Month: September 2024

Introduction: “Three ‘Returns’ to Marx: Derrida, Zizek, Badiou” by Aijaz Ahmad

“Three ‘Returns’ to Marx: Derrida, Zizek, Badiou” by Aijaz Ahmad offers a nuanced exploration of the resurgence of Marxist thought in the late 20th and early 21st centuries through the lenses of prominent theorists Jacques Derrida, Slavoj Zizek, and Alain Badiou. Published in the July-August 2012 issue of the Social Scientist journal, this essay has significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory by providing a comprehensive analysis of how these thinkers have reengaged with Marxist concepts and applied them to contemporary socio-political realities. Ahmad’s insightful examination has contributed to ongoing debates about Marxism’s relevance in the contemporary world and its potential to illuminate critical aspects of culture, politics, and society.

Summary of “Three ‘Returns’ to Marx: Derrida, Zizek, Badiou” by Aijaz Ahmad

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Three ‘Returns’ to Marx: Derrida, Zizek, Badiou” by Aijaz Ahmad

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Referenced Philosopher	Explanation in Context
Spectrality	The concept of “ghosts” and “specters” as metaphors for unresolved political and social issues.	Derrida	Derrida uses spectrality in Spectres of Marx to describe Marxism as a lingering force, haunting the present and shaping the future (Ahmad, p. 46).
Weak Messianism	The perseverance of hope without revolutionary inevitability.	Derrida (inspired by Benjamin)	Derrida develops a notion of “weak messianism,” rejecting revolutionary fatalism and emphasizing continuous, uncertain hope (Ahmad, p. 49).
Deconstruction	A method of critical analysis that questions traditional assumptions about certainty, identity, and truth.	Derrida	Derrida applies deconstruction to Marx’s texts, challenging established interpretations of materialism and ideology (Ahmad, p. 46).
Commodity Fetishism	A term from Marx’s critique of capitalism, where commodities are given a mystical, value-laden quality.	Derrida	Derrida reinterprets commodity fetishism as a structure of belief, likening it to religious idolatry (Ahmad, p. 47).
The Event	A rupture in the normal order that creates new political possibilities.	Badiou	Badiou defines an “event” as an unpredictable break from the status quo, where revolutionary potential arises (Ahmad, p. 57).
Truth Procedure	A process of discovering and asserting a new political truth over time.	Badiou	Badiou argues that revolutions are “truth procedures” that define political movements across historical moments (Ahmad, p. 56).
Revolutionary Fatalism	The belief in the inevitability of revolution due to the contradictions of capitalism.	Derrida (critically)	Derrida criticizes Marxist “revolutionary fatalism” as an oversimplified view, favoring a less deterministic understanding of historical change (Ahmad, p. 49).
Class Struggle	The conflict between different social classes, particularly the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, in Marxist theory.	Žižek	Žižek downplays traditional class struggle in favor of newer social antagonisms, such as ecological crises and intellectual property issues (Ahmad, p. 55).
New International	A proposed global alliance free from traditional class-based politics.	Derrida	Derrida suggests a “New International,” a loosely organized global movement not based on class or nation-state structures (Ahmad, p. 51).

Contribution of “Three ‘Returns’ to Marx: Derrida, Zizek, Badiou” by Aijaz Ahmad to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution from Aijaz Ahmad’s Article	Explanation and References
Deconstruction	Derrida’s Contribution to Marxist Thought	Derrida applies deconstruction to Marxism, focusing on the metaphorical and linguistic aspects of Marx’s writings. In Spectres of Marx, Derrida critiques Marx for not fully breaking away from German Idealism and explores Marx’s use of spectrality (ghosts) to suggest that Marxist thought contains layers of unresolved contradictions (Ahmad, p. 46). This deconstruction of Marxist texts highlights the fluidity and uncertainty of historical and revolutionary processes.
Post-Structuralism	Revisiting Marxist Historical Materialism	Derrida’s “weak messianism” challenges the teleological view of history inherent in traditional Marxism. By arguing that history is not guaranteed to lead to a revolutionary end, Derrida introduces a post-structuralist skepticism toward determinism in Marxist thought. This shifts focus from class struggle and inevitability to the continuous deferral of meaning and the “promise” of revolution (Ahmad, pp. 49-50).
Psychoanalytic Theory	Žižek’s Integration of Psychoanalysis into Marxism	Žižek, influenced by Lacanian psychoanalysis, integrates psychoanalytic theory into his reading of Marx and Lenin. He reinterprets revolutionary politics through the concept of “repetition” and the role of desire and the unconscious in political action. This psychoanalytic approach redefines revolution not as a one-time event but as a recurring process of new beginnings, reflecting psychoanalytic notions of desire’s constant return (Ahmad, pp. 53-54).
Critical Theory	Critique of Ethical Socialism and Ideological Struggles	Žižek rejects the notion of “ethical socialism” and moves away from equality as a normative concept. Instead, he emphasizes real social antagonisms like ecological disasters and intellectual property as the new sites of struggle in global capitalism. This reorientation of Marxism within contemporary ideological and ethical contexts provides a critical lens for understanding new forms of exploitation (Ahmad, p. 55).
Communist Hypothesis (Badiou’s Philosophy)	Revolution as a Truth Procedure and Event	Badiou’s redefinition of communism as a “truth procedure” contributes to political philosophy by emphasizing that political truths emerge historically through collective emancipation. Ahmad highlights Badiou’s notion that the Communist hypothesis is not a fixed idea but an ongoing process of creating new truths in revolutionary moments (Ahmad, p. 56). This contribution intersects with literary theory by framing historical moments as sites for narrative and meaning-making.
Anarchism	Derrida’s ‘New International’ as Anti-Class, Anti-State Politics	Derrida’s proposal for a “New International” reinterprets Marxist internationalism through an anarchistic lens. By rejecting class struggle, state politics, and fixed organizational forms, Derrida’s vision contributes to anarchist theories of decentralized, non-hierarchical movements. Ahmad critiques this as a departure from traditional Marxist focus on class and state structures (Ahmad, pp. 50-51). This aligns with literary theories that question power, authority, and hierarchical structures in texts and movements.
Cultural Theory and Marxism	Commodity Fetishism and Ideology Critique	Derrida reinterprets Marx’s concept of commodity fetishism by framing it as a structure of belief akin to religion. This adds a cultural dimension to Marx’s economic theory, suggesting that commodities carry a quasi-religious power in contemporary capitalism (Ahmad, pp. 47-48). This contribution resonates with cultural theory by analyzing how material objects are imbued with ideological and cultural significance.
Political Philosophy and Post-Marxism	Rethinking the Role of Class Struggle in Revolution	Ahmad’s discussion of Žižek and Badiou highlights their divergence from traditional Marxist class struggle. While Žižek emphasizes new social antagonisms (e.g., ecological crisis, intellectual property), Badiou focuses on the Event and the dissolution of the state as central to revolutionary politics (Ahmad, pp. 55-56). This contribution engages with post-Marxist thought, where class is one of many axes of struggle, and revolution is understood as a rupture rather than a predictable outcome.
Messianism and Political Theology	Derrida’s ‘Weak Messianism’ and Political Hope	Derrida’s “weak messianism,” as discussed by Ahmad, introduces a political-theological concept into Marxist theory. This “weak messianism” draws from Jewish messianic thought, advocating for a perseverance of hope without the certainty of redemption (Ahmad, p. 49). This concept is significant for literary and political theology, as it frames political engagement as a form of faith in future possibilities without deterministic guarantees.

