eagleton argues that literary studies lack a coherent method or object, making them a “non-subject” in academic discourse.
- Quotation: “Methodologically speaking, literary studies are a non-subject.”
Questions the Relevance of Literature in Ideological Critique: Eagleton critiques the idea that literature, especially “high” literature, is the best tool for ideological critique in a capitalist society.
- Quotation: “Why lay bare the operations of ideology in D. H. Lawrence rather than in television advertisements, women’s magazines, and John Locke?”

Shift from Literature to Cultural Studies

Proposes Expanding Literary Criticism into Cultural Studies: Eagleton suggests broadening the field to encompass other signifying practices like film, advertisements, and everyday life, calling for a shift to “cultural studies.”
- Quotation: “‘Literature’ is the sign for that space because at the moment we have no other term: ‘cultural studies’ is certainly better.”

Revival of Rhetoric as a Critical Tool

Advocates for the Return of Rhetoric: Eagleton calls for the revival of rhetoric, not just as the study of literary devices but as an analysis of how any discourse produces social and ideological effects.
- Quotation: “Our present aim should be to abolish ‘literary criticism’ and revive rhetoric in its place.”

Politicization of Literary Criticism

Promotes Politically Engaged Criticism: Eagleton emphasizes the need for literary criticism to be explicitly political, aligning itself with broader social and revolutionary goals.
- Quotation: “It is a unity not of discourses or objects but of intentional practices… It is a question, not of what we do to ‘literature’ or what ‘literature’ does to us, but of what all this doing is for in the first place.”

Criticism of Humanist and Positivist Approaches

Critiques the Humanist and Positivist Blending in Literary Criticism: Eagleton critiques the hybrid of idealism and positivism found in much of modern literary criticism, particularly in the works of figures like Leavis and Frye.
- Quotation: “Leavis and Richards yoked the distressing vagueness of Arnoldian humanism to the thorough business of technical analysis.”

Destabilization of the Literary Canon

Questions the Definition of “Literature” as a Distinct Object: Eagleton destabilizes the idea of literature as a unified, inherently valuable object, arguing that the categorization of literature is socially and ideologically constructed.
- Quotation: “You have a choice between maintaining the increasingly implausible thesis that there is indeed an inherently definable object named Literature… or of frankly conceding that they have something in common because you and your friends have decided that they do.”

Pluralistic Approach to Discourse Analysis

Advocates for Methodological Pluralism in Criticism: Eagleton promotes a pluralistic approach to the study of discourse, allowing for various methods as long as they contribute to the political goal of ideological critique.
- Quotation: “Rhetorical critics are unashamed pluralists: anything which contributes to the goal of political transformation is acceptable.”

Examples of Critiques Through “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s Framework
D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers	Critique through Negative Hermeneutics: Instead of focusing on its literary qualities, Eagleton would argue for using Sons and Lovers to reveal the ideological contradictions in Lawrence’s representation of family and individual desire. This novel could be seen as crystallizing middle-class anxieties around sexuality and social mobility under capitalism. Quotation: “Why lay bare the operations of ideology in D. H. Lawrence rather than in television advertisements, women’s magazines, and John Locke?”
William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and Experience	Critique through Utopian-Humanistic Tradition: Blake’s poetry, particularly in Songs of Innocence and Experience, could be analyzed as an expression of the human spirit’s creative potential, oppressed by industrial capitalism. Eagleton would likely see value in Blake’s visionary literature for restoring awareness of human capacities that capitalism represses. Quotation: “Literature is politically relevant because it can restore to us that sense of creative capacities repressed by capitalism and realisable under socialism.”
Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice	Cultural Critique and Rhetoric: Through Eagleton’s framework, Pride and Prejudice could be critiqued not only for its subtle social critique but for its role in reinforcing class ideologies and bourgeois morality. The novel’s discourse on marriage and class mobility can be analyzed as a reflection of how literature produces and sustains bourgeois ideology. Quotation: “Our present aim should be to abolish ‘literary criticism’ and revive rhetoric in its place. By rhetoric, I mean the study of the ways in which any discourse whatsoever produces its effects.”
James Joyce’s Ulysses	Destabilization of the Literary Canon: Eagleton would critique Ulysses not for its modernist innovations but for how literary critics and institutions have canonized it as a symbol of high culture, reinforcing elitist distinctions between “literature” and other cultural forms. Joyce’s work, though experimental, does not inherently possess more value than other forms of discourse like advertisements or films. Quotation: “You have a choice between maintaining the increasingly implausible thesis that there is indeed an inherently definable object named Literature… or of frankly conceding that they have something in common because you and your friends have decided that they do.”

Criticism Against “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Overemphasis on Political Criticism

Reduction of Literature to Ideology: Critics argue that Eagleton reduces all literary value to its political and ideological functions, ignoring aesthetic, emotional, or philosophical aspects of literature that might transcend political contexts.
- Counterpoint: By focusing solely on political engagement, the richness and diversity of literary experiences are overlooked.

Dismissal of Aesthetic and Humanistic Values

Neglect of Aesthetic Appreciation: Eagleton’s critique dismisses the idea that literature can be appreciated purely for its artistic or humanistic qualities, such as beauty, emotional resonance, or exploration of universal themes.
- Counterpoint: Critics argue that literature offers more than political utility, and limiting it to that role undermines its broader cultural and artistic contributions.

Undermining the Literary Canon

Destabilizing the Canon is Problematic: By challenging the very concept of a “literary canon,” Eagleton opens the door to a relativistic view where the distinction between high literature and other forms of discourse, such as advertisements, becomes blurry.
- Counterpoint: This could lead to the devaluation of literary studies and weaken the defense of literature as an important cultural practice.

Excessive Pluralism in Methodology

Lack of Rigor in Pluralistic Approach: Eagleton’s call for methodological pluralism, where any approach that serves political transformation is valid, can be criticized for lacking academic rigor or coherence.
- Counterpoint: The absence of a unified method might lead to an incoherent or fragmented field of study, reducing the legitimacy of literary criticism as an academic discipline.

Marginalization of Traditional Literary Scholarship

Rejection of Traditional Scholarship: Eagleton’s critique marginalizes traditional literary scholarship (such as philology, textual criticism, and close reading), which has been fundamental to the field. This dismissal undermines centuries of academic work and critical analysis.
- Counterpoint: Critics argue that traditional methods have value in understanding texts, their historical context, and their formal properties, even outside political dimensions.

Idealism in the Call for Revolutionary Culture

Utopian Call for Revolutionary Culture: Eagleton’s call for literary studies to contribute to the creation of revolutionary culture may be seen as overly idealistic or impractical, especially in contemporary academic institutions.
- Counterpoint: This focus on revolutionary culture might alienate scholars who are not politically radical or aligned with socialist ideology.

Limited Scope in Defining Discourse

Narrow Definition of Discourse: Eagleton’s expansion of discourse to include all cultural texts (e.g., advertisements, bus tickets) risks trivializing the study of literature by treating it as one among many discourses, without acknowledging its unique characteristics or impact.
- Counterpoint: By equating literature with other discourses, Eagleton potentially minimizes the distinctive role that literature has played in shaping cultural, philosophical, and artistic thought.

Representative Quotations from “The End of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Literary studies are a non-subject.”	Eagleton critiques the lack of a unified method or coherent subject in literary studies, arguing that the field is fragmented and inconsistent in its methodologies and objectives.
“Literature is politically relevant because it can restore to us that sense of creative capacities repressed by capitalism.”	This quotation reflects the utopian-humanistic tradition in socialist thought, where literature is seen as having the potential to reawaken human creativity, which is otherwise suppressed under capitalist systems.
“Why lay bare the operations of ideology in D. H. Lawrence rather than in television advertisements, women’s magazines, and John Locke?”	Eagleton questions why literature, particularly high literature, is chosen as the primary tool for demystifying ideology when other cultural forms, such as advertisements or popular media, may have a more direct impact on people’s lives.
“Our present aim should be to abolish ‘literary criticism’ and revive rhetoric in its place.”	Eagleton advocates for a shift from traditional literary criticism to the study of rhetoric, which he defines as analyzing how any form of discourse produces its effects, including ideological and social influences.
“The unity of the object is every bit as illusory as the unity of the method.”	Here, Eagleton critiques the notion that literature is a stable and unified object of study, arguing that the definition of “literature” is arbitrary and ideologically constructed, just as there is no singular method that governs its study.
“Rhetorical critics are unashamed pluralists: anything which contributes to the goal of political transformation is acceptable.”	Eagleton promotes a pluralistic approach to criticism, arguing that any method or discourse that aids in political transformation is valid, rejecting the idea that literary criticism must adhere to strict or traditional methods.
“Socialism is moral or it is nothing.”	Eagleton emphasizes that the core of socialism, and by extension socialist literary criticism, is moral in nature. It is motivated by the ethical objection to the exploitation and degradation of human lives under capitalist systems.
“You have a choice between maintaining the increasingly implausible thesis that there is indeed an inherently definable object named Literature… or of frankly conceding that they have something in common because you and your friends have decided that they do.”	Eagleton critiques the arbitrary nature of literary canon formation, suggesting that what counts as “literature” is not an inherent quality of texts but a decision made by those in positions of cultural power.
“It is a unity not of discourses or objects but of intentional practices.”	Eagleton argues that the “unity” of literary studies should not be found in methods or objects (i.e., literary texts), but in the political intentions and practices of those who engage with the discipline.
“The study of what has traditionally been called literature will not of course merely dissolve within this new space.”	Although Eagleton calls for a shift towards cultural studies and rhetoric, he acknowledges that the study of traditional literature will not disappear entirely but will become one part of a broader, more inclusive field focused on cultural critique.

“Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Marx, Freud, and Morality” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in New Blackfriars in January 1977, has become a cornerstone in the fields of literature and literary theory.

Introduction: “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

“Marx, Freud, and Morality” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in New Blackfriars in January 1977, has become a cornerstone in the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s exploration of the interplay between Marxist and Freudian thought offers a profound understanding of how these intellectual frameworks can illuminate the complexities of human morality and behavior.

Summary of “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Marxism and Morality

Eagleton argues that Marxism, focused on changing material conditions, has little to say about morality. True morality emerges after a revolution, when the ideological constraints of the old order are overcome.
- Quotation: “Until that condition is fulfilled, our ‘moral’ discourse is bound to remain imprisoned within the ideological.”

Marxism Needs Psychoanalysis

Marxism lacks a theory of how individuals become subjects, which Eagleton suggests can be provided by psychoanalysis.
- Quotation: “The science of psychoanalysis is the science of how historical individuals come to be constituted as subjects.”

Freud’s Pessimistic Rationalism

Freud’s outlook is bleak. Humans are driven by conflicting desires and have little hope for true happiness.
- Quotation: “The message of Freud’s work, then, is clear: we just aren’t going to make it.”

The Limits of Human Subjects

Becoming a subject involves repressing the unconscious, creating a permanent tension within us and making true knowledge and complete fulfillment impossible.
- Quotation: “The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”

Subjects and Social Formations

Social formations create subjects who are unaware of the forces shaping them. This “misrecognition” is necessary for the social order to function.
- Quotation: “The social formation has its reasons, of which the subject knows nothing.”

Language and Desire

Language is a system of differences and absences. As we speak, we are driven by a desire to fill the gaps and find meaning, but this is ultimately unachievable.
- Quotation: “To speak is to lack: and it’s in this lack that the movement of desire is set up.”

The Unconscious Speaks Through Us

The Freudian concept of the “parapraxis” (Freudian slip) reveals that the unconscious constantly disrupts our conscious attempts to control language.
- Quotation: “When, in a sentence, I refer to myself as ‘I’, when I make use of the personal pronoun, the ‘I’ I refer to is the coherent subject Terry Eagleton; but the ‘I’ which speaks that ‘I’, that coherent subject, has no such coherence.”

The Subject and the Social Formation

Both subjects and social formations are constituted by forces they are unaware of.
- Quotation: “The unconscious has its reasons of which the subject knows nothing, and the same is true about the subject in relation to the social formation.”

A Tragic Scenario

Both Marxism and Freudianism paint a tragic picture of the human condition. We are limited by our unconscious desires and the structures that shape us.
- Quotation: “The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”

The Foolishness of Love

Freud’s view of love as limited by human nature contrasts with the Christian message to “love thy neighbor as thyself.”
- Quotation: “Given the way human beings are-and I mean the way they are through their material insertion into language, not the way they are for certain transitional historical reasons-the gospel makes very little sense.”