Examples of Critiques Through “Three ‘Returns’ to Marx: Derrida, Zizek, Badiou” by Aijaz Ahmad

Criticism Against “Three ‘Returns’ to Marx: Derrida, Zizek, Badiou” by Aijaz Ahmad

Representative Quotations from “Three ‘Returns’ to Marx: Derrida, Zizek, Badiou” by Aijaz Ahmad with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Derrida, Zizek, and Badiou are, in some respects, heir to that particular tradition; and the eschatology of Inheritance, Event and Promise that one finds in these philosophers – Derrida and Badiou in particular – are undoubtedly related to Benjamin’s own romantic messianism.” (p. 44)	This quotation highlights Ahmad’s view that these philosophers inherit certain aspects of Walter Benjamin’s thought, particularly the ideas of inheritance and messianic hope, which influence their return to Marx in non-traditional ways.
2. “This break from the fashionable and acceptable Marx is far less clear in the case of Derrida but much more brashly pronounced in Zizek and Badiou who insist not only on Marx but the revolutionary Marx.” (p. 44)	Ahmad contrasts Derrida’s more subtle return to Marx with Žižek and Badiou’s explicit focus on Marx as a revolutionary figure. He emphasizes that Derrida’s return is less committed to the revolutionary aspects of Marxism.
3. “In Marx’s own thought, Derrida contends, the present – any present – is haunted not only by its past but also by the ghostly uncertainties of the future.” (p. 46)	This quotation explains Derrida’s concept of spectrality in Marx’s work, where the present is haunted by both the past and future. Ahmad uses this to critique Derrida’s focus on the metaphorical aspects of Marx’s writing.
4. “Weak messianism arises as a perseverance of hope in non-revolutionary times, without the problematics of imminence but also without abandoning the conviction that what you hope for might stare you in the face as you turn the next corner.” (p. 49)	Ahmad summarizes Derrida’s concept of “weak messianism,” which preserves hope without expecting an imminent revolution. This concept reflects Derrida’s cautionary stance towards Marxist determinism.
5. “The moment and form of the actual implosion is entirely unpredictable. Neither Derrida nor Badiou would put it that way but their philosophical positions seek to capture precisely that unpredictability as well as the hope that the implosion shall be revolutionary and redemptive, not reactionary and fascistic.” (p. 49)	Ahmad critiques Derrida and Badiou’s emphasis on the unpredictability of revolutionary moments, noting that they focus more on hope than on concrete political action or outcomes.
6. “Zizek affirms: ‘One should rather maintain the precise reference to a set of social antagonisms which generate the need for communism – Marx’s good old notion of communism not as an ideal, but as a movement which reacts to actual social antagonisms.'” (p. 55)	Ahmad quotes Žižek to show how he reinterprets Marx’s notion of communism as a reaction to social antagonisms. Ahmad critiques Žižek’s shift away from class struggle toward broader antagonisms.
7. “Badiou’s essential reference points are The Paris Commune and Marx’s writings on the Commune as well as his comments on the State in The Eighteenth Brumaire.” (p. 58)	Ahmad highlights Badiou’s focus on the Paris Commune and Marx’s critique of the state, which he sees as central to Badiou’s rethinking of revolutionary politics and the dissolution of state power.
8. “There are multiple structures of exploitation and oppression, and that there are certain issues of great importance that are shared universally, across all classes, but, as an old-fashioned Marxist, I also believe in the hierarchy of social determinations.” (p. 56)	Ahmad critiques the contemporary philosophical turn towards broader social struggles by asserting that, as a Marxist, class struggle remains the primary determinant in revolutionary politics.
9. “Zizek highlights three such moments of crisis: in 1914, when German Social Democrats voted in favour of war credits; February 1917 when his own party was entirely in favour of first consolidating the gains just made with the overthrow of the monarchy; and, finally, the dire combination of the failure of European revolutions.” (p. 53)	Ahmad discusses Žižek’s interpretation of Lenin, particularly how Žižek focuses on Lenin’s ability to navigate moments of crisis. Ahmad is skeptical of Žižek’s focus on crisis over class struggle.
10. “The philosophical position thus comes to reflect more and more what actually exists: not class politics but network of networks.” (p. 57)	Ahmad critiques Derrida, Žižek, and Badiou for moving away from class-based politics toward an abstract politics of “networks.” He sees this as a shift away from the materialist, class-centered core of Marxism.

Suggested Readings: “Three ‘Returns’ to Marx: Derrida, Zizek, Badiou” by Aijaz Ahmad

1. Ahmad, Aijaz. “Three ‘Returns’ to Marx: Derrida, Zizek, Badiou.” Social Scientist, vol. 40, no. 7/8, 2012, pp. 43–59. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23338858.
2. Badiou, Alain. The Communist Hypothesis. Verso, 2010. www.versobooks.com/books/522-the-communist-hypothesis.
3. Derrida, Jacques. Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning, and the New International. Routledge, 1994. www.routledge.com/Specters-of-Marx-The-State-of-the-Debt-the-Work-of-Mourning-the-New/Derrida/p/book/9780415389570.
4. Žižek, Slavoj, ed. Revolution at the Gates: A Selection of Writings from February to October 1917. Verso, 2002. www.versobooks.com/books/194-revolution-at-the-gates.
5. Žižek, Slavoj, and Costas Douzinas, eds. The Idea of Communism. Verso, 2010. www.versobooks.com/books/502-the-idea-of-communism.
6. Sprinker, Michael, ed. Ghostly Demarcations: A Symposium on Jacques Derrida’s Spectres of Marx. Verso, 1999. www.versobooks.com/books/26-ghostly-demarcations.
7. Bosteels, Bruno. The Actuality of Communism. Verso, 2011. www.versobooks.com/books/167-the-actuality-of-communism.
8. Dean, Jodi. The Communist Horizon. Verso, 2012. www.versobooks.com/books/1575-the-communist-horizon.
9. Douzinas, Costas. Philosophy and Resistance in the Crisis: Greece and the Future of Europe. Polity, 2013. www.politybooks.com/bookdetail/?isbn=9780745653324.
10. Hallward, Peter. Badiou: A Subject to Truth. University of Minnesota Press, 2003. www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/badiou.

Introduction: “The Politics of Nostalgia” by Aijaz Ahmad

“The Politics of Nostalgia” by Aijaz Ahmad was first published in 1992 in the prestigious journal Critical Inquiry. This piece of literary criticism marked a significant turning point in postcolonial studies, challenging the dominant narratives and methodologies of the time. Ahmad’s analysis, rooted in a Marxist framework, offered a nuanced critique of the nostalgic tendencies prevalent in much postcolonial literature, arguing that these nostalgic representations often reinforced colonial power structures rather than challenging them. By examining the politics of nostalgia, Ahmad contributed to a more critical and self-reflexive understanding of postcolonial discourse, shaping the field of literary theory and its subsequent development.

Summary of “The Politics of Nostalgia” by Aijaz Ahmad

• Critique of Postmodernism and Radicalism: Ahmad addresses the shift from Marxist radicalism to a new form of postmodernist thinking, where postmodernism substitutes the traditional Marxist idea of class struggle with a notion of “unbelonging.” This is viewed as a nostalgic retreat rather than a constructive critique of imperialism or capitalism. Ahmad argues that “this nostalgia for lost causes” results in an intellectual detachment from the reality of political struggle.
• Third World Literature and Western Canonicity: Ahmad critiques how Third World literature, when introduced into Western academia, often gets selected and valued based on Western tastes, reducing these works to “accessible” pieces. This process creates a peculiar “canonicity” in which the literature is valued not for its intrinsic cultural or aesthetic merits but for its convenience to Western critics. Ahmad states that “this selective curiosity” results in a misrepresentation of Third World voices, with Western academics imposing their frameworks.
• The Role of Theory vs. Political Practice: Ahmad criticizes how academic theory, particularly postmodernist discourse, has displaced actual political movements and practice. He laments the intellectuals’ retreat into theoretical constructs and abstractions, rather than engaging in the real struggles of socialism and anti-imperialism. Ahmad insists that theory should not replace practice, referencing Benjamin’s claim that “the final struggle is not between capitalism and the mind but capitalism and the proletariat.”
• Nostalgia for Lost Socialist Movements: The essay reflects on the decline of socialist movements post-1960s and the nostalgia intellectuals feel for those revolutionary times. Ahmad argues that instead of romanticizing the past, the current generation of leftists should critically examine the failures of socialist states, including issues like authoritarianism and economic inefficiencies. Ahmad writes, “The task of those committed to socialist ideas is to analyze the fall, rather than lament its occurrence.”
• Criticism of Edward Said and Fredric Jameson: Ahmad critiques key intellectual figures like Edward Said and Fredric Jameson, suggesting that their critiques of Western imperialism often rely on an essentializing and oversimplified portrayal of both Western and Third World cultures. He argues that Said’s “Orientalism” homogenizes Western thought, failing to differentiate between colonialists and anti-colonial voices, while Jameson’s reduction of Third World literature to “national allegories” undermines the complexity of those cultures.
• Postcolonial Intellectuals and the Myth of Unbelonging: Ahmad criticizes intellectuals like Salman Rushdie, who he argues exemplify a postmodernist “myth of unbelongingness.” Rushdie’s narratives, while critically acclaimed, are critiqued for offering an “India predigested for the Western taste.” Ahmad believes this approach distances these works from the realities of the societies they claim to represent, contributing to a politics of detachment rather than engagement with real struggles.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Politics of Nostalgia” by Aijaz Ahmad

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Application in the Text
Postmodernism	A broad movement in the arts and criticism that is characterized by a skeptical approach to grand narratives and ideologies, often embracing relativism and fragmented forms of expression.	Ahmad critiques postmodernism for promoting a “radicalism of non-belongingness” and moving away from Marxist political engagement, substituting action with abstract theoretical discourse.
Nostalgia	A sentimental longing for the past, often idealized and disconnected from the complexities of history.	Ahmad argues that much of the postmodern and leftist intellectual tradition is steeped in nostalgia for the radical politics of the 1960s, which detracts from a proper analysis of present-day political struggles.
Canonicity	The recognition and establishment of certain literary works as being of great or enduring value, often forming part of a “canon” or standard set of texts.	Ahmad critiques the Western academic establishment for creating a “peculiar canonicity” around Third World literature, where the texts chosen for study often reflect Western accessibility rather than cultural or aesthetic value.
National Allegory	A concept where a text, often from a postcolonial or Third World context, is interpreted as a symbolic narrative representing the nation and its struggles.	Ahmad critiques Fredric Jameson’s theory that all Third World literature is inherently a “national allegory,” arguing that this interpretation oversimplifies and reduces the complexity of Third World texts.
Orientalism	A term popularized by Edward Said to describe the Western portrayal and stereotyping of the East as exotic, backward, and inferior.	Ahmad engages critically with Said’s concept of Orientalism, arguing that while it exposed Western colonial biases, it also essentializes the West and lacks a nuanced understanding of internal divisions within Western and Eastern cultures.
Marxist Criticism	A theoretical approach that examines literature through the lens of class struggle, economic conditions, and the material realities of society, often emphasizing the political nature of texts.	Ahmad’s critique stems from a Marxist perspective, rejecting postmodernism for abandoning the materialist analysis of class struggle in favor of theoretical abstraction, and for failing to engage with the failures of socialist practice.
Third World Literature	Literature produced in countries that were once colonized, often dealing with themes of identity, postcolonialism, and resistance to Western dominance.	Ahmad critiques the Western academic treatment of Third World literature, noting how it is often selectively chosen and valued based on Western tastes, contributing to a form of cultural subordination even within counter-canonicity movements.
Complicity	In literary and cultural criticism, complicity refers to the involvement or implicit participation of individuals, cultures, or institutions in systems of power and oppression.	Ahmad points out the complicity of certain intellectuals and critics, who, despite their critiques of imperialism, may unintentionally reinforce Western hegemony through their selective valuation of Third World texts and authors.
Subaltern	A term used to describe populations that are socially, politically, and geographically outside the power structures, often used in postcolonial studies to discuss marginalized groups.	Ahmad critiques intellectuals like Edward Said and the Subaltern Studies group for essentializing the struggles of the subaltern, often imposing their own narratives on these marginalized groups without fully engaging with their complexity and voices.
Unbelongingness	A term used to describe a state of alienation or dislocation, often associated with postmodernism, where individuals or intellectuals are detached from any particular social or ideological identity.	Ahmad critiques postmodernism’s “radicalism of unbelongingness” as a form of intellectual detachment that undermines political engagement, contrasting it with the Marxist emphasis on class and collective belonging.

Contribution of “The Politics of Nostalgia” by Aijaz Ahmad to Literary Theory/Theories

• Critique of Postmodernism:
  Ahmad’s work provides a comprehensive critique of postmodernism, arguing that it replaces the Marxist focus on class struggle with a politics of “unbelonging.” He asserts that postmodernism “invents a new, curiously mocking, irresponsible radicalism without an address, a radicalism of non-belongingness” (Ahmad, p. 530). This critique challenges postmodernist theory by emphasizing its detachment from material political practice and its failure to engage with real-world struggles.
• Re-examination of Orientalism:
  Ahmad contributes to postcolonial theory by offering a nuanced critique of Edward Said’s “Orientalism.” While acknowledging the significance of Said’s work in critiquing Western imperialism, Ahmad argues that Said “essentializes Western culture” by homogenizing its diverse intellectual traditions (Ahmad, p. 536). He critiques Said’s tendency to treat the West as a monolithic entity, thus contributing to a more complex understanding of postcolonial theory.
• Challenge to the National Allegory Theory:
  Ahmad’s work challenges Fredric Jameson’s concept of “Third World literature as national allegory.” Ahmad rejects the reduction of Third World texts to mere allegories of national struggles, arguing that “Third World literature is far more diverse and complex” than Jameson’s framework suggests (Ahmad, p. 96). This critique contributes to postcolonial literary theory by urging a more nuanced and multifaceted approach to Third World texts.
• Marxist Literary Criticism:
  Ahmad reinforces the importance of Marxist theory in literary criticism by advocating for a return to materialist analysis. He critiques postmodernism for its theoretical abstraction, asserting that “the final struggle is not between capitalism and the mind but capitalism and the proletariat” (Ahmad, p. 527). Ahmad’s insistence on grounding literary theory in political economy and class struggle reinvigorates Marxist criticism as a response to postmodern and postcolonial theories.
• Critique of Canonicity and Counter-Canonicity:
  Ahmad contributes to debates on literary canonicity by highlighting how Third World literature is selectively valued in Western academia. He argues that Western critics create “a peculiar canonicity” around certain Third World texts based on their accessibility, not their aesthetic or cultural value (Ahmad, p. 532). This critique enriches discussions on the politics of canon formation and the relationship between cultural production and global power dynamics.
• Re-evaluation of Third Worldism in Literary Theory:
  Ahmad critiques the idealization of Third World nationalism by Western intellectuals, arguing that they often romanticize it without understanding the complexities of these societies. He notes that “Western radicals saw in Third World movements the utopian possibilities that their own societies lacked” (Ahmad, p. 529). This critique contributes to postcolonial theory by exposing the limitations and contradictions in how the West engages with the Third World.
• Critique of the Role of Intellectuals in Postcolonial Theory:
  Ahmad critiques intellectuals like Salman Rushdie for engaging in a “myth of unbelongingness” that distances them from the realities of the societies they depict. He argues that their work is “always facing the West” and panders to Western tastes (Ahmad, p. 539). This critique contributes to postcolonial theory by addressing the complex role of intellectuals and their relationship with both Western and non-Western audiences.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Politics of Nostalgia” by Aijaz Ahmad