Marxism vs. The Gospel

While Marxism can improve material lives, it offers no solution to the problem of love. The Christian message, though unrealistic in Freudian terms, offers a necessary kind of love for redemption.
- Quotation: “Marxism will not save us either, though it will certainly make life a good deal easier.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevant Context in Eagleton’s Essay
Ideology	A system of ideas that unconsciously shape and constrain the subject’s thinking, creating illusions about the nature of reality.	Eagleton argues that “ideology” is central to understanding how individuals are unknowingly shaped by social structures. Marxism critiques ideology by showing how it hides true social relations, while Freud exposes the unconscious forces that shape human behavior.
Subjectivity	The experience of being a coherent, autonomous individual, which, according to both Marx and Freud, is an illusion produced by ideology and unconscious forces.	Eagleton explains how the subject, while believing themselves to be the master of their thoughts and actions, is actually decentered by unconscious processes (Freud) and shaped by social formations (Marx). He emphasizes the need to recognize that individuals are not truly in control of their own discourse or consciousness.
Historical Materialism	Marxist theory that social and economic structures determine the development of human societies and their ideologies.	Eagleton references Marxism’s focus on historical materialism as the basis for understanding social formations and their reproduction, contrasting it with psychoanalysis as a tool for understanding individual subject formation. He notes that Marxism traditionally lacks a fully developed theory of the subject, which psychoanalysis can help provide.
Unconscious	In Freudian theory, the part of the mind that operates outside of conscious awareness, influencing thoughts, behaviors, and emotions.	The essay argues that unconscious forces, such as repressed desires and drives, play a major role in shaping the subject’s speech and actions. Eagleton connects this to the way ideology operates, suggesting that just as unconscious drives influence behavior, ideology shapes consciousness in ways subjects cannot fully comprehend.
Oedipus Complex	Freudian concept referring to the child’s unconscious sexual desire for the opposite-sex parent and rivalry with the same-sex parent, crucial to the development of the ego.	Eagleton refers to the Oedipus complex to explain how individuals are constituted as “sexed” beings through processes of repression and identification, which in turn integrate them into the social order. This complex also exemplifies the way subject formation involves the repression of knowledge, both personal and social.
Symbolic Order	A Lacanian concept referring to the domain of language and social laws that the subject enters after the Oedipus complex, in which meaning is structured by difference.	Eagleton uses this term to describe how individuals are caught in a network of signifiers that endlessly defer meaning. The symbolic order is the realm of language, where identity and meaning are always constructed in relation to absent or excluded terms. This creates an ongoing “lack,” which drives desire and destabilizes the subject’s coherence.
Castration Complex	The psychoanalytic concept of the child’s realization of sexual difference and the anxiety this produces, leading to repression and the formation of the unconscious.	Eagleton likens this complex to other fundamental losses (such as birth, separation from the mother, etc.) that shape human subjectivity. He uses it to illustrate how language and culture impose a continual chain of losses, absences, and lacks that disrupt any sense of subjective unity or completeness.
Desire	In psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious drive that is never fully satisfied, continually moving the subject from one object or signifier to another.	Eagleton draws on Freud and Lacan to argue that desire is structured by lack and that language itself generates this movement of desire. This process reveals the subject’s dependence on absence and difference, contradicting the illusion of wholeness or control in both personal and ideological discourse.
Cultural Revolution	A Marxist concept referring to the transformation of social and individual consciousness as part of the larger political revolution.	Eagleton suggests that Marxism, beyond political revolution, must involve a “cultural revolution,” which entails the transformation of individual subjectivity and consciousness. He implies that psychoanalysis can inform this process by addressing the deep-seated psychological resistances to such transformation.

Contribution of “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Marxist Literary Theory

Ideology and the Unconscious: Eagleton challenges the Marxist notion of ideology as merely a system of false beliefs imposed by the ruling class. Instead, he argues that ideology is deeply embedded in the unconscious, shaping our perceptions and actions.
- Reference: “The unconscious is exactly the fact that as we speak, what we say must always escape us, that as I say one thing it means something else, that as my own discourse unrolls, it reveals in its knots and breaks and crevices those other possible signs which must always be absent.”
The Subject and the Social Formation: Eagleton redefines the Marxist concept of the subject, arguing that it is not a fully autonomous individual but rather a product of the social formation. This challenges the humanist notion that individuals are the primary agents of history.
- Reference: “The human subject is a product of the social formation, but must, at the same time, conceal it-must be unaware of its true determinants, of the process of its production.”

2. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

The Unconscious and Discourse: Eagleton expands on Freud’s theories of the unconscious, arguing that it shapes not only our individual psyches but also our cultural discourses.
- Reference: “The unconscious has its reasons of which the subject knows nothing, and the same is true about the subject in relation to the social formation.”

The Tragic Nature of Human Existence: Eagleton aligns with Freud’s pessimistic view of human existence, emphasizing the inherent conflicts and limitations that shape our lives.
- Reference: “The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”

3. New Historicism

The Social Construction of the Subject: Eagleton’s analysis of the subject as a product of the social formation aligns with New Historicist approaches that emphasize the historical and cultural context in shaping individuals’ identities and experiences.
- Reference: “The human subject is a product of the social formation.”

4. Cultural Studies

Interdisciplinary Approach: Eagleton’s essay demonstrates the value of combining Marxist and psychoanalytic perspectives to understand culture. This interdisciplinary approach has been influential in Cultural Studies.
- Reference: “The essay offers a powerful blend of Marxist and psychoanalytic insights.”

5. Post-Structuralism

Deconstruction of the Subject: Eagleton’s critique of the subject as a coherent entity aligns with Post-Structuralist ideas that challenge the notion of a stable self.
- Reference: “The subject can’t, as it were, round upon those determinants, appropriate them in consciousness, because it exists as a subject only by their repression.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through Marxism (Eagleton’s Lens)	Critique through Psychoanalysis (Eagleton’s Lens)
*Great Expectations* by Charles Dickens	Through a Marxist perspective, the novel illustrates class struggle and social mobility. Pip’s journey from a poor orphan to a gentleman reflects the ideologies of capitalism. The “ideological” illusion Pip suffers from—believing wealth and status can lead to happiness—can be critiqued as masking the exploitative class structures of Victorian England.	Pip’s internal conflict and guilt can be analyzed through Freud’s theory of the unconscious. His desire for social advancement, driven by his love for Estella, can be seen as rooted in repressed desires and the Oedipal complex. Pip’s obsession with becoming a gentleman reflects deeper anxieties about identity, desire, and his relationship with parental figures like Joe and Miss Havisham.
*Wuthering Heights* by Emily Brontë	The novel’s portrayal of Heathcliff’s rise to power could be interpreted as a Marxist critique of the capitalist drive for ownership and control. Heathcliff’s revenge on the Earnshaw and Linton families illustrates how class oppression and economic inequalities drive individuals to destructive actions.	Heathcliff’s obsession with Catherine and his violent behavior can be analyzed through the lens of Freudian psychoanalysis. His destructive tendencies could be seen as an expression of repressed desires and unresolved childhood trauma. The novel’s focus on intense emotions, violence, and love mirrors Freud’s notion of the death drive (Thanatos) and Eros in human behavior.
*Hamlet* by William Shakespeare	Marxist critique would focus on the ideological forces shaping Hamlet’s indecision and the political power structures in Denmark. The play reflects feudal and class power relations, where Hamlet is caught between his princely duties and his moral qualms, mirroring larger societal contradictions.	Freud’s psychoanalytic interpretation of *Hamlet* famously focuses on the Oedipus complex. Hamlet’s hesitation in avenging his father’s death can be linked to repressed desires for his mother, Gertrude. His struggle with madness and internal turmoil reflects the unconscious forces at play, where Hamlet’s ego is torn between the id (desires) and the superego (moral expectations).
*The Great Gatsby* by F. Scott Fitzgerald	A Marxist critique would emphasize the novel’s exploration of the American Dream as an ideological construct. Gatsby’s pursuit of wealth and status masks the inherent inequalities of capitalist society. The novel critiques the false promises of class mobility, with Gatsby’s downfall symbolizing the failure of this ideology.	Gatsby’s obsessive desire for Daisy can be analyzed through psychoanalysis as a manifestation of deeper unconscious desires. His fixation on the past and his idealized image of Daisy reflect Freud’s concept of the repetition compulsion, where Gatsby is driven by unresolved desires and emotional wounds. The symbolic death drive is present in Gatsby’s reckless pursuit, ultimately leading to his tragic demise.

Criticism Against “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton

Overemphasis on Ideology and Repression:
- Critics argue that Eagleton’s interpretation places excessive emphasis on ideology, viewing individuals primarily as passive products of unconscious and social forces, downplaying human agency and individual autonomy.
Limited Scope of Morality Discussion:
- Some may criticize the work for offering an insufficient exploration of morality itself. Eagleton’s Marxist and Freudian analysis focuses more on how morality is shaped by external forces, but less on the content of moral principles or how individuals might challenge these ideologies.

Reductionism in Psychoanalysis:
- Eagleton’s reliance on Freudian psychoanalysis has been critiqued for its reductionist approach. Critics argue that Freudian concepts such as the Oedipus complex and repression oversimplify complex human behaviors and ignore other psychological or philosophical explanations.
Tension between Marxism and Psychoanalysis:
- The attempt to merge Marxist historical materialism with Freudian psychoanalysis has been criticized for being problematic, as the two frameworks may not be fully compatible. While Marxism focuses on social structures, psychoanalysis emphasizes individual psychology, creating a potential conceptual mismatch.
Neglect of Humanism and Ethical Agency:
- Some critics believe that Eagleton’s approach neglects humanism and ethical agency, reducing morality to ideological constructs rather than considering the potential for moral progress or ethical behavior outside of ideology and repression.

Pessimism in the Concept of Subjectivity:
- Eagleton’s portrayal of subjectivity as fundamentally shaped by absence, lack, and repression, influenced by Lacan and Freud, has been criticized for its pessimism. This perspective can be seen as overly fatalistic, suggesting that humans are perpetually alienated from their desires and true meaning.
Christianity vs. Marxism Conflation:
- Eagleton’s analysis of the relationship between Christianity and Marxism, particularly the argument that Marxism needs a discourse of love beyond its materialist framework, has been criticized as overly idealistic or inconsistent with the materialist foundations of Marxist thought.

Representative Quotations from “Marx, Freud and Morality” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Until that condition is fulfilled, our ‘moral’ discourse is bound to remain imprisoned within the ideological.”	This statement highlights the importance of social and political change in achieving true morality. Eagleton argues that morality is often constrained by the dominant ideology.
“The science of psychoanalysis is the science of how historical individuals come to be constituted as subjects.”	This quotation emphasizes the role of psychoanalysis in understanding the formation of individual identity and consciousness.
“The message of Freud’s work, then, is clear: we just aren’t going to make it.”	This quote reflects Freud’s pessimistic view of human nature and the limitations imposed by our unconscious desires.
“The human enterprise, focused as it is on that pathetic self-contradictory phenomenon we call the ego, is doomed from the outset.”	This statement emphasizes the tragic nature of human existence, as revealed by Freud’s analysis of the ego’s internal conflicts and limitations.
“The social formation has its reasons, of which the subject knows nothing.”	This quote highlights the power of social structures to shape individuals’ lives without their conscious awareness.
“To speak is to lack: and it’s in this lack that the movement of desire is set up.”	This statement emphasizes the fundamental nature of desire as a result of language and its inherent lack of meaning.
“When, in a sentence, I refer to myself as ‘I’, when I make use of the personal pronoun, the ‘I’ I refer to is the coherent subject Terry Eagleton; but the ‘I’ which speaks that ‘I’, that coherent subject, has no such coherence.”	This quote illustrates the fragmented nature of the subject, as revealed by the unconscious’s influence on our discourse.
“The unconscious has its reasons of which the subject knows nothing, and the same is true about the subject in relation to the social formation.”	This statement highlights the unconscious nature of many of our actions and beliefs, both as individuals and as members of society.
“The human subject is a product of the social formation, but must, at the same time, conceal it-must be unaware of its true determinants, of the process of its production.”	This quote challenges the humanist notion of the individual as a fully autonomous agent, emphasizing the role of social structures in shaping identity.
“The gospel may be true or it may not be; but if Freud is right, as I think he is, then nothing short of the gospel will save us.”	This statement suggests that the Christian gospel, despite its unrealistic nature, may be the only hope for salvation in a world shaped by Freud’s tragic vision.

“Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton is a seminal piece that first appeared in the esteemed journal New Blackfriars in 2002.

Introduction: “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

“Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton is a seminal piece that first appeared in the esteemed journal New Blackfriars in 2002. This insightful exploration of the relationship between irony and the Eucharist has significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton’s analysis delves into the complexities of irony as a literary device and its potential to challenge traditional religious beliefs. His work has been widely cited and continues to be a valuable resource for scholars and students alike.

Summary of “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

Metaphor and Transubstantiation:
Eagleton begins by drawing a parallel between metaphor and transubstantiation, explaining how a word like “fire” can change its meaning (to anger or passion) while retaining its original form. Similarly, in the Eucharist, bread and wine retain their outward appearance but are understood to become the body and blood of Christ. Eagleton explains, “The bread and wine of the eucharist still look and behave like bread and wine,” but their “substance” has changed through metaphorical transformation. This comparison highlights the mystery of transubstantiation where physical signs take on profound spiritual meaning.
Semiotics of the Eucharist – The Concept of Meta-signs:
Eagleton introduces the idea of the Eucharistic elements as meta-signs, meaning they not only signify but also comment on the nature of signification itself. He explains, “The eucharistic elements are meta-signs in more senses than one,” signifying both the presence and absence of meaning. In this sense, the Eucharist functions as a meta-signification, reflecting on signs and meanings beyond their literal forms.

Irony in Signification:
The Eucharist, Eagleton argues, carries an inherent irony. While it appears to be bread and wine, it symbolizes a reality beyond mere physical presence: the body of Christ. This is “a kind of symbolic face-to-faceness” where the elements signify both the presence of Christ and the transcendence of earthly signs. Eagleton emphasizes the irony in signifying the “non-discursive discursively,” pointing out the paradox that the bread and wine, though symbols, transcend the very concept of signification.
The Role of the Body as a Sign:
Eagleton discusses the body of Christ as both a sign and a meta-sign. The human body, like Christ’s body, is inherently expressive, making it a “sign” already. This expressivity is fully realized in the risen body, where “the material body itself becomes pure communication.” The Eucharistic bread and wine, therefore, signify a deeper form of expressivity and signification, encapsulating the fullness of spiritual meaning.
Death and Fulfillment of Signs:
One of Eagleton’s core arguments is that the Eucharist symbolizes both the death and consummation of the sign. In the Kingdom of God, signs give way to a state of pure expressivity – the body of Christ – rendering signs redundant. This duality, Eagleton argues, highlights the Eucharist as a self-cancelling semiotic system, where signs “bounce” the participant beyond their immediate meaning, much like “a trampoline.”

Conclusion – Irony as the Ultimate Signification:
Eagleton concludes by reinforcing the irony within the Eucharist. The bread and wine signify “their own emptiness” while remaining physically present, reflecting a semiotic system in which “there must be a signifier which stands in for its own impossibility.” For Christian faith, the Eucharist is a paradoxical representation of presence and absence, encapsulating the divine reality that cannot be fully represented within earthly systems of meaning.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in “Irony and the Eucharist”
Metaphor	A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which it is not literally applicable.	Eagleton draws an analogy between metaphor and transubstantiation, explaining how bread and wine can signify the body and blood of Christ, just as “fire” can mean anger or passion.
Transubstantiation	The change of the substance of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ during the Eucharist, while retaining their appearances.	Central to Eagleton’s argument, transubstantiation is discussed as a change in the “substance” of the Eucharistic elements while their form remains the same, likened to the operation of metaphor.
Meta-sign	A sign that reflects on or comments on the nature of signification itself.	The Eucharistic elements are described as meta-signs, as they not only signify the body of Christ but also comment on the process of signification, going beyond mere representation.
Irony	A rhetorical device or figure of speech in which the intended meaning is opposite to the literal meaning.	Eagleton identifies irony in the Eucharist, where the elements appear as bread and wine but signify something far more profound—the body of Christ—creating a paradox of meaning and non-meaning.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols and their use or interpretation.	The entire essay revolves around a semiotic interpretation of the Eucharist, exploring how signs like bread and wine can hold and transcend meaning within Christian theology.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	The Eucharist is heavily symbolic, with the bread and wine symbolizing Christ’s body and blood, but also representing the broader theological concepts of sacrifice, redemption, and divine presence.
Paradox	A seemingly contradictory statement that may nonetheless be true.	The Eucharist embodies a paradox: the bread and wine signify Christ’s body, yet remain bread and wine. This contradiction is central to the theological and semiotic understanding of the ritual.
Signifier and Signified	In semiotics, the signifier is the form that a sign takes, and the signified is the concept it represents.	Eagleton uses this structuralist concept to explain how the Eucharist functions as a sign where the signifier (bread and wine) represents the signified (body and blood of Christ) but also transcends these meanings.
Expressivity	The capacity of a form (such as language or the body) to express meaning.	Eagleton highlights how the body of Christ is itself expressive, embodying meaning as a sign. The risen body, in particular, is described as “pure communication.”

Contribution of “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Semiotics and Meta-signs

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton extends semiotic theory by analyzing how religious symbols, like the bread and wine in the Eucharist, function as meta-signs—signs that comment on the nature of signification itself. His discussion moves beyond traditional signifier/signified relationships, exploring the role of absence and transcendence within religious symbols.

Reference:
Eagleton describes the Eucharistic elements as meta-signs, “signs of an absence of signification” (p. 513). He likens the bread and wine to meta-signs that reflect not only on their immediate meaning but also on the broader system of signification in which they exist.
Impact on Theory:
By analyzing the Eucharist through a semiotic lens, Eagleton contributes to religious semiotics, showing how theological symbols can transcend their ordinary signifying function. This aligns with the post-structuralist notion that signs often point to gaps or absences in meaning, challenging the stability of signification in language and symbolism.

2. Irony and the Theory of Signification

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton deepens the theory of irony by connecting it to religious symbolism. He argues that the Eucharist is an inherently ironic sign, signifying something that it is not while remaining itself. This paradoxical structure of meaning aligns with theories of irony in postmodernism and deconstruction, where the gap between signifier and signified creates layers of meaning.
Reference:
Eagleton discusses irony in the Eucharist, noting how the bread and wine “signify the non-being of the future by the non-being of its own ironic self-destruction” (p. 514). The Eucharist, as a symbolic act, carries an ironic tension: it signifies Christ’s body, yet remains bread and wine.
Impact on Theory:
This contribution aligns with deconstructive approaches to irony, where Eagleton’s analysis suggests that irony arises from the instability of meaning within religious symbols. The Eucharist, as a semiotic system, self-negates to represent a condition beyond signification, a notion akin to Derrida’s deconstruction of language where meaning is constantly deferred.

3. Post-structuralism and the Transcendence of Signifiers

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton’s analysis of the Eucharist contributes to post-structuralist understandings of the instability of signifiers. He argues that religious symbols like the Eucharist do not simply point to a fixed signified (Christ’s body) but point to a condition beyond signification itself, echoing post-structuralist concerns about the impossibility of final meaning.
Reference:
Eagleton argues, “the bread has to behave like bread but not actually be it” (p. 514), emphasizing the instability and paradox of signification. He further notes that the Eucharist “has to signify a condition beyond signification,” thus transcending the usual boundaries of semiotic systems.

Impact on Theory:
This analysis resonates with Jacques Derrida’s notion of différance, where the Eucharist represents a signifier that points to its own absence and the impossibility of fully representing the transcendent “real.” The analysis challenges traditional semiotic relationships, positioning religious symbols as fluid, contingent, and beyond full representation.

4. Religious Semiotics and the Sublime

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton links the Eucharist to theory of the sublime, particularly in its ironic representation of infinity. He connects religious semiotics with the sublime by arguing that the Eucharist gestures toward a reality that is beyond human comprehension or representation—aligning this with the classical sublime, where overwhelming forces like God or nature can only be represented indirectly or negatively.

Reference:
Eagleton draws parallels to the sublime when he states, “infinity can be represented only in negative guise, by the representation drawing attention to its own stringent limits” (p. 514). Here, he aligns the Eucharist with the sublime, where signs can only point to their own limits when trying to signify the infinite.
Impact on Theory:
This contribution resonates with Immanuel Kant’s and Edmund Burke’s theories of the sublime, where representations of the divine or infinite can only be rendered indirectly. Eagleton’s interpretation of the Eucharist as a representation of the “beyond-sign” ties theological semiotics to broader aesthetic and philosophical discussions of the sublime.

5. Political Semiotics and Revolution

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton makes a unique contribution by tying the Eucharist to political semiotics, particularly in the revolutionary context. He compares the Eucharist to avant-garde poetics and Marxist ideas of revolution, where the sign points toward a future condition in which it will be unnecessary—reflecting Marx’s notion that “the content goes beyond the phrase.”
Reference:
Eagleton uses Marxist semiotics to describe the Eucharist: “what socialist transformation envisages outstrips the language in which we might now describe it” (p. 515). He likens the Eucharist to revolutionary symbols that simultaneously negate themselves while pointing to a future utopian reality.
Impact on Theory:
Eagleton’s interpretation aligns with Marxist literary theory, where signs, particularly revolutionary symbols, are understood as pointing to a future state that negates the need for current discourses. The Eucharist, in this context, becomes a revolutionary symbol that gestures toward a future redemption, blending theology with political and social semiotics.

6. The Body as Language and Communication

Contribution to Theory:
Eagleton’s discussion of the body as a form of language contributes to theories of embodiment and expressivity in literary and cultural theory. He argues that the body of Christ in the Eucharist is not only a sign but also the most expressive form of communication, thus merging linguistic and corporeal forms of signification.
Reference:
Eagleton notes, “the body as Word” and argues that “the risen body is the flesh as pure expressivity” (p. 513). He highlights how the body in the Eucharist serves as both a physical and semiotic presence, merging material and linguistic forms of expression.

Impact on Theory:
This connects to cultural theories of embodiment, such as those by Maurice Merleau-Ponty, where the body is seen as a central site of meaning and expression. Eagleton’s analysis of the Eucharist enhances discussions of the body as signifier, positioning it as a crucial intersection of language, semiotics, and theology.

Examples of Critiques Through “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through “Irony and the Eucharist”	Explanation
*The Waste Land* by T.S. Eliot	Semiotic Breakdown and Meta-Signs	Using Eagleton’s concept of the meta-sign, Eliot’s fragmented style in *The Waste Land* can be seen as a breakdown of traditional signifiers, reflecting a world in which meaning has become disjointed. Just as Eagleton discusses the Eucharist as a sign pointing to the absence of meaning, Eliot’s work can be interpreted as a commentary on the disintegration of meaning in the modern world.
*Waiting for Godot* by Samuel Beckett	Irony and the Absence of Meaning	Beckett’s play parallels Eagleton’s discussion of irony, where the bread and wine in the Eucharist represent something that they are not. In *Waiting for Godot, the anticipation of Godot symbolizes a quest for meaning that never materializes. Beckett uses irony* to show that the act of waiting itself becomes meaningless, much like Eagleton’s depiction of the Eucharist signifying its own emptiness.
*Heart of Darkness* by Joseph Conrad	Signifier and Signified Gap	Eagleton’s exploration of the gap between signifier and signified can be applied to *Heart of Darkness*, where Kurtz symbolizes the ineffable nature of imperialism’s horrors. Just as Eagleton argues that the Eucharist’s signified (Christ’s body) transcends representation, Conrad’s portrayal of Kurtz suggests that the true nature of colonialism is beyond the grasp of language and signification.
*The Brothers Karamazov* by Fyodor Dostoevsky	Religious Semiotics and the Sublime	Through the lens of Eagleton’s analysis of religious semiotics, the Eucharistic themes in *The Brothers Karamazov* can be critiqued as a struggle between material and spiritual realms. The character of Alyosha represents the sublime faith that transcends reason, aligning with Eagleton’s notion that religious symbols like the Eucharist signify something beyond rational or material comprehension.

Criticism Against “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton

Complexity and Accessibility:
Eagleton’s use of dense philosophical language, particularly his engagement with semiotics and meta-signs, may render the essay inaccessible to readers unfamiliar with advanced literary theory or theological concepts.
Over-reliance on Semiotic Analysis:
Critics might argue that Eagleton’s heavy focus on semiotics could reduce the rich theological significance of the Eucharist to a mere play of signs, downplaying its spiritual and sacramental aspects.