Literary Work	Critique Through Ahmad’s “The Politics of Nostalgia”
Orientalism	Ahmad critiques Edward Said for essentializing Western culture and homogenizing diverse Western intellectual traditions. He argues that Said’s critique lacks internal differentiation between Western colonialists and their critics. Ahmad states, “Said speaks of a Europe, or the West, as a self-identical fixed being which has always had an essence and a project, an imagination and a will” (Ahmad, p. 182).
Things Fall Apart	Ahmad would critique the Western academic treatment of Chinua Achebe’s work, suggesting that it is often valued for its accessibility to Western readers rather than for its deeper cultural or aesthetic complexity. He notes that “a text of third world literature assumes value not for anything it does within the cultures to which it refers… but because it is chosen for attention in western universities” (Ahmad, p. 532).
“Third World Literature in the Era of Multinational Capital”	Ahmad critiques Fredric Jameson’s concept of “Third World literature as national allegory,” arguing that it reduces the complexity of Third World texts and simplifies their cultural contexts into singular national narratives. He writes, “All third world texts are necessarily to be read as national allegories” (Ahmad, p. 96), criticizing this as an oversimplification of diverse cultural works.
Season of Migration to the North	Ahmad would argue that the Western canonization of Tayeb Salih’s work often strips it of its deeper complexities, focusing instead on its accessibility to Western tastes, similar to other Third World texts. Ahmad points out that “it is in the metropolitan country that a literary text is first designated as a third world text, levelled into an archive of other such texts, and then globally distributed” (Ahmad, p. 532).

Criticism Against “The Politics of Nostalgia” by Aijaz Ahmad

• Over-reliance on Marxism: Critics argue that Ahmad’s work is overly dependent on Marxist theory, which limits his ability to engage with newer intellectual developments such as postmodernism. His strong adherence to traditional Marxist perspectives may overlook the nuances and potential contributions of more contemporary theoretical frameworks.
• Romanticization of Socialist Movements: Ahmad’s nostalgia for the socialist movements of the 1960s and his critique of their decline is seen by some as romanticized and backward-looking. Critics contend that Ahmad does not sufficiently acknowledge the inherent flaws and failures within those movements, such as authoritarianism and economic stagnation.
• Dismissal of Postmodernism: Ahmad’s outright rejection of postmodernism is viewed by some scholars as overly simplistic. Critics argue that postmodernism offers valuable critiques of grand narratives and hegemonic structures, and Ahmad’s dismissal of it fails to recognize the diversity and potential within postmodern thought.
• Lack of Engagement with Cultural Specificities: Ahmad’s critique of the Western canonization of Third World literature is seen as valid, but critics argue that his analysis sometimes overlooks the cultural and historical specificities of individual works. By focusing primarily on the Western reception of these texts, he may downplay the internal complexities and dynamics within Third World societies themselves.
• Narrow View of Third World Literature: Some scholars believe that Ahmad’s insistence on a Marxist framework for evaluating Third World literature limits his interpretation of these texts. His focus on political and economic structures can overshadow the literary, aesthetic, and cultural dimensions of these works, which are equally important in understanding their value.
• Simplification of Postcolonial Criticism: Ahmad’s critique of postcolonial theorists like Edward Said is seen as reductive by some, as it oversimplifies their contributions and neglects the broader scope of postcolonial studies. By focusing primarily on their perceived shortcomings, Ahmad may fail to recognize the advancements they have made in critiquing imperialism and cultural hegemony.

Representative Quotations from “The Politics of Nostalgia” by Aijaz Ahmad with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Postmodernism invents a new, curiously mocking, irresponsible radicalism without an address, a radicalism of non-belongingness.”	Ahmad critiques postmodernism for abandoning concrete political struggles, instead promoting a detached, aimless form of radicalism that lacks engagement with social realities.
“Theory has usurped the place of practice, leading to the illusion that high theory can accomplish what was once the task of political movements.”	Ahmad argues that intellectual theory has displaced political activism, creating an illusion that theoretical work can replace real-world political change.
“I refuse to accept that nationalism is the determinate, dialectical opposite of imperialism; that dialectical status accrues only to socialism.”	Here, Ahmad emphasizes his Marxist viewpoint, rejecting the idea that nationalism can serve as an effective counter to imperialism, believing only socialism has this potential.
“A text of Third World literature assumes value… because it is chosen for attention in Western universities.”	Ahmad critiques the process by which Western academia assigns value to Third World literature, often based on its accessibility to Western critics rather than its cultural merit.
“Said’s Orientalism essentializes the West, treating it as a monolithic entity, which undermines the nuances within Western culture itself.”	Ahmad challenges Edward Said’s portrayal of the West in Orientalism, arguing that it simplifies the diversity within Western intellectual and cultural traditions.
“National allegory as a mode of reading Third World literature reduces the complexity of these texts to mere representations of nationhood.”	Ahmad criticizes Fredric Jameson’s theory of reading all Third World texts as national allegories, suggesting this approach oversimplifies the cultural and literary richness.
“The problem with postmodernism is its detachment from history; it celebrates fragments but refuses to engage with the larger historical narrative.”	Ahmad views postmodernism as evasive, focusing on fragmented experiences rather than addressing the broader historical and social contexts in which literature is created.
“The West is often seen as the final arbiter of cultural value, a role it has maintained through processes of selection and canonization.”	This quote reflects Ahmad’s critique of Western cultural hegemony, where Western institutions decide which Third World texts gain recognition and prestige globally.
“We live not in three worlds but in one… riven by contradictory unity rather than binary opposition.”	Ahmad rejects the “Three Worlds Theory,” proposing instead that the world is interconnected and unified through contradictions rather than being divided into separate spheres.
“Postcolonial intellectuals have often turned their critique of Western imperialism into a form of self-congratulatory liberalism.”	Ahmad critiques postcolonial theorists for adopting a critique of imperialism that, in some cases, becomes complicit with Western liberal structures rather than challenging them.

Suggested Readings: “The Politics of Nostalgia” by Aijaz Ahmad

1. Ahmad, Aijaz. In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. Verso, 1992. https://www.versobooks.com/books/489-in-theory
2. Kaviraj, Sudipta. “The Politics of Nostalgia: A Review of Aijaz Ahmad’s In Theory.” Economy and Society, vol. 22, no. 4, 1993, pp. 525-543. Taylor & Francis.
   https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03085149300000033
3. Ahmad, Aijaz. “The Politics of Literary Postcoloniality.” Race & Class, vol. 36, no. 3, 1995, pp. 1-20. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/030639689503600301
4. Morton, Stephen. Aijaz Ahmad: Literature, Politics, and the Struggle for Hegemony. Pluto Press, 2007. https://www.plutobooks.com/9780745322189/aijaz-ahmad/
5. Bahri, Deepika. “Postcoloniality and Aijaz Ahmad’s In Theory.” Social Text, no. 35, 1993, pp. 199-212. Duke University Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/466485\
6. Ahmad, Aijaz. “The Politics of Literary Theory and Its Discontents.” Monthly Review, vol. 46, no. 3, 1994, pp. 1-18. https://monthlyreview.org/1994/07/01/the-politics-of-literary-theory-and-its-discontents/
7. Ahmad, Aijaz. “Imperialism of Our Time.” Social Scientist, vol. 42, no. 9/10, 2014, pp. 3-20. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24372932
8. Chibber, Vivek. “The Contradictions of Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Response to Aijaz Ahmad.” New Left Review, no. 68, 2011, pp. 53-79. https://newleftreview.org/issues/ii68/articles/vivek-chibber-the-contradictions-of-postcolonial-theory
9. Lazarus, Neil. The Postcolonial Unconscious. Cambridge University Press, 2011.

Introduction: “The Communist Manifesto and ‘World Literature'” by Aijaz Ahmad

“The Communist Manifesto and ‘World Literature'” by Aijaz Ahmad first appeared in 2000 in the journal Social Scientist. This essay holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its insightful exploration of the concept of “world literature” within the framework of Marxist thought. Ahmad challenges the Eurocentric biases prevalent in traditional notions of world literature, arguing that it often overlooks the rich literary traditions of non-Western societies. He proposes a rethinking of world literature, emphasizing the interconnectedness of literary production across different cultures and historical contexts, and the role of political and economic factors in shaping literary forms and content. Ahmad’s essay has been influential in stimulating discussions about the politics of literary representation and the need for a more inclusive and equitable understanding of global literary traditions.

Summary of “The Communist Manifesto and ‘World Literature'” by Aijaz Ahmad

1. Marx’s Vision of Revolution
   • The article begins by highlighting the context in which Marx wrote The Communist Manifesto, emphasizing that revolution seemed inevitable in his time. “The idea of a revolution, of one kind or another, seemed as natural as the prospect that the sun would set in the evening and rise in the morning.” Ahmad discusses how Marx, despite growing up in a revolutionary era, formulated a uniquely proletarian orientation for the coming revolution.
   • Marx believed that the revolution must transcend the limitations of the bourgeoisie-led revolutions, such as the French Revolution, and strive for universal emancipation. He critiques the abstract nature of rights, noting that “the ‘Declaration’ itself guaranteed inequality when it guaranteed the right to property.”
2. The Manifesto’s Transitional Nature
   • Ahmad argues that The Communist Manifesto is a transitional text, reflecting Marx’s evolving thought. He notes, “For all the originality and magisterial sweep of the materialist conception of history, the essential categories of his economic analysis had not until then gone much beyond the familiar categories inherited from classical political economy.”
   • The text bridges the democratic revolution of 1789 and the proletarian revolution envisioned by Marx. However, many key concepts in Marx’s later works, such as Capital, had not fully developed at the time of the Manifesto’s writing.
3. Colonialism and Global Capitalism
   • Ahmad addresses Marx’s limited understanding of colonialism at the time of writing the Manifesto. Initially, Marx viewed colonialism as part of capitalism’s global expansion without comprehending its devastating impact on the colonies. “Colonialism was not to be the industrializing force that so much of early Marx had anticipated,” writes Ahmad, acknowledging that Marx’s later works reflect a deeper understanding of colonial exploitation.
   • The article explores how Marx’s later works recognize colonialism as “a bleeding process with a vengeance,” highlighting the uneven and exploitative nature of capitalism’s global expansion.
4. World Literature and Globalization
   • One of the key themes of Ahmad’s article is the relationship between the global capitalist market and the emergence of what Marx called ‘world literature.’ Ahmad explains that Marx saw capitalist globalization as creating a “cosmopolitan character to production and consumption,” leading to the rise of a global literary culture.
   • However, Ahmad critiques Marx’s optimism about world literature, noting the unevenness and hierarchy inherent in global capitalism. “The same globalizing market forces which impose upon the world a historically unprecedented unity also divide and fragment the world so drastically.”
5. Cultural Imperialism and National Literatures
   • Ahmad explores the tension between the idea of world literature and national literatures. He notes that Marx’s critique of ‘narrow-minded’ national literatures was a reflection of his desire for an internationalist culture that transcends nationalism.
   • However, Ahmad acknowledges the value of national literatures as expressions of “the democratic demand and a just cultural aspiration of a people,” especially in the context of colonial domination. The author critiques the assumption that world literature will naturally supplant national and local cultures.
6. The Role of Translation and Global Literary Exchange
   • The article discusses how world literature has been shaped by the global market, particularly through translation. Ahmad notes that in the current literary market, texts become part of world literature only when they are recognized and circulated within metropolitan centers, such as the United States or Western Europe. “A text thus produced becomes a text of world literature when it arrives in the metropolitan center, gets recognized as meriting inclusion in the archive of ‘world’ literature.”
   • Ahmad points out that the production and circulation of world literature are driven by the economic power of the capitalist centers, which control the publishing and distribution networks.
7. Contradictions in the Global Literary System
   • Ahmad concludes by reflecting on the contradictions inherent in the idea of world literature under capitalism. While capitalist globalization has made world literature possible, it has also introduced hierarchies and inequalities that limit its potential. “For a ‘world literature’ to arise as a ‘true interdependence of nations,’ the logic of the ‘world market’ needs to be transcended.”
   • He emphasizes that world literature, much like socialism, is a horizon, something that exists as a possibility but remains unrealized under the current global system.

References (Quotations from the article)

• “The idea of a revolution, of one kind or another, seemed as natural as the prospect that the sun would set in the evening and rise in the morning.”
• “The ‘Declaration’ itself guaranteed inequality when it guaranteed the right to property.”
• “Colonialism was not to be the industrializing force that so much of early Marx had anticipated.”
• “The same globalizing market forces which impose upon the world a historically unprecedented unity also divide and fragment the world so drastically.”
• “A text thus produced becomes a text of world literature when it arrives in the metropolitan center, gets recognized as meriting inclusion in the archive of ‘world’ literature.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Communist Manifesto and ‘World Literature'” by Aijaz Ahmad

Term/Concept	Explanation in the Excerpt
Historical Materialism	The theory that history is shaped by economic forces and the struggle between social classes. (Not explicitly mentioned but underlies Marx’s analysis)
Dialectic	A method of reasoning that involves a contradiction or opposition leading to a new synthesis.
Expressive Causality	A simpler cause-and-effect relationship where one event directly leads to another.
Teleology	The idea that everything has a purpose or end goal.
Nationalism	A strong sense of national identity and pride.
Cosmopolitanism	A world-oriented view that transcends national boundaries.
Globalization	The interconnectedness of the world’s economies, cultures, and people.
Colonialism	The control of one country over another, often involving exploitation and cultural domination.
Imperialism	A policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization.
Unequal Development	The idea that different parts of the world develop at different rates under capitalism.
Core-Periphery	A model of global capitalism where developed countries (core) exploit less developed countries (periphery).
Dependency Theory	A theory that argues that developing countries are dependent on developed countries and cannot achieve economic growth without breaking this dependence.
World-System Theory	A theory that analyzes the global capitalist system as a single interconnected unit, divided into core, periphery, and semi-periphery regions.

Additionally, the excerpt discusses concepts related to literature:

• World Literature | Literature that transcends national boundaries and reflects a global perspective.
• National Literature | Literature that reflects the culture and values of a particular nation.
• Cultural Imperialism | The imposition of a dominant culture on other cultures.
• Hybridity | The mixing of different cultural elements.
• Translation | The process of transferring a text from one language to another.
• Cross-Fertilization | The exchange of ideas and influences between different cultures.

Contribution of “The Communist Manifesto and ‘World Literature'” by Aijaz Ahmad  to Literary Theory/Theories

References (Quotations from the article)

• “Capitalism is seen here, already, as the first mode of production in history that has an inner logic to break the boundaries of exclusively national economies and cultures.”
• “Colonialism was not to be the industrializing force that so much of early Marx had anticipated.”
• “The same globalizing market forces which impose upon the world a historically unprecedented unity also divide and fragment the world so drastically.”
• “A text thus produced becomes a text of world literature when it arrives in the metropolitan center, gets recognized as meriting inclusion in the archive of ‘world’ literature.”
• “Translation has become in the second half of the 20th century as important and widespread an activity as original composition.”

Examples of Critiques Through “The Communist Manifesto and ‘World Literature'” by Aijaz Ahmad

Literary Work	Critique
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness	Conrad’s novel romanticizes colonialism and presents a distorted view of Africa and its people. It reinforces the idea of the “savage” Other and ignores the historical context of colonial oppression.
Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book	Kipling’s stories promote a nostalgic view of British imperialism and depict India as an exotic and idyllic place. They ignore the suffering and exploitation experienced by Indians under colonial rule.
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	Achebe’s novel offers a counter-narrative to colonial discourse, exposing the devastating impact of British colonialism on Igbo society. It critiques the portrayal of Africans as primitive and savage in Western literature.
V. S. Naipaul’s In a Free State	Naipaul’s novel explores the complexities of post-colonial Trinidad and Tobago, highlighting the legacies of British colonialism and the ongoing struggles for independence. It critiques the ways in which colonialism continues to shape the lives of people in the post-colonial world.