Lack of Theological Depth:
Some may claim that Eagleton’s literary and semiotic approach lacks sufficient engagement with theological scholarship on the Eucharist, potentially oversimplifying or misrepresenting its deep religious significance.
Limited Application to Broader Christian Practices:
While Eagleton focuses on the Eucharist, his analysis may be too narrow in scope, failing to address how irony and signification play a role in other Christian sacraments or religious experiences.
Philosophical Generalization:
Eagleton’s linking of the Eucharist with post-structuralist theories of signification and irony could be seen as an overextension of literary theory into theology, making generalizations that may not resonate with traditional religious interpretations.

Irony as Reductionist:
By emphasizing the irony in the Eucharist, Eagleton might be accused of reducing the profundity of the ritual to a philosophical paradox, neglecting the emotional, communal, and devotional dimensions of the sacrament.

Representative Quotations from “Irony and the Eucharist” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The bread and wine of the eucharist still look and behave like bread and wine.”	Eagleton begins by illustrating the mystery of transubstantiation, where the physical elements remain the same while their spiritual essence changes, introducing the central theme of irony.
“Flame has transubstantiated into fury.”	This metaphor explains how words change their meaning while retaining their form, paralleling how bread and wine transform into the body and blood of Christ in the Eucharist.
“The eucharistic elements are meta-signs in more senses than one.”	Eagleton introduces the concept of meta-signs, emphasizing that the Eucharist is not just symbolic but reflects on the very nature of signification and meaning.
“It has to signify a condition beyond signification.”	The Eucharist is presented as a paradox: it must communicate something (divine presence) that inherently transcends ordinary forms of communication and representation.
“The sign is where degradation and redemption intersect.”	Eagleton connects the Eucharist to the idea of redemption through the degradation of signs, suggesting that it symbolizes both the suffering (degradation) and the salvation (redemption) of Christ.
“The irony of this love-feast is that it has to convey the non-discursive discursively.”	The Eucharist is described as inherently ironic because it tries to represent a non-verbal, divine mystery using the human medium of language and ritual.
“There must be a signifier which stands in for its own impossibility.”	Eagleton highlights a core irony in the Eucharist: the bread and wine serve as signs of something (the body of Christ) that cannot be fully signified or represented within the system of signs.
“The symbol is the death of the thing.”	Borrowing from Jacques Lacan, Eagleton argues that symbols replace the actual objects they represent, and this applies to the Eucharist, where Christ’s body is symbolized through bread and wine.
“The risen body is the flesh as pure expressivity.”	Eagleton describes the resurrected body of Christ as the ultimate form of communication, where the physical body itself becomes pure expression and meaning.
“In this sense, the death of the sign is also the consummation of it.”	This phrase captures the paradox at the heart of the Eucharist, where the end of signification (death of the sign) is also its fulfillment, mirroring the death and resurrection of Christ.

“Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1976 in the journal New Blackfriars, in its Volume 57, Number 671, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory.

Introduction: “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

“Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1976 in the journal New Blackfriars, in its Volume 57, Number 671, holds significant importance in literature and literary theory. It explores the concept of decentering God, challenging the traditional centrality of divine authority in Western thought. Eagleton’s critique offers a profound reexamination of religious discourse and its influence on literary works, paving the way for new perspectives and interpretations.

Summary of “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Christian-Marxist Dialogue and Humanism

Christian and Marxist common ground in humanism: In the past, Christian-Marxist dialogue found a shared focus on humanistic values. Eagleton highlights this connection: “Whatever the divergences between the two camps, they were at least united by their profoundly humanistic dimension.”

Humanism now criticized by Marxism: Marxism, however, has shifted its stance, moving away from humanism as seen in Louis Althusser’s declaration: “Marxism is not a Humanism.” This indicates Marxism’s growing rejection of humanism as a bourgeois ideology.

Decentering the Human Subject

Human subject dethroned: Eagleton discusses how European Marxism and structuralism have moved to dethrone the human subject. The bourgeois idea of “Man” as the center of history is rejected: “It is history… which ‘speaks’ man, which constitutes the human subject.”

Focus on structures and laws over individuals: Instead of centering on individual humans or collective subjects, Marxism focuses on social structures and discourses: “The study of history is the science of these rule-bound discourses… its aim is to disengage those laws… situated on a terrain quite other than ‘human experience’.”

God and the Fetish of Central Meaning

Atheistic critique of central meaning: Eagleton points out that atheistic Marxism criticizes the idea of a central essence or ultimate meaning (such as God) as a mystifying fetish. As he notes, “Christian theology and atheistic humanism seem to share a belief in some ultimate essence or origin of meaning… but it is precisely this trust in some single enshrined essence of meaning which atheistic Marxism attacks as a fetish.”

Derrida and decentering authority: Jacques Derrida and other Marxist semioticians argue that authority figures like God or monarchs act as centralizing fetishes that suppress pluralistic meanings: “God, the Father, the monarch, gold, the phallus… protect us from the terror of being liberated into the unfounded, decentred process of our history.”

Milton and the Tragic Absence of God

Milton’s portrayal of God’s withdrawal: Eagleton draws on Milton’s Paradise Lost to explore how God’s withdrawal from history leads to a loss of meaning, particularly for the English Protestant bourgeoisie. He describes this withdrawal as both a source of value and a threat: “God seems to have withdrawn his presence from history, abandoning the revolutionary venture of his chosen people.”

Satan as a failed revolutionary figure: Satan’s attempt to dethrone God in Paradise Lost is described as a decentering gone wrong, where one repressive authority is merely replaced with another: “Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone the poem’s aloof, coldly bureaucratic God and falls to hell… setting up a substitute kingdom.”

Decentering of Both God and Man

Christ’s decentering of the Father: Eagleton argues that, from a Christian perspective, Christ’s incarnation is a revolutionary decentering of the Father. However, Milton fails to recognize this because of his theological stance: “In Christ, the Father decentres himself among men… but Milton cannot understand this due to his Arianism.”

Simultaneous decentering of Man: Eagleton claims that the decentering of God leads to the decentering of Man, aligning Christian thought with traditional Marxism: “The Christian stands… with the more traditional Marxist who decentres both [God and Man].”

Pluralistic Meaning in History and Faith

Ceaseless decentering in history and faith: Eagleton concludes that, for Christian faith, the process of decentering in history is mirrored by the triune God, whose meaning is dispersed and pluralistic: “The ceaseless decentring and deconstructing of Man by the discourses that ‘live’ him is part of that deeper movement… which is, for Christian faith, the triune God.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference/Context in Text
Humanism	A belief in the value and agency of human beings, typically focusing on human experiences and achievements.	Eagleton critiques how Marxism rejects humanism, once central to the Christian-Marxist dialogue. “Marxism is not a Humanism.”
Structuralism	A theoretical approach that sees human culture as a structure, where elements are interrelated and governed by rules.	Marxism and structuralism work together to “de-centre” the human subject, focusing on structures instead of individuals.
Decentering	The process of challenging and removing something or someone from the center of meaning or authority.	Central theme in Eagleton’s work, especially regarding the dethroning of “Man” and “God” from history.
Historical Materialism	A Marxist theory that history develops through material conditions rather than ideas or beliefs.	Eagleton discusses how traditional Marxism moves away from humanism toward a more structural analysis.
Fetishism	The attribution of inherent value or power to an object, often in a way that masks its true function or origin.	A critique of how centralizing ideas (God, the monarch, gold) act as fetishes, obscuring the plurality of meanings.
Atheism	The absence of belief in deities, often used in contrast to theism.	Eagleton notes how atheism becomes politically relevant in rejecting the centralized authority of God in society.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols, particularly how meaning is created and communicated.	Eagleton refers to Marxist semioticians who explore how language and signs structure society and thought.
Discourse	A system of knowledge and meaning that governs how we speak, think, and act in society.	History is seen as a set of discourses that ‘speak’ man, rather than the other way around.
Arianism	A theological belief that Jesus Christ is subordinate to God the Father, contrary to the doctrine of the Trinity.	Eagleton discusses how Milton’s Arianism affects his understanding of the decentering of God and Man.
Deconstruction	A method of critical analysis that seeks to uncover multiple meanings within a text, showing how they undermine their own logic.	Eagleton applies Derrida’s concept of deconstruction to explore how authority figures like God or monarchs are decentered.
Transcendence	The belief in something that goes beyond ordinary experience, often related to God or an ultimate truth.	Eagleton critiques both Christian and Marxist humanism for seeking a transcendental meaning or essence.

Contribution of “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Marxist Theory

Critique of Humanist Marxism: Eagleton critiques the humanistic interpretation of Marxism, focusing on structural and materialist interpretations.
- “Marxism is not a Humanism.” – Aligns with Althusser’s rejection of humanist Marxism.

Decentering the Human Subject: Eagleton argues that history is shaped by social structures, not individual human beings or collective subjects.
- “It is history… which ‘speaks’ man, which constitutes the human subject.”
Emphasis on Social Formations: Eagleton shifts the focus from human subjects to social formations as key players in history.
- “The subjects of history are not ‘men’, not even ‘social classes’, but… social formations.”

Structuralism

Focus on Structures Over Individuals: Eagleton applies structuralist principles by emphasizing that human beings are products of larger societal structures.
- “The study of history is the science of these rule-bound discourses… its aim is to disengage those laws.”
Human Experience Subordinated to Structures: Eagleton argues that societal structures shape history rather than individual human experience.
- “Like the unconscious, [history] has its reasons of which ‘living individuals’ know nothing.”

Poststructuralism

Decentering and Plurality of Meaning: Reflecting poststructuralist ideas, Eagleton emphasizes the ceaseless decentering of meaning, rejecting any fixed or centralized authority.
- “The ceaseless decentring and deconstructing of Man… is part of that deeper movement.”

Critique of Centralized Authority: Eagleton critiques the concept of centralized meaning, such as God or Man, as oppressive and misleading.
- “Atheistic Marxism attacks… some single enshrined essence of meaning… as a fetish.”
Instability of Meaning: Aligning with Derrida’s deconstruction, Eagleton argues that meaning is fluid and always being remade, rejecting any notion of fixed truths.
- “We are always already in the midst of meaning, traversed by the multiple codes which ‘speak‘ us.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s “Decentering God”	Reference/Explanation
*Paradise Lost* by John Milton	Decentering of God’s authority: Milton’s portrayal of God reflects a distant, bureaucratic authority figure, leading to Satan’s failed rebellion.	“God seems to have withdrawn his presence from history… Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone… God.”
	Milton’s struggle with God’s authority: Eagleton critiques Milton’s failure to resolve the tension between free will and divine authority.	“Milton… torn as he is between the absolute authority of God and the revolutionary freedom of man.”
*The Hidden God* by Lucien Goldmann	God as an absent, unintelligible force: Goldmann critiques how God’s withdrawal from history leaves the world unintelligible, a reflection of a historical deadlock.	“God is at once present and absent in the world, robbing it of value because of his withdrawal.”
	Historical context of God’s absence: Eagleton uses Goldmann’s analysis to show how the emergence of bourgeois rationalism led to God’s withdrawal.	“Goldmann situates this ideology in… a deadlocked transitional phase… between absolutist-monarchical and bourgeois society.”
*Samson Agonistes* by John Milton	Decentering of God in history: Eagleton applies decentering to Milton’s portrayal of God as distant and arbitrary, leading to the tragic isolation of Samson.	“By the time of Samson Agonistes… God is the utterly remote presence whose arbitrary decrees you obey.”
	Failure to de-center the human subject: Milton does not manage to decenter the human subject in history due to his theological stance.	“Milton… is incapable of recognising… that Christ’s decentring of the Father is simultaneously a decentring of Man.”
*The Fall of Man* (Biblical Narrative)	Critique of authority and rebellion: Eagleton critiques the Biblical Fall of Man as a revolutionary decentering attempt (by Satan) that fails and re-establishes repressive authority.	“Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone the poem’s aloof, coldly bureaucratic God and falls to hell.”
	Theological implications of decentering: Eagleton suggests that both God’s authority and human freedom are at odds, creating contradictions within the narrative.	“The Christian stands… with the more traditional Marxist who decentres both.”

Criticism Against “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton

Overemphasis on Structuralism

Neglect of Human Agency: Critics may argue that Eagleton’s focus on social structures over individual agency dismisses the role of human experience in shaping history.
- By asserting “history… constitutes the human subject,” Eagleton downplays individual contributions, which could be seen as reductive.