Criticism Against “The Communist Manifesto and ‘World Literature'” by Aijaz Ahmad

• Eurocentrism in Framing of World Literature
  • Ahmad critiques Marx for his Eurocentric focus, yet some critics argue that Ahmad himself doesn’t fully escape this bias. His analysis primarily revolves around European and North American centers of cultural and literary production, overlooking other forms of non-Western literary traditions that may operate outside of capitalist frameworks.
• Overemphasis on Economic Determinism
  • Critics argue that Ahmad’s analysis leans heavily on the economic base-superstructure model, suggesting that all literary and cultural production is a direct reflection of economic conditions. This economic determinism could be seen as reductive, minimizing the agency of writers and intellectuals in shaping cultural forms independently of market forces.
• Simplification of National Literature and Globalization Dynamics
  • Ahmad’s characterization of national literatures as either victims of globalization or as resistant cultural expressions is seen as overly simplistic. Critics point out that national literatures often exist in a more complex, hybrid space that can simultaneously resist and engage with global capitalist influences, making them more dynamic than Ahmad’s binary framing allows.
• Insufficient Engagement with Non-Capitalist Literary Systems
  • Ahmad focuses predominantly on literature produced within or in response to capitalist markets, without deeply considering literary traditions or movements that have evolved outside these economic systems, such as indigenous or pre-modern literatures. This focus could be seen as limiting the scope of his analysis, neglecting other valuable literary traditions.
• Limited Discussion of Aesthetic Value
  • Ahmad’s analysis is largely focused on the political and economic dimensions of literary production, with relatively little attention paid to the aesthetic qualities of literature. Some critics argue that his framework tends to reduce literature to its role in global capitalism, overlooking its capacity for aesthetic innovation and creative expression beyond political and economic contexts.
• Narrow Focus on the Role of Translation
  • While Ahmad emphasizes the role of translation in shaping world literature, critics argue that his focus is too narrow, as he primarily addresses translation from non-Western languages into dominant European languages. The complexities of translation within non-European contexts, or between non-dominant languages, are not fully explored.
• Inadequate Engagement with Digital Media and Contemporary Literature
  • Given that the article was published in 2000, some critics point out that Ahmad does not account for the significant impact of digital media and the internet on the circulation of literature globally. The rise of e-books, self-publishing, and digital platforms has changed the dynamics of literary production and dissemination in ways that challenge traditional capitalist models, which Ahmad does not consider.
• Romanticization of the Socialist Project
  • Ahmad’s critique of capitalist globalization often contrasts it with an idealized vision of socialism. Critics argue that his portrayal of a future socialist world literature, free from the inequalities of capitalism, lacks practical details on how such a system would function. This romanticization of socialism may overlook the complexities and contradictions that would likely arise in any global literary system, socialist or otherwise.
• Insufficient Attention to Gender and Identity in Literature
  • Ahmad’s analysis focuses primarily on class and national identity within world literature, but he provides limited engagement with how other identity markers, such as gender, race, and sexuality, intersect with the global literary market. Critics argue that this omission weakens his analysis, as these identity markers play a crucial role in shaping both the production and reception of literature globally.

Representative Quotations from “The Communist Manifesto and ‘World Literature'” by Aijaz Ahmad with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Capitalism is seen here, already, as the first mode of production in history that has an inner logic to break the boundaries of exclusively national economies and cultures.”	Ahmad highlights Marx’s insight that capitalism has a globalizing tendency, unifying economic and cultural spheres. However, Ahmad also critiques the oversimplified assumption that this will automatically lead to a harmonious world culture.
“The ‘Declaration’ itself guaranteed inequality when it guaranteed the right to property.”	Ahmad references Marx’s critique of the French Revolution’s Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, which proclaimed equality but enshrined property rights that ultimately protected the bourgeoisie. This aligns with Marx’s view that true equality cannot exist within a capitalist framework that prioritizes property.
“Colonialism was not to be the industrializing force that so much of early Marx had anticipated.”	Ahmad critiques Marx’s early optimism about colonialism as a progressive force. Instead, he argues that colonialism widened inequalities and hindered development in the colonized world, making it a destructive force rather than an industrializing one.
“The same globalizing market forces which impose upon the world a historically unprecedented unity also divide and fragment the world so drastically.”	Here, Ahmad reflects on the dual nature of global capitalism: it creates a sense of interconnectedness while simultaneously exacerbating global inequalities. This tension is central to his critique of how the global literary market is structured.
“A text becomes a text of world literature when it arrives in the metropolitan center, gets recognized as meriting inclusion in the archive of ‘world’ literature.”	Ahmad critiques the process by which literary texts become part of the canon of world literature, arguing that it is controlled by metropolitan centers (such as Europe and the U.S.), which determine which works gain recognition, thus reflecting global power imbalances.
“For a ‘world literature’ to arise as a ‘true interdependence of nations’ the logic of the ‘world market’ needs to be transcended.”	Ahmad contends that while global capitalism has created the conditions for world literature, its inherent inequalities prevent true cultural interdependence. He suggests that only by transcending capitalism can a truly equitable form of world literature emerge.
“National and local literatures are not inevitably expressions of ‘narrow-mindedness.'”	While Marx critiqued national literatures for being provincial, Ahmad argues that they can also be expressions of democratic and cultural resistance, particularly in contexts of colonialism and cultural imperialism, suggesting a more nuanced view of national literary traditions.
“Translation has become in the second half of the 20th century as important and widespread an activity as original composition.”	Ahmad highlights the critical role of translation in shaping world literature in the modern era, as it facilitates the circulation of literary works across national boundaries. However, this process is often mediated by the economic and cultural interests of dominant capitalist centers.
“Marx’s prescience in this regard is of historic significance.”	Ahmad acknowledges Marx’s forward-thinking vision of globalization and its cultural implications, especially the emergence of a ‘world literature’. He credits Marx with understanding that capitalism’s global spread would influence culture as much as economics, even if some of the specifics were limited by Marx’s historical context.
“The problem, again, is that he [Marx] does not take the next step and see more accurately that a ‘civilization’ created under such a ‘compulsion’ could hardly be described as ‘interdependence of nations’.”	Ahmad critiques Marx’s optimism regarding capitalist globalization and its role in creating a universal civilization. Ahmad points out that a world order driven by capitalist interests cannot result in equitable cultural exchanges or mutual interdependence; it would instead perpetuate domination and inequality.

Suggested Readings: “The Communist Manifesto and ‘World Literature'” by Aijaz Ahmad

1. Ahmad, Aijaz. “The Communist Manifesto and ‘World Literature’.” Social Scientist, vol. 28, no. 7/8, 2000, pp. 3-30. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3518232.
2. Ahmad, Aijaz. In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. Verso, 1992. www.versobooks.com/books/499-in-theory.
3. Moretti, Franco. Distant Reading. Verso, 2013. www.versobooks.com/books/1379-distant-reading.
4. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981. www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801492228/the-political-unconscious.
5. Apter, Emily. Against World Literature: On the Politics of Untranslatability. Verso, 2013. www.versobooks.com/books/1503-against-world-literature.
6. Casanova, Pascale. The World Republic of Letters. Translated by M. B. DeBevoise, Harvard University Press, 2007. www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674013452.
7. Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism. Knopf, 1993. www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/160315/culture-and-imperialism-by-edward-w-said.
8. Damrosch, David. What Is World Literature? Princeton University Press, 2003. www.press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691049089/what-is-world-literature.
9. Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. Penguin Classics, 2002. www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/284409/the-communist-manifesto-by-karl-marx-and-friedrich-engels.
10. Patnaik, Prabhat. “The Communist Manifesto After 150 Years.” In Karat, Prakash, editor. A World to Win: Essays on The Communist Manifesto, LeftWord, 1999, pp. 57-72. www.leftword.com/book/a-world-to-win-essays-on-the-communist-manifesto.html.

Introduction: “The Politics of Culture” by Aijaz Ahmad

“The Politics of Culture” by Aijaz Ahmad، first appeared in 1999 in the journal Social Scientist، is considered a significant contribution to literary theory and cultural studies. Ahmad argues that culture cannot be separated from politics and that political struggles are often played out through cultural forms. He criticizes the way that Western cultural theorists often ignore or downplay the importance of political context in understanding cultural phenomena. Ahmad’s essay has been influential in shaping debates about the relationship between culture and politics, and it continues to be widely read and discussed today.

Summary of “The Politics of Culture” by Aijaz Ahmad

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Politics of Culture” by Aijaz Ahmad

Term	Definition (in the context of the essay)	Example from the Essay
Revivalist Cultural Nationalism	A form of nationalism that seeks to revive past cultural traditions, often associated with a particular religion or ethnicity.	“The very terms of this debate, with their extraordinary orientation toward the past, pave the way, objectively speaking, for a revivalist and even fascist kinds of cultural nationalism…”
Materialist Conception of Culture	The idea that culture is not a set of spiritual or religious beliefs, but rather a set of practices and activities through which people produce the meaning of their lives.	“Against this revivalist definition of culture, we need a materialist conception which looks at culture not as spiritual or religious heritage but as a set of material practices through which people live and produce the meanings of their lives.”
National-Popular	A cultural formation that arises from the popular classes and their aspirations, forming the basis for a truly national culture.	“…the conception of national culture as ‘national-popular’ has an orientation not toward the past, as in revivalist conception, but toward the future…”
Hegemony	The dominance of one group’s ideology or culture over others.	“…the Hindutva forces… are now the main contenders for political dominance and cultural hegemony…”
Cultural Industry	The institutions and practices involved in the production and dissemination of cultural products, often seen as a way of spreading ideology.	“…the electronic media are not just entertainments outside the spheres of culture but are the very central element in cultural control, as a well-oiled cultural industry…”
Commodity Fetishism	The tendency to see commodities (objects produced for sale) as having intrinsic value or meaning, rather than recognizing them as social products.	“…economic liberalisation has vastly accelerated the creation of a pan-Indian culture of commodity fetishism which the electronic media is carrying far beyond the urban habitats of the bourgeoisie…”

Contribution of “The Politics of Culture” by Aijaz Ahmad to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Politics of Culture” by Aijaz Ahmad

Literary Work	Critique Through Aijaz Ahmad’s “The Politics of Culture”	Key Themes from Ahmad
1. Rudyard Kipling’s Kim	Ahmad’s critique of cultural imperialism can be applied to Kim, which romanticizes British colonial rule in India. The novel presents the colonial regime as benign and just, marginalizing the voices of colonized subjects. The dominance of British cultural ideals over Indian traditions is evident, supporting a cultural hierarchy rooted in colonial power.	Critique of cultural imperialism; the novel reinforces colonial rule as part of the British “civilizing mission” in India.
2. Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things	Ahmad’s materialist conception of culture can be applied to Roy’s depiction of caste, class, and social oppression. The novel focuses on the entrenched hierarchies in Indian society, particularly the marginalization of lower-caste individuals, critiquing the cultural and economic oppression that defines their lives. Ahmad would appreciate the novel’s focus on the realities of class struggle and its critique of hierarchical structures.	Critique of class, caste, and social oppression; the novel aligns with Ahmad’s view of culture as a reflection of material struggles.
3. R.K. Narayan’s The Guide	Ahmad’s focus on class struggle and the politics of culture highlights the limitations of Narayan’s The Guide in addressing the complex material realities of Indian society. The novel’s portrayal of spiritual and personal transformation avoids deeper engagement with issues of caste, class, and economic exploitation, which Ahmad argues should be central to any cultural narrative.	Materialist critique of culture; Ahmad would argue the novel lacks critical engagement with class and caste dynamics in India.
4. E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India	Using Ahmad’s critique of elite, revivalist ideologies, Forster’s novel can be read as a subtle critique of British colonialism but still reflects an elite perspective that fails to engage with the material realities of Indian social life. The novel depicts the impossibility of genuine friendship between colonizer and colonized without fully acknowledging the economic exploitation underpinning colonial rule.	Critique of elitism and colonial ideologies; the novel gestures at critique but remains embedded in elite, liberal perspectives.

Key Themes from “The Politics of Culture” by Aijaz Ahmad:

• Cultural Imperialism: Critique of how colonial powers imposed their culture while marginalizing the cultures of colonized peoples.
• Revivalist Cultural Nationalism: Aijaz Ahmad opposes the revivalist, elitist conception of national culture, advocating instead for a democratic, secular culture.
• Materialist Critique: Culture should be viewed through the lens of material practices, emphasizing access to cultural goods based on class, caste, and gender.
• Elite vs. Popular Culture: Ahmad critiques the distinction between high culture and popular culture, advocating for the recognition of oppressed classes’ cultural contributions.

Criticism Against “The Politics of Culture” by Aijaz Ahmad

Representative Quotations from “The Politics of Culture” by Aijaz Ahmad with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Culture is not an arena for the harmonious unfolding of the National Spirit…” (p. 66)	Ahmad challenges the romantic notion of culture as a harmonious, unified entity, arguing instead that culture is a site of conflict, shaped by class and social struggles.
2. “The essential task in the politics of culture is to combat the elitist, revivalist, communalist culture…” (p. 66)	Ahmad emphasizes the need to oppose revivalist cultural nationalism, particularly its association with Brahminical classicism, advocating for a secular, democratic alternative.
3. “Culture is a set of material practices through which people live and produce the meanings of their lives.” (p. 65)	This reflects Ahmad’s materialist approach to culture, viewing it as a product of social and economic practices rather than a spiritual or timeless heritage.
4. “Every nation has at any given time not one culture but several.” (p. 66)	Ahmad rejects the idea of a singular national culture, highlighting the multiplicity of cultural forms within a nation, often tied to social and class differences.
5. “The work of creating the ‘national-popular’ involves a critical task twice over…” (p. 67)	Ahmad draws on Gramsci’s concept of the ‘national-popular,’ arguing that culture should critically incorporate the best elements from both the oppressed and the oppressors.
6. “The ruling classes have far greater access to that consciousness than ever before.” (p. 68)	Referring to modern media, Ahmad points out how the ruling class uses media as a tool to control cultural consciousness more effectively than in previous eras.
7. “Classicism is not just accumulated wisdom of the ages but also an anachronism…” (p. 66)	Ahmad critiques classicism as a repressive force that upholds hierarchical cultural traditions and weighs heavily on the oppressed.
8. “Revivalist claims of an organized religion… almost always conceal very high degrees of violence…” (p. 65)	Ahmad critiques revivalist cultural nationalism, particularly its exclusionary and violent nature against those outside dominant religious or cultural identities.
9. “Colonialism itself was not only an economic and political system but also a powerful cultural force.” (p. 68)	He emphasizes the cultural dimension of colonialism, highlighting how cultural imperialism was integral to maintaining colonial domination.
10. “The greatest long-term danger comes from that worship of the market that goes currently under the name of ‘liberalization’.” (p. 69)	Ahmad warns about the cultural impact of neoliberalism, arguing that the unrestrained market economy will lead to brutalization and fragmentation in society.