Excessive Reliance on Marxist Framework

Reduction of Complex Religious Thought to Materialism: Eagleton’s Marxist analysis might oversimplify religious belief systems, reducing them to mere ideological constructs without engaging with their spiritual or metaphysical dimensions.
- The claim that “the centrality of Man is merely a displacement of the supremacy of God” may be seen as an overly simplistic interpretation of religious humanism.

Dismissal of Humanism

Critique of Humanism as Dated: Some may argue that Eagleton’s rejection of humanism is unnecessarily dismissive, ignoring how humanistic principles can coexist with more structural analyses.
- Eagleton’s statement that “humanism… forestalls us from thinking through society as structure” overlooks the continuing relevance of human-centered perspectives.

Ambiguity in Deconstruction

Potential for Theoretical Vagueness: Eagleton’s embrace of poststructuralist ideas, such as deconstruction, may lead to a lack of clarity or practical application, as meaning becomes constantly deferred and fluid.
- The notion that “meaning is ceaselessly exterior to itself” could be criticized for creating interpretive instability, making it difficult to engage with concrete political or literary critique.

Underestimation of Theological Complexity

Simplification of Christian Theology: Critics may argue that Eagleton simplifies complex theological debates, particularly regarding Milton and the decentering of God, without fully exploring the spiritual and philosophical nuances.
- His critique of Milton’s Arianism, for example, may be seen as reductive: “Milton… incapable of recognising the other side of that truth.”

Representative Quotations from “Decentering God” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Marxism is not a Humanism.”	Eagleton aligns with Althusser’s view, rejecting the idea that Marxism should focus on human-centered perspectives.
“It is history… which ‘speaks’ man, which constitutes the human subject.”	Eagleton emphasizes that history, shaped by social structures and discourses, creates individuals rather than vice versa.
“The subjects of history are not ‘men’, not even ‘social classes’, but… social formations.”	This challenges the humanistic view by centering on social structures rather than human subjects or collective groups.
“Atheistic Marxism attacks… some single enshrined essence of meaning… as a fetish.”	Eagleton critiques both religious and humanist ideologies for focusing on a central, fixed meaning, which he views as limiting.
“Like the unconscious, [history] has its reasons of which ‘living individuals’ know nothing.”	This reflects Eagleton’s structuralist influence, suggesting that individuals are unaware of the larger social forces shaping them.
“Satan tries to de-centre, dethrone the poem’s aloof, coldly bureaucratic God and falls to hell.”	Eagleton uses Milton’s Paradise Lost as an example of a failed attempt to decenter authority, illustrating the dangers of misguided rebellion.
“We are always already in the midst of meaning, traversed by the multiple codes which ‘speak’ us.”	Eagleton emphasizes the poststructuralist idea that meaning is never fixed, but constantly shaped by various cultural codes.
“For it is not that Christ is the medium by which the privileged subject of the Father reduplicates itself in the privileged subject of Man.”	Eagleton critiques the Christian humanist idea that Christ serves to restore the central authority of Man, offering a different theological reading.
“The ceaseless decentring and deconstructing of Man by the discourses that ‘live’ him is part of that deeper movement.”	This quotation illustrates Eagleton’s alignment with poststructuralism and Marxism, advocating for continuous deconstruction of both God and Man.
“Milton… torn as he is between the absolute authority of God and the revolutionary freedom of man.”	Eagleton identifies the central tension in Milton’s work, where the conflict between divine authority and human freedom remains unresolved.

“Power” by Audre Lorde: A Critical Analysis

“Power” by Audre Lorde, first appeared in 1978 in the collection A Soldier’s Blue, is characterized by its raw, passionate exploration of identity, power dynamics, and the interconnectedness of oppression.

Introduction: “Power” by Audre Lorde

“Power” by Audre Lorde, first appeared in 1978 in the collection A Soldier’s Blue, is characterized by its raw, passionate exploration of identity, power dynamics, and the interconnectedness of oppression. Lorde uses vivid imagery and powerful language to convey her experiences as a Black woman, challenging societal norms and demanding recognition of her marginalized voice. The central theme of the poem is the importance of reclaiming power as a marginalized individual, recognizing one’s own strength, and using that power to dismantle systems of oppression.

Text: “Power” by Audre Lorde

The difference between poetry and rhetoric

is being ready to kill

yourself

instead of your children.

I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds

and a dead child dragging his shattered black

face off the edge of my sleep

blood from his punctured cheeks and shoulders

is the only liquid for miles

and my stomach

churns at the imagined taste while

my mouth splits into dry lips

without loyalty or reason

thirsting for the wetness of his blood

as it sinks into the whiteness

of the desert where I am lost

without imagery or magic

trying to make power out of hatred and destruction

trying to heal my dying son with kisses

only the sun will bleach his bones quicker.

A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens

stood over the boy with his cop shoes in childish blood

and a voice said “Die you little motherfucker” and

there are tapes to prove it. At his trial

this policeman said in his own defense

“I didn’t notice the size nor nothing else

only the color”. And

there are tapes to prove that, too.

Today that 37 year old white man

with 13 years of police forcing

was set free

by eleven white men who said they were satisfied

justice had been done

and one Black Woman who said

“They convinced me” meaning

they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame

over the hot coals

of four centuries of white male approval

until she let go

the first real power she ever had

and lined her own womb with cement

to make a graveyard for our children.

I have not been able to touch the destruction

within me.

But unless I learn to use

the difference between poetry and rhetoric

my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold

or lie limp and useless as an unconnected wire

and one day I will take my teenaged plug

and connect it to the nearest socket

raping an 85 year old white woman

who is somebody’s mother

and as I beat her senseless and set a torch to her bed

a greek chorus will be singing in 3/4 time

“Poor thing. She never hurt a soul. What beasts they are.”

Annotations: “Power” by Audre Lorde

Lines	Annotation
The difference between poetry and rhetoric	A comparison of two forms of communication: poetry, often associated with emotion and imagination, and rhetoric, often associated with persuasion and logic.
is being ready to kill	Suggests a fundamental difference between the two: poetry often involves personal sacrifice and vulnerability, while rhetoric can be used for manipulation or control.
yourself	Implies a willingness to confront one’s own pain and limitations.
instead of your children.	Highlights the destructive nature of violence and the importance of protecting the next generation.
I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds	Metaphorical representation of the traumatic experiences faced by marginalized communities.
and a dead child dragging his shattered black	Emphasizes the devastating impact of violence on children, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds.
face off the edge of my sleep	Suggests the haunting nature of trauma, which can intrude even into dreams.
blood from his punctured cheeks and shoulders	A graphic depiction of the violence inflicted on the child.
is the only liquid for miles	Highlights the isolation and desolation experienced in the face of trauma.
and my stomach	Suggests the physical and emotional toll of witnessing such violence.
churns at the imagined taste	Implies a perverse desire for revenge or retribution.
while	Contrasts the desire for revenge with the speaker’s own vulnerability and pain.
my mouth splits into dry lips	A physical manifestation of emotional distress and a loss of compassion.
without loyalty or reason	Indicates a state of desperation and a willingness to abandon moral principles.
thirsting for the wetness of his blood	A disturbing image that suggests a desire for violence and a loss of humanity.
as it sinks into the whiteness	Highlights the racial dynamics of the situation and the contrast between the victim’s dark skin and the desolate landscape.
of the desert where I am lost	Symbolizes the speaker’s feeling of being adrift and without direction in a world marked by injustice.
without imagery or magic	Suggests a loss of hope and a reliance on more primal instincts.
trying to make power out of hatred and destruction	Acknowledges the destructive nature of seeking power through violence and hatred.
trying to heal my dying son with kisses	A futile attempt to alleviate suffering and a reminder of the limitations of love in the face of overwhelming violence.
only the sun will bleach his bones quicker.	A bleak outlook on the future and a recognition of the inevitability of death.
A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens	Introduces a real-world example of police brutality and racial injustice.
stood over the boy with his cop shoes in childish blood	A graphic image that highlights the callousness and cruelty of the perpetrator.
and a voice said “Die you little motherfucker” and	A shocking example of the hatred and contempt displayed by the police officer.
there are tapes to prove it.	Emphasizes the evidence supporting the accusations against the police officer.
At his trial	Introduces the legal proceedings related to the incident.
this policeman said in his own defense	Highlights the perpetrator’s attempt to justify his actions.
“I didn’t notice the size nor nothing else	Reveals the police officer’s racist indifference and his inability to recognize the humanity of the child.
only the color”. And	Further emphasizes the racial bias underlying the crime.
there are tapes to prove that, too.	Reinforces the evidence against the police officer.
Today that 37 year old white man	Introduces the outcome of the trial.
with 13 years of police forcing	Highlights the perpetrator’s history of violence and abuse of power.
was set free	Indicates the unjust nature of the verdict.
by eleven white men who said they were satisfied	Reveals the racial bias of the jury and their failure to uphold justice.
justice had been done	A sarcastic statement that highlights the injustice of the verdict.
and one Black Woman who said	Introduces a dissenting voice among the jurors.
“They convinced me” meaning	Explains the Black woman’s capitulation to societal pressures and her internalized racism.
they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame	A metaphor for the psychological and emotional pressure exerted on the Black woman.
over the hot coals	Represents the historical and systemic racism that has shaped her worldview.
of four centuries of white male approval	Highlights the oppressive nature of white patriarchal power.
until she let go	Suggests a moment of surrender and a loss of agency.
the first real power she ever had	Ironically, the Black woman’s “power” is ultimately revealed to be a self-destructive force.
and lined her own womb with cement	A disturbing image that symbolizes the speaker’s loss of hope for the future and her willingness to sacrifice her own fertility.
to make a graveyard for our children.	A bleak outlook on the future and a recognition of the devastating consequences of systemic injustice.
I have not been able to touch the destruction	Acknowledges the speaker’s own internalized pain and the difficulty of confronting it.
within me.	Emphasizes the personal nature of trauma and its impact on the individual.
But unless I learn to use	Suggests the need for personal transformation and a new approach to dealing with injustice.
the difference between poetry and rhetoric	Returns to the central theme of the poem and emphasizes the importance of using language and communication in a constructive and empowering way.
my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold	Warns of the dangers of unchecked power and the potential for it to become destructive.
or lie limp and useless as an unconnected wire	Suggests the need for agency and action to effect change.
and one day I will take my teenaged plug	A disturbing image that suggests a potential for violence and self-destruction.
and connect it to the nearest socket	A metaphor for the speaker’s desire to lash out and inflict pain on others.
raping an 85 year old white woman	A shocking and disturbing image that highlights the potential for violence to be cyclical and indiscriminate.
who is somebody’s mother	Emphasizes the humanity of the victim and the devastating impact of violence on families.
and as I beat her senseless and set a torch to her bed	A graphic depiction of the violence that the speaker imagines committing.
a greek chorus will be singing in 3/4 time	A satirical reference to the hypocrisy and complacency of society.
“Poor thing. She never hurt a soul. What beasts they are.”	Quotes the likely response of society, which would condemn the violence while ignoring the underlying causes.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Power” by Audre Lorde

Literary Device	Definition	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.	“bleach his bones”	The repetition of the “b” sound creates a harsh tone, emphasizing the brutality of the situation.
Allusion	Reference to a well-known person, place, or event.	“a greek chorus will be singing”	Alludes to Greek tragedy, highlighting the collective societal judgment and commentary on violence.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines.	“And there are tapes to prove it”	This repetition emphasizes the stark reality and the irrefutable evidence of racism and injustice.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“cop shoes in childish blood”	The repetition of the “o” sound creates a somber, reflective tone.
Caesura	A pause or break within a line of poetry.	“I have not been able to touch the destruction within me.”	The pause adds emotional weight, showing the speaker’s struggle to confront inner turmoil.
Connotation	The implied or associative meaning of a word beyond its literal definition.	“justice had been done”	The word “justice” is used ironically, as the outcome is far from just.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line.	“without loyalty or reason / thirsting for the wetness of his blood”	The enjambment reflects the speaker’s relentless flow of thoughts, enhancing tension.
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements for effect.	“my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold”	The exaggeration highlights the speaker’s fear of her own potential for destructive power.
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.	“blood from his punctured cheeks and shoulders”	The vivid, graphic imagery immerses the reader in the physical and emotional violence of the scene.
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.	“justice had been done”	The statement is ironic because justice has clearly not been served, reflecting systemic racism.
Juxtaposition	Placing two elements close together for contrasting effect.	“A policeman who shot down a ten year old” vs. “a greek chorus will be singing”	The contrast between modern violence and ancient tragedy highlights the timelessness of injustice.
Metaphor	A direct comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“my mouth splits into dry lips without loyalty or reason”	The speaker’s mouth is metaphorically “splitting,” suggesting a loss of control and coherence.
Metonymy	A figure of speech where a related concept represents something else.	“whiteness of the desert”	“Whiteness” symbolizes both the literal desert and systemic oppression.
Oxymoron	A figure of speech in which contradictory terms appear together.	“dry lips thirsting”	The contrast between “dry” and “thirsting” intensifies the speaker’s desperation and need.
Personification	Attributing human qualities to non-human entities.	“the sun will bleach his bones quicker”	The sun is personified, as if it actively speeds up the process of death and decay.
Repetition	The intentional reuse of a word or phrase for emphasis.	“And there are tapes to prove it.”	Repetition here reinforces the undeniable evidence of police violence and racism.
Simile	A comparison using “like” or “as.”	“my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold”	The comparison of power to mold suggests it can become dangerous if not controlled.
Symbolism	Use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	“lined her own womb with cement”	The “cement” symbolizes emotional and spiritual numbness, illustrating the woman’s surrender.
Synecdoche	A figure of speech in which a part represents the whole.	“cop shoes in childish blood”	“Cop shoes” represent the entire oppressive police force, focusing on the object as a symbol of authority.
Tone	The attitude or feeling expressed in the poem.	Overall tone: angry, mournful, and accusatory	The tone expresses anger toward injustice, sorrow for lost lives, and accusation against systemic oppression.