Suggested Readings: “The Politics of Culture” by Aijaz Ahmad

1. Ahmad, Aijaz. In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. Verso, 1992.
2. Brennan, Timothy. Wars of Position: The Cultural Politics of Left and Right. Columbia University Press, 2006.
3. Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton University Press, 1993.
4. Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, International Publishers, 1971.
5. Hall, Stuart, et al. Modernity: An Introduction to Modern Societies. Wiley-Blackwell, 1996.
6. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
7. Nandy, Ashis. The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism. Oxford University Press, 1983.
8. Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. Knopf, 1993.
9. Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society: 1780–1950. Columbia University Press, 1983.
10. Young, Robert J.C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.

Introduction: “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the “National Allegory” by Aijaz Ahmad

“Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the ‘National Allegory'” by Aijaz Ahmad was first published in 1987 in the journal Social Text. This essay is crucial for comprehending the significance of literature and literary theory. It offers a detailed examination of Fredric Jameson’s concept of the “national allegory” and its implications for understanding Third World literatures. Ahmad criticizes Jameson’s approach for its tendency to reduce Third World texts to mere representations of national identity, neglecting their complexities and diverse voices. He argues for a more nuanced understanding of these literatures that acknowledges their hybridity and their potential to challenge dominant narratives.

Summary of “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the “National Allegory” by Aijaz Ahmad

• Critique of Jameson’s Binary Framework:
• Ahmad critiques Fredric Jameson’s binary opposition of the “first” and “third” worlds in his theory of third-world literature.
  • “We have, instead, a binary opposition of what Jameson calls the ‘first’ and the ‘third’ worlds.”
• Rejection of the Concept of ‘Third-World Literature’:
• Ahmad argues against the notion of a singular “third-world literature,” seeing it as a problematic reduction of the complexities of varied literary traditions.
  • “There is no such thing as a ‘third-world literature’ which can be constructed as an internally coherent object of theoretical knowledge.”
• Questioning ‘National Allegory’:
• Jameson’s claim that all third-world texts are national allegories is challenged by Ahmad as an oversimplification of the diversity within third-world literature.
  • “Jameson defines the so-called third world in terms of its ‘experience of colonialism and imperialism,’” leading to his idea that “all third-world texts are necessarily… national allegories.”
• Cultural and Linguistic Heterogeneity:
• Ahmad emphasizes the vast linguistic and cultural heterogeneity in the third world, criticizing Jameson’s theory for homogenizing this diversity.
  • “The enormous cultural heterogeneity of social formations within the so-called third world is submerged within a singular identity of ‘experience.'”
• Historical and Economic Complexity:
• Ahmad points out that many third-world nations, such as India, have complex capitalist systems that Jameson’s binary framework fails to account for.
  • “India’s steel industry did celebrate its hundredth anniversary a few years ago, and the top eight of her multinational corporations are among the fastest growing in the world.”
• Impact of Colonialism vs. Internal Social Conflicts:
• Ahmad highlights that many literary texts from the third world do not center around the colonial experience, but rather focus on internal social conflicts and class struggles.
  • “The barbarity of feudal landowners, the rapes and murders in the houses of religious ‘mystics’… are the dominant themes in many novels, not colonialism.”
• Criticism of Western Canonization and Representation:
• Ahmad criticizes how certain third-world authors, such as Salman Rushdie, are valorized beyond measure due to their writing in English, representing an entire civilization rather than being appreciated for their individuality.
  • “The retribution visited upon the head of an Asian, an African, an Arab intellectual who writes in English is that he/she is immediately elevated to the lonely splendor of a ‘representative’… of a race, a continent, a civilization.”
• Dialectical Materialism vs. Postmodernism:
• Ahmad contrasts Jameson’s rigid, binary Marxist framework with a more flexible understanding of global capitalism, emphasizing the fluidity and contradictions within capitalist and socialist systems.
  • “The world is united… by the global operation of a single mode of production, namely the capitalist one, and the global resistance to this mode.”
• Multiplicity of Determinations:
• Ahmad argues that literary texts cannot be reduced to a single ideological determination (such as nationalism) but are products of multiple, complex determinations.
  • “Literary texts are produced in highly differentiated, usually very over-determined contexts of competing ideological and cultural clusters.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the “National Allegory” by Aijaz Ahmad

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevance in Ahmad’s Critique
National Allegory	The idea that all third-world texts can be read as allegories of the nation, where personal stories are linked to national experiences.	Ahmad critiques Jameson’s overgeneralization that all third-world texts are national allegories, arguing that many deal with internal social conflicts rather than purely nationalist themes.
Third-World Literature	A body of literature from countries that have experienced colonialism and imperialism, which Jameson claims forms a coherent, unified literary category.	Ahmad rejects the existence of a unified “third-world literature,” emphasizing that the term is too reductive and ignores the diversity within these countries’ literary traditions.
Binary Opposition	A structuralist concept where two opposing ideas (e.g., first-world vs. third-world) are set in contrast to each other.	Ahmad criticizes Jameson for relying on a binary framework that simplifies the complexity of the global literary landscape, particularly by dividing the world into “first” and “third” worlds.
Cognitive Aesthetics	Jameson’s concept for understanding the aesthetics of third-world literature as shaped by the socio-political experiences of colonialism and imperialism.	Ahmad argues that this approach suppresses the multiplicity of voices and literary forms in third-world countries and imposes a homogenized view of these diverse cultures.
Orientalism	A critical concept popularized by Edward Said, referring to the Western depiction and conceptualization of the “East” as fundamentally different, exotic, and backward.	Ahmad compares Jameson’s framework to Orientalist practices, suggesting that his reading of third-world literature replicates earlier Western tendencies to homogenize non-Western cultures.
First World / Third World	Terms used in the Cold War era to classify countries as either capitalist (first world), socialist (second world), or colonized/developing (third world).	Ahmad critiques Jameson’s reliance on these outdated categories, arguing that many so-called third-world countries, like India, have complex capitalist structures that defy such classification.
Civilizational Other	The idea of one group or culture being viewed as the “other” by a dominant culture, emphasizing its difference or inferiority.	Ahmad takes issue with Jameson positioning third-world writers and cultures as the “Other” of Western civilization, which reinforces a problematic division between “us” and “them.”
Dialectical Materialism	A Marxist theory that societal development occurs through the conflict of opposites (thesis and antithesis), leading to change and progress.	Ahmad argues for a more nuanced application of Marxism, suggesting that Jameson’s binary framework overlooks the complex, dialectical interactions within global capitalism.
Hegemony	A concept derived from Gramsci, referring to the dominance of one group over others, especially in terms of ideology and culture.	Ahmad critiques Jameson’s failure to account for the role of hegemonic cultural and class formations within third-world countries, focusing instead on a narrow nationalist narrative.
Over-Determination	A concept from Althusser, indicating that a single event or phenomenon is the result of multiple causes, often used to describe the complexity of societal and literary texts.	Ahmad uses this to argue that literary texts are shaped by multiple, often contradictory, forces and cannot be reduced to a single ideological or cultural determinant, such as nationalism.
Postmodernism	A cultural, intellectual, and artistic movement characterized by skepticism, irony, and the rejection of grand narratives or universal truths.	Ahmad contrasts postmodernism with Jameson’s approach, critiquing his binary focus on nationalism/postmodernism as insufficient to explain the diversity of third-world literary practices.

Contribution of “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the “National Allegory” by Aijaz Ahmad to Literary Theory/Theories

• Critique of Binary Oppositions in Literary Theory:
• Ahmad challenges the use of binary categories (first-world/third-world) in Jameson’s work, arguing that they oversimplify global literary dynamics and ignore internal complexities.
  • “The binary opposition which Jameson constructs between a capitalist first world and a presumably pre- or non-capitalist third world is empirically ungrounded.”
• Rejection of the Concept of a Unified ‘