Themes: “Power” by Audre Lorde

Racial Injustice and Systemic Oppression: The poem highlights the pervasive nature of racial injustice, particularly through the example of a white policeman killing a young Black boy. The line, “only the color” refers to the officer’s defense, revealing the deep-seated racism that leads to the boy’s death. The trial scene, where “eleven white men” declare justice while a single Black woman is coerced into agreeing, underscores how the legal system is built to protect white power and maintain racial oppression.
The Corruption of Power: Power, in the poem, is portrayed as a corrupting force. The speaker expresses fear that without understanding “the difference between poetry and rhetoric,” her own power may “run corrupt as poisonous mold.” This metaphor suggests that unchecked power, especially when fueled by anger and hatred, can become dangerous and destructive, not only for individuals but for society as a whole. Lorde explores how power, if misused, can lead to violence and moral decay.
The Trauma of Violence: The poem vividly illustrates the emotional and psychological impact of violence, particularly on Black bodies and communities. The haunting image of “a dead child dragging his shattered black face off the edge of my sleep” conveys the ongoing trauma of witnessing or experiencing racial violence. This recurring nightmare reveals how violence leaves deep scars on the psyche, symbolizing the collective trauma of Black people in a world that dehumanizes and brutalizes them.

Moral Dilemma and Personal Responsibility: Lorde presents a complex moral struggle, particularly in the speaker’s contemplation of how to channel her anger and power. The speaker fears becoming consumed by hatred, as seen in the disturbing hypothetical scenario where she imagines committing violence against an innocent white woman. This moment reflects the internal conflict between retaliating against the systemic forces of oppression and preserving one’s humanity. The poem wrestles with the question of how to use power responsibly in the face of profound injustice.

Literary Theories and “Power” by Audre Lorde

Literary Theory	Application to “Power”	References
Feminist Theory	Lorde’s poem addresses issues of gender, race, and class oppression. It critiques patriarchal structures and the ways in which women, particularly Black women, are marginalized and denied power.	“I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds” (lines 5-6), “A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens” (lines 19-20), “Today that 37 year old white man…was set free by eleven white men” (lines 23-25)
Postcolonial Theory	The poem explores the lasting effects of colonialism and imperialism on marginalized communities. It highlights the violence and exploitation experienced by people of color, particularly those living in the diaspora.	“A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens” (lines 19-20), “they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame over the hot coals of four centuries of white male approval” (lines 33-34)
Queer Theory	While not explicitly queer, the poem can be interpreted through a queer lens, as it challenges traditional notions of gender and sexuality. Lorde’s exploration of identity and power can be seen as a critique of heteronormative and patriarchal structures.	“The difference between poetry and rhetoric” (lines 1-2), “I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds” (lines 5-6)

Critical Questions about “Power” by Audre Lorde

· How does Lorde use imagery and symbolism to convey the devastating impact of violence and oppression on marginalized communities?

Lorde employs powerful imagery and symbolism throughout “Power” to depict the devastating effects of violence and oppression on marginalized communities. She compares her experiences to a “desert of raw gunshot wounds” (lines 5-6), symbolizing the barren and desolate landscape created by trauma. The image of a “dead child dragging his shattered black face off the edge of my sleep” (lines 6-7) is particularly haunting, suggesting the persistent nature of trauma and its intrusion into even the most intimate moments of rest. These vivid images serve to highlight the emotional and psychological toll of violence on individuals and communities.

· How does Lorde explore the relationship between power, race, and gender in the poem?

Lorde’s poem interrogates the complex interplay between power, race, and gender. She demonstrates how these factors intersect to create systemic oppression and marginalization. The poem highlights the ways in which white men wield power to control and exploit women of color. For example, the trial of the policeman who shot the ten-year-old boy reveals the racial bias of the justice system, as the white man is acquitted despite overwhelming evidence. Additionally, the Black woman juror’s capitulation to societal pressures underscores the internalized racism that can limit the agency and power of marginalized individuals.

· What is the significance of the speaker’s exploration of her own internalized violence and the potential for self-destruction?

The speaker’s exploration of her own internalized violence and the potential for self-destruction is a crucial element of the poem. By acknowledging her own capacity for cruelty and aggression, Lorde highlights the ways in which trauma can lead to a cycle of violence. This self-reflection serves as a warning against the destructive nature of unchecked anger and hatred. It also suggests the importance of healing and addressing internalized trauma in order to break free from the cycle of violence.

· How does Lorde’s use of language and poetic form contribute to the overall impact of the poem?

Lorde’s use of language and poetic form is integral to the poem’s power and impact. Her language is direct, raw, and emotionally charged, reflecting the intensity of the experiences she describes. The poem’s free verse form allows for a flexible and expressive structure, enabling Lorde to shift between narrative, reflection, and emotional outbursts. This combination of direct language and poetic form creates a powerful and visceral experience for the reader, immersing them in the world of the poem and highlighting the urgency of the issues addressed.

Literary Works Similar to “Power” by Audre Lorde

“The Ballad of Birmingham” by Dudley Randall: Both poems address racial violence and the senseless killing of Black children, with Randall focusing on the bombing of a church in Birmingham, Alabama, during the Civil Rights Movement.
“We Real Cool” by Gwendolyn Brooks: Like Power, this poem reflects on the struggles of Black youth and the dangers they face in a society that marginalizes them, capturing the fragility of Black lives.
“A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay: Gay’s poem, similar to Lorde’s, confronts the killing of Black men, using the story of Eric Garner to explore themes of racial injustice and the dehumanization of Black bodies.

“Incident” by Countee Cullen: This poem, like Lorde’s, addresses a racially charged incident that has a lasting emotional impact, depicting how a simple act of racism can leave a deep scar on a child’s psyche.
“Strange Fruit” by Abel Meeropol (popularized by Billie Holiday): Both poems use powerful imagery to depict racial violence and lynching in America, focusing on the brutality inflicted on Black bodies and the legacy of hatred in society.

Representative Quotations of “Power” by Audre Lorde

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“The difference between poetry and rhetoric is being ready to kill yourself instead of your children.”	The speaker compares poetry and rhetoric, suggesting that poetry involves personal sacrifice and vulnerability, while rhetoric can be used for manipulation or control.	Feminist Theory: This quotation highlights the importance of personal empowerment and the dangers of using power to oppress others.
“I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds and a dead child dragging his shattered black face off the edge of my sleep”	The speaker describes the traumatic experiences faced by marginalized communities.	Postcolonial Theory: This quotation reflects the violence and exploitation experienced by people of color, particularly those living in the diaspora.
“trying to make power out of hatred and destruction”	The speaker acknowledges the destructive nature of seeking power through violence and hatred.	Feminist Theory: This quotation critiques the ways in which power is often achieved through oppressive means.
“A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens”	The poem introduces a real-world example of police brutality and racial injustice.	Postcolonial Theory: This quotation highlights the systemic racism and violence faced by marginalized communities.
““I didn’t notice the size nor nothing else only the color””	The police officer’s statement reveals his racist indifference and his inability to recognize the humanity of the child.	Queer Theory: This quotation challenges traditional notions of gender and sexuality, as it suggests that the police officer’s violence was motivated by a narrow and discriminatory view of masculinity.
“Today that 37 year old white man…was set free by eleven white men who said they were satisfied justice had been done”	The poem highlights the racial bias of the justice system and the failure to uphold justice.	Feminist Theory: This quotation critiques the ways in which patriarchal structures perpetuate inequality and injustice.
“they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame over the hot coals of four centuries of white male approval”	The speaker describes the psychological and emotional pressure exerted on the Black woman.	Postcolonial Theory: This quotation highlights the historical and systemic racism that has shaped the experiences of marginalized communities.
“I have not been able to touch the destruction within me”	The speaker acknowledges the internalized pain and trauma experienced by marginalized individuals.	Feminist Theory: This quotation explores the ways in which oppression can lead to self-destructive tendencies.
“But unless I learn to use the difference between poetry and rhetoric”	The speaker suggests the need for personal transformation and a new approach to dealing with injustice.	Queer Theory: This quotation challenges traditional notions of communication and suggests the importance of using language in a way that is inclusive and empowering.
“and one day I will take my teenaged plug and connect it to the nearest socket”	The speaker’s disturbing image suggests a potential for violence and self-destruction.	Feminist Theory: This quotation highlights the ways in which trauma can lead to a cycle of violence.

“O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks: A Critical Analysis

“O Little Town of Bethlehem,” a beloved Christmas carol, was penned by Phillips Brooks in 1867, and included in his collection of hymns, “Carols for Christmastide.”

Introduction: “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

“O Little Town of Bethlehem,” a beloved Christmas carol, was penned by Phillips Brooks in 1867, and included in his collection of hymns, “Carols for Christmastide.” The poem’s simple yet evocative imagery and heartfelt sentiment have made it a timeless classic. The main idea of the carol is to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and the hope and peace that his coming brings to the world. The poem’s qualities include its use of vivid imagery, such as “street lamps gleaming,” to create a sense of wonder and awe. Additionally, the carol’s repetition of the refrain “O holy night” reinforces its message of reverence and devotion.

Text: “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

O little town of Bethlehem, how still we see thee lie!
Above thy deep and dreamless sleep the silent stars go by.
Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light;
The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight.
For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above,
While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch of wond’ring love.
O morning stars, together proclaim the holy birth,
And praises sing to God the King, and peace to men on earth!

How silently, how silently, the wondrous Gift is giv’n;
So God imparts to human hearts the blessings of His Heav’n.
No ear may hear His coming, but in this world of sin,
Where meek souls will receive Him still, the dear Christ enters in.
Where children pure and happy pray to the blessed Child,
Where misery cries out to Thee, Son of the mother mild;
Where charity stands watching and faith holds wide the door,
The dark night wakes, the glory breaks, and Christmas comes once more.
O holy Child of Bethlehem, descend to us, we pray;
Cast out our sin, and enter in, be born in us today.
We hear the Christmas angels the great glad tidings tell;
Oh, come to us, abide with us, our Lord Emmanuel!

Annotations: “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

Line	Annotation
O little town of Bethlehem, how still we see thee lie!	The speaker observes the quiet and peaceful nature of Bethlehem at night, suggesting a sense of calm and stillness.
Above thy deep and dreamless sleep the silent stars go by.	The town is in a deep, undisturbed sleep, with only the stars silently moving overhead, highlighting a tranquil scene.
Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light;	Despite the darkness of the streets, there is a spiritual light shining, representing the birth of Christ as the eternal source of hope.
The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight.	Bethlehem becomes a symbolic place where humanity’s long-held hopes and anxieties converge with the birth of Christ.
For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above,	The birth of Christ is highlighted, referencing the Virgin Mary and the heavenly realm’s attention to this momentous event.
While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch of wond’ring love.	While humans are unaware, angels are watching over this sacred event, filled with love and awe.
O morning stars, together proclaim the holy birth,	The stars, symbolizing celestial bodies or perhaps angels, are called upon to celebrate and announce Christ’s birth.
And praises sing to God the King, and peace to men on earth!	A joyful proclamation of praise is offered to God, with the hope of peace being brought to humanity through Christ.
How silently, how silently, the wondrous Gift is giv’n;	The birth of Christ, described as a “wondrous Gift,” is delivered quietly and without grandeur, emphasizing humility.
So God imparts to human hearts the blessings of His Heav’n.	God’s blessings are bestowed upon humanity through Christ, touching the hearts of individuals.
No ear may hear His coming, but in this world of sin,	The coming of Christ goes unnoticed by most, yet He enters a world darkened by sin.
Where meek souls will receive Him still, the dear Christ enters in.	Christ is welcomed into the hearts of those humble and open to His message, reinforcing themes of humility and acceptance.
Where children pure and happy pray to the blessed Child,	Children, innocent and joyful, pray to Christ, the “blessed Child,” portraying an image of purity and devotion.
Where misery cries out to Thee, Son of the mother mild;	Even in times of suffering and distress, people call out to Christ for comfort and salvation.
Where charity stands watching and faith holds wide the door,	Acts of love and faith prepare the way for Christ’s arrival, symbolizing readiness to receive Him.
The dark night wakes, the glory breaks, and Christmas comes once more.	The metaphorical “dark night” of sin and suffering gives way to the light and glory of Christ’s birth, marking the celebration of Christmas.
O holy Child of Bethlehem, descend to us, we pray;	The speaker prays for Christ, the holy child born in Bethlehem, to come to them personally, asking for His presence.
Cast out our sin, and enter in, be born in us today.	A plea for spiritual renewal, asking Christ to remove sin and dwell within the believer’s heart.
We hear the Christmas angels the great glad tidings tell;	The joyous news of Christ’s birth is proclaimed by angels, a familiar theme in the nativity story.
Oh, come to us, abide with us, our Lord Emmanuel!	A final prayer asking Christ (Emmanuel, meaning “God with us”) to dwell with the people and be present in their lives.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

Device	Definition	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	The repetition of initial consonant sounds.	“silent stars”	Emphasizes the quiet and peaceful atmosphere.
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.	“O little town of Bethlehem” (repeated at the beginning of each stanza)	Creates a sense of rhythm and emphasizes the central theme.
Assonance	The repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“deep and dreamless sleep”	Adds a musical quality and reinforces the theme of peace.
Contrast	The juxtaposition of opposing ideas or images.	“dark streets shineth the everlasting Light”	Highlights the significance of Christ’s birth amidst darkness.
Imagery	The use of vivid language to create mental images.	“silent stars go by”	Paints a picture of a peaceful night sky.
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight”	Suggests that Bethlehem symbolizes the meeting point of humanity’s hopes and fears.
Onomatopoeia	The use of words that imitate sounds.	“How silently, how silently”	Emphasizes the peaceful and quiet nature of Christ’s birth.
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things.	“O morning stars, together proclaim the holy birth”	The stars are portrayed as active participants in the celebration.
Repetition	The repeated use of words, phrases, or lines.	“O holy Child of Bethlehem” (repeated at the beginning of the final stanza)	Reinforces the central theme and creates a sense of urgency.
Rhyme	The correspondence of sounds at the end of words.	“above” and “love,” “giv’n” and “Heav’n”	Adds a musical quality and makes the poem easier to memorize.
Symbolism	The use of objects or images to represent something else.	Bethlehem represents the birthplace of Christ and a symbol of hope.
Syntax	The arrangement of words in a sentence.	“Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light”	The inverted sentence structure creates a sense of wonder and emphasis.
Tone	The author’s attitude toward the subject matter.	Reverent, peaceful, and hopeful	The tone reflects the sacredness of the event being described.
Verse Form	The pattern of lines and stanzas.	Four-line stanzas with an ABAB rhyme scheme	Provides a structure and rhythm for the poem.
Word Choice	The selection of specific words to convey meaning and evoke emotions.	“everlasting Light,” “wond’ring love,” “blessed Child”	The words chosen contribute to the poem’s religious and emotional impact.
Figurative Language	The use of language that is not meant to be taken literally.	Metaphors, similes, personification, and symbolism	Adds depth and meaning to the poem.
Parallelism	The use of similar grammatical structures.	“Where children pure and happy pray to the blessed Child,” “Where misery cries out to Thee, Son of the mother mild”	Creates a sense of balance and rhythm.
Antithesis	The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas or images.	“For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above, While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch of wond’ring love”	Highlights the contrast between the divine and human realms.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence across lines of poetry.	“O little town of Bethlehem, how still we see thee lie! Above thy deep and dreamless sleep the silent stars go by.”	Creates a flowing rhythm and emphasizes the connection between ideas.
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for effect.	“the everlasting Light”	Emphasizes the significance of Christ’s birth.

Themes: “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

The Birth of Christ and Divine Grace: The poem primarily focuses on the birth of Jesus Christ and the divine grace associated with this event. This is evident in lines like “For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above” and “How silently, how silently, the wondrous Gift is giv’n.” The poem emphasizes the significance of Christ’s birth as a source of hope, peace, and salvation for humanity.
The Contrast Between Darkness and Light: The poem contrasts the darkness of the world with the light brought by Christ’s birth. This is exemplified in lines such as “Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light” and “The dark night wakes, the glory breaks, and Christmas comes once more.” The contrast underscores the transformative power of Christ’s coming.
The Importance of Faith and Hope: The poem highlights the significance of faith and hope in the face of adversity. It encourages readers to believe in the power of Christ and to maintain hope for a better future. Lines like “Where charity stands watching and faith holds wide the door” and “O holy Child of Bethlehem, descend to us, we pray” emphasize the importance of these virtues.

The Universal Appeal of Christmas: The poem’s message of peace, hope, and love resonates with people of all faiths and backgrounds. It emphasizes the universal significance of Christmas as a time for reflection, celebration, and renewal. Lines like “O morning stars, together proclaim the holy birth” and “And praises sing to God the King, and peace to men on earth!” convey this message of unity and goodwill.

Literary Theories and “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

Literary Theory	Application to “O Little Town of Bethlehem”	References from the Poem
Theological/Religious Criticism	Focuses on the poem’s reflection of Christian beliefs about Christ’s birth, redemption, and divine grace. It emphasizes God’s intervention in human history through the birth of Christ.	1. “For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above, While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch of wond’ring love.” — Depicts Christ’s birth as a divine event witnessed by angels. 2. “The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight.” — Christ as the fulfillment of humanity’s long-held hopes and fears, symbolizing salvation.
Historical/Cultural Criticism	Examines the poem in the context of 19th-century Christian values and the cultural significance of Bethlehem. The poem mirrors traditional views of Christmas and its religious importance.	1. “O morning stars, together proclaim the holy birth” — A reflection of the traditional Christian imagery associated with the nativity. 2. “O holy Child of Bethlehem, descend to us, we pray” — Emphasizes the historical and cultural importance of Bethlehem in Christian tradition, especially during the 19th century.
Symbolism/Allegory	Explores how Bethlehem, light, and darkness symbolize spiritual truths. Bethlehem represents the human heart, while light represents Christ, and darkness symbolizes sin or spiritual ignorance.	1. “Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light” — The “everlasting Light” symbolizes Christ, illuminating the spiritual darkness of the world. 2. “No ear may hear His coming, but in this world of sin, Where meek souls will receive Him still, the dear Christ enters in.” — Depicts spiritual transformation and redemption through Christ’s humble arrival.

Critical Questions about “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

How does the poem portray the relationship between humanity and divinity? The poem portrays a close relationship between humanity and divinity, emphasizing the accessibility of God through Christ. Lines such as “For Christ is born of Mary” and “The dear Christ enters in” highlight the incarnation of God in human form. The poem suggests that Christ’s birth bridges the gap between heaven and earth, making God accessible to all.
What is the significance of the imagery of darkness and light in the poem? The imagery of darkness and light serves as a powerful symbol of the contrast between sin and salvation. The darkness represents the world’s state of sin and despair, while the light symbolizes the hope and redemption brought by Christ’s birth. Lines like “Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light” and “The dark night wakes, the glory breaks” emphasize this contrast and the transformative power of Christ’s coming.

How does the poem address the themes of hope and peace? The poem offers a message of hope and peace, suggesting that Christ’s birth brings hope for humanity and a promise of peace on earth. Lines such as “And praises sing to God the King, and peace to men on earth!” and “The dear Christ enters in” convey this message. The poem suggests that through faith in Christ, individuals can find hope and peace in the midst of life’s challenges.
How does the poem’s use of repetition and imagery contribute to its overall impact? The poem’s use of repetition and imagery plays a crucial role in its overall impact. The repetition of certain phrases, such as “O Little Town of Bethlehem,” creates a sense of rhythm and emphasizes the central theme. The vivid imagery, including the description of the night sky and the birth of Christ, helps to evoke emotions and create a powerful mental picture. Together, these elements contribute to the poem’s enduring appeal and its ability to touch the hearts of readers.

Literary Works Similar to “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

“Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr: This Christmas carol shares a similar theme of celebrating the birth of Christ and the peace it brings to the world.

“It Came Upon a Midnight Clear” by Edmund Sears: This poem also emphasizes the peaceful and miraculous nature of Christ’s birth, using celestial imagery to convey the divine event.
“O Come, O Thou Faithful and True” by John Mason Neale: Both poems express adoration and reverence for Jesus Christ, focusing on his divine nature and the salvation he offers.
“Angels We Have Heard on High” by Henry Baker: This carol shares a similar theme of angels announcing the birth of Christ and the joy and wonder it brings.

Representative Quotations of “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“O little town of Bethlehem, how still we see thee lie!”	Opening line, depicting the peacefulness and stillness of Bethlehem on the night of Christ’s birth.	Symbolism/Allegory: Bethlehem symbolizes the humble and quiet reception of divine grace, representing the human heart open to Christ.
“Above thy deep and dreamless sleep, the silent stars go by.”	Describes the serenity of the town, with only the stars moving overhead, setting a calm, sacred atmosphere.	Theological/Religious Criticism: The stillness reflects a world unaware of the divine event about to occur, emphasizing the mystery of God’s intervention in human history.
“Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light;”	Contrasts the physical darkness of Bethlehem with the spiritual illumination brought by Christ’s birth.	Symbolism/Allegory: The “everlasting Light” symbolizes Christ, who brings spiritual enlightenment to the world, which is darkened by sin.
“The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight.”	Refers to the birth of Christ as the fulfillment of humanity’s long-held hopes and fears.	Theological/Religious Criticism: Christ’s birth is portrayed as the answer to mankind’s deepest anxieties and aspirations, offering salvation and peace.
“For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above,”	Refers to the nativity scene, with the birth of Christ observed by angels in heaven.	Historical/Cultural Criticism: Highlights traditional Christian narratives of the nativity and the divine nature of Christ’s birth, as celebrated in 19th-century culture.
“While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch of wond’ring love.”	Angels watch over humanity as they remain unaware of the sacred event taking place.	Theological/Religious Criticism: The presence of angels signifies divine protection and love, while mortals remain spiritually unaware of Christ’s arrival.
“How silently, how silently, the wondrous Gift is giv’n;”	Describes the humble and quiet manner in which Christ enters the world.	Symbolism/Allegory: Christ’s arrival represents the quiet, unseen transformation of the soul that occurs without fanfare but has profound spiritual significance.
“No ear may hear His coming, but in this world of sin,”	The world is too spiritually unaware to hear or recognize Christ’s arrival in the midst of sin.	Theological/Religious Criticism: Suggests that spiritual deafness prevents humanity from fully understanding or recognizing divine intervention in a sinful world.
“Where meek souls will receive Him still, the dear Christ enters in.”	Refers to Christ being welcomed into the hearts of the humble and faithful.	Symbolism/Allegory: Christ entering “meek souls” symbolizes spiritual openness and humility as the path to receiving divine grace.
“O holy Child of Bethlehem, descend to us, we pray;”	A prayer for Christ to come into the hearts of the faithful, asking for divine presence and spiritual renewal.	Theological/Religious Criticism: Reflects the desire for personal salvation and closeness to Christ, central to Christian spiritual practice and belief.

“Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1982 in the International Socialism journal.

Introduction: “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

“Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1982 in the International Socialism journal. This essay is considered a seminal piece in Marxist literary theory, marking a significant contribution to the field. Eagleton’s work explores the relationship between literature and society, arguing that literary texts are shaped by and reflect the social, economic, and political conditions of their time. His analysis offers a critical perspective on the role of literature in perpetuating or challenging dominant ideologies.

Summary of “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Origins in Marx and Engels’ Work
- Marxist literary criticism traces its roots to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their work provides a scattered but foundational set of ideas on literary form, realism, and aesthetics.
- Marx’s contribution to aesthetics is interwoven with his larger debates on material production, labor, and commodification, making literary criticism less of an isolated practice and more of a part of his general theory of superstructures. (Lifshitz, 1973).
Materialist Criticism and Historical Context
- A central theme in Marxist criticism is the material basis of cultural practices. Marx and Engels explored the relationship between aesthetic superstructures and material history, although they didn’t formulate a full theory of ideological superstructures.
- Marxist criticism must account for how history produces literary texts as complex signifiers, requiring criticism to be understood as a product of specific historical epochs and contexts.
Bolshevik Revolution and Post-Revolutionary Marxist Criticism
- The Bolshevik Revolution marks a seismic shift in Marxist criticism, leading to the intersection of different critical modes, particularly seen in the collision of ideas in Trotsky’s Literature and Revolution.
- Pre-revolutionary critics like Georgi Plekhanov adhered to a sociological and anthropological form of criticism, while post-revolutionary critics like Lenin and Gorki advocated for a committed, politically engaged literature. This laid the groundwork for concepts like socialist realism.
Contradictions within Marxist Aesthetic Theory
- After the revolution, Marxist aesthetics grappled with multiple theoretical problems: the relationship between art and class structure, the role of art in revolutionary politics, and the dilemma of whether bourgeois culture should be assimilated or destroyed.
- The dominance of socialist realism under Stalin marked a setback for more nuanced, materialist aesthetic practices. This led to a return to the ideas of Marx, Engels, and Hegel by critics like Georg Lukács and the Frankfurt School, who tried to preserve the critical function of art in the face of Stalinist repression (Jay, 1973).
Diverse Marxist Approaches
- Marxist aesthetics evolved into multiple streams. Brecht and Benjamin, for instance, rejected the idealism of earlier Marxist critics, focusing on the material conditions of artistic production. They viewed art as a transformative practice, not just a reflection of political ideology (Benjamin, 1973).
- Other critics, such as Galvano Della Volpe, applied a rational materialist analysis to literary texts, focusing on semiotic codes and literary form. His work reflects an alignment with the Russian Formalists’ detailed attention to textual structures.
The Need for a Structural-Historical Approach
- Eagleton argues for a conjuncture of different critical modes—attention to literary form (from the Hegelian tradition), an understanding of art as material production (from Futurism and Constructivism), and a semiological critique of texts (from Formalism). These modes need to be combined to create a genuinely materialist literary criticism.
- The failure to achieve this synthesis has led to the dominance of partial, internally imbalanced approaches in Marxist criticism, resulting in theoretical stagnation in some areas.
Contemporary Marxist Criticism
- In the English context, Eagleton critiques the eclecticism of materialist criticism, which lacks a scientific basis and relies too much on empirical sociology or romantic idealism. He cites Raymond Williams as an example of a critic who, while pioneering, does not fully embody a Marxist approach.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevance in Eagleton’s Essay
Aesthetics	The philosophical study of beauty and art, particularly its principles and forms.	Eagleton discusses how Marx and Engels did not develop a systematic aesthetics, but their work offers foundational ideas.
Superstructure	In Marxist theory, the social, political, and ideological systems that arise from the economic base.	Literary texts are seen as part of the superstructure, reflecting and mediating material history.
Materialism	A focus on material conditions (economy, labor) as the basis for understanding society and culture.	Marxist literary criticism emphasizes the material basis of cultural practices and their economic roots.
Dialectical Materialism	The Marxist methodology of understanding history and society through the contradictions of material conditions.	This method is central to Marxist criticism, which views literary texts through their relation to material production.
Realism	A style of writing that depicts life as it is, often focusing on the struggles of everyday people.	Realism is valued in Marxist criticism for its ability to reveal the material conditions of society.
Reflectionism	The theory that art reflects society and its class structures.	Critiqued by Eagleton as insufficiently nuanced, especially in the works of Plekhanov and early Marxist critics.
Commitment in Art	The idea that literature and art should be politically engaged and promote revolutionary values.	Figures like Lenin and Gorki advocated for a committed literature to support revolutionary change.
Socialist Realism	A Soviet aesthetic that promoted art as a tool for advancing socialist ideals, often through idealized depictions of the working class.	Eagleton critiques its eventual degeneration under Stalinism as a reduction of art to political propaganda.
Formalism	A literary theory focused on the structure and form of literary texts rather than their content.	Eagleton discusses its relevance in the Russian context, particularly in contrast to Marxist materialist approaches.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols in language and literature, analyzing how meaning is produced.	Eagleton points to critics like Galvano Della Volpe, who combined Marxist theory with semiotic analysis of texts.
Bourgeois Culture	The culture of the middle/upper class, often critiqued in Marxism for being tied to capitalist interests.	Marxist critics debate whether bourgeois culture should be assimilated or destroyed in revolutionary practice.
Hegelianism	A philosophical tradition based on the work of Hegel, emphasizing dialectics and historical development.	Influences Marxist aesthetics, particularly in the work of Lukács and the Frankfurt School.
Proletkult	A Soviet cultural movement that aimed to develop a new, proletarian art form distinct from bourgeois culture.	Eagleton discusses its failure to produce a lasting materialist aesthetic, overshadowed by socialist realism.
Textual Ideology	The idea that literary texts carry implicit ideologies related to the class structures of society.	Marxist critics analyze how ideology manifests in literature, often through contradictions and ambiguities.
Conjuncture	A specific historical moment where different forces or modes of criticism collide or intersect.	Eagleton uses this concept to describe key periods in Marxist criticism, such as the aftermath of the Bolshevik Revolution.

Contribution of “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Beyond “Reflectionism”: Eagleton criticizes simplistic views that see literature as merely reflecting social structures. He argues for a more complex understanding where literary texts are shaped by, but also potentially challenge, dominant ideologies.
Multiple Strata of Marxist Criticism: Eagleton identifies different historical moments and trends within Marxist criticism. He highlights the tension between “reflectionism,” revolutionary aesthetics, and the focus on textual production and semiotics.
The Importance of the Bolshevik Revolution: The essay emphasizes the pivotal role of the Bolshevik revolution in shaping Marxist criticism. It brought various critical modes like revolutionary aesthetics, formalism, and futurism into sharp focus.

The Need for Conjuncture: Eagleton proposes the necessity of a “conjuncture” where historical materialism combines with the strengths of other critical approaches. This includes attention to:
- Textual Form and Ideology: Building on Hegelian aesthetics, a focus on how form, value, ideology, and history interrelate within a text.
- Material Practice and Production: Analyzing literature as a form of production with its own social relations, drawing from the work of Brecht and Benjamin.
- Textual Codes and Conventions: Studying how meaning is constructed through language and codes, as explored by Formalism and semiotics.
Against Eclecticism: Eagleton argues against simply borrowing from different approaches. He emphasizes the need for a rigorous and unified “scientific aesthetics” grounded in historical materialism.

Examples of Critiques Through “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Marxist Critique
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	While Austen’s novel critiques the superficiality of class-based marriage, it also reinforces the patriarchal norms of the time. The characters’ concerns with wealth, status, and marriage proposals reflect the societal pressures of the era.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Fitzgerald’s novel exposes the emptiness of the American Dream and the corrupting influence of wealth. The characters’ pursuit of material success and their ultimate downfall highlight the destructive nature of capitalism.
The Jungle by Upton Sinclair	Sinclair’s novel provides a scathing critique of the capitalist system through its depiction of the harsh working conditions and exploitation of immigrant workers in the meatpacking industry. The novel calls for social and economic reforms to address the injustices faced by the working class.
Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison	Ellison’s novel explores the experiences of an unnamed African American protagonist who struggles to find his identity in a racist society. The novel critiques the invisibility and marginalization of Black people in America, highlighting the systemic racism embedded within the capitalist system.

Criticism Against “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Lack of a Fully Developed Aesthetic Theory by Marx and Engels
- Critics argue that Marx and Engels did not formulate a comprehensive or systematic theory of art and aesthetics, making later Marxist critics rely on fragmented insights.
Overemphasis on Material Conditions at the Expense of Artistic Autonomy
- Some argue that Marxist criticism reduces art to mere reflections of economic and social conditions, neglecting the autonomy of artistic creativity and innovation.

Simplistic Reflectionism in Early Marxist Critics
- Eagleton critiques the simplistic notion of “reflectionism,” particularly in the works of Georgi Plekhanov, which suggests that literature directly mirrors class structures without accounting for the complexity of artistic representation.
Reduction of Art to Political Propaganda in Socialist Realism
- The concept of socialist realism, particularly during Stalinism, is seen as a reductive approach to art that forces it into political propaganda, stifling creativity and diversity in literary expression.
Internal Contradictions within Marxist Criticism
- Marxist literary criticism struggles with its own contradictions, such as whether bourgeois culture should be assimilated or destroyed, or whether artistic value can be separated from political progressiveness.

Over-reliance on Historical Contextualization
- Critics suggest that Marxist criticism sometimes focuses too heavily on the historical and material context of literature, potentially ignoring the aesthetic, formal, or symbolic elements of texts.
Neglect of the Formal and Semiotic Aspects of Literature
- While Eagleton acknowledges the importance of formalism and semiotics, critics note that traditional Marxist criticism often overlooks the intrinsic formal properties of a literary text in favor of broader ideological or material concerns.
Eclecticism in Contemporary Materialist Criticism
- Eagleton critiques the eclectic nature of contemporary materialist criticism, which often lacks a coherent methodology and borrows too freely from other theoretical approaches, diluting its effectiveness.

Failure to Adequately Address Modern Forms of Art and Literature
- Some critics argue that Marxist literary criticism struggles to deal with contemporary, postmodern forms of art and literature, which do not easily fit into its frameworks based on realism, class struggle, and historical materialism.

Representative Quotations from “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Marxist criticism begins, naturally, with the work of Marx and Engels themselves.”	Eagleton emphasizes the foundational role of Marx and Engels in Marxist literary criticism, though their work on literature was often fragmentary.
“…it is still remarkable how many of the issues now central to the development of a Marxist criticism emerge in embryonic form in their oeuvre.”	Despite the lack of a systematic theory, Eagleton highlights how Marx and Engels laid the groundwork for many key topics in Marxist literary criticism.
“It is the materialist method of the Grundrisse and Capital, not hints gleaned from the ‘literary criticism’, which must form the basis of anything worthy of the title of a ‘Marxist criticism’.”	Eagleton argues that Marxist criticism should be based on the broader materialist method of Marx’s economic and social theories, not just literary insights.
“The problem for Marxist criticism… is how it comes about that history produces (and reproduces) that set of ambiguous significations which we term the literary text.”	Eagleton identifies a key challenge for Marxist criticism: understanding how historical processes produce literary texts and the meanings they carry.
“Before the revolution, Marxist criticism was nurtured largely in the shadow of the later Engels.”	Eagleton discusses how early Marxist criticism was heavily influenced by Engels, whose approach combined sociological and anthropological insights.
“…socialist realism, the concept of literary partisanship, degenerate into the theoretical nullity of proletkult and its Stalinist aftermath.”	This quote critiques the decline of socialist realism into a tool for political propaganda under Stalinism, losing its critical and aesthetic value.
“The epistemological problem: is art reflection, refraction, creation, transformation, reproduction, production?”	Eagleton outlines the complex theoretical issues that Marxist criticism faces when trying to define the relationship between art and society.
“The failure to achieve this synthesis has had dire consequences; as the strata have been wedged apart, each has displayed a tendency to subside internally under its own unsupported weight.”	Eagleton laments the fragmentation of different critical approaches within Marxist criticism, resulting in their internal weaknesses.
“One might formulate the problem paradoxically by saying that our best Marxist critic – Raymond Williams – is not in fact a Marxist.”	Eagleton provocatively suggests that while Raymond Williams made significant contributions to literary criticism, he does not fully embody Marxist theory.
“…the need for a scientific aesthetics cannot be ignored.”	Eagleton concludes by calling for a more rigorous, systematic approach to aesthetics within Marxist literary criticism to go beyond mere interpretation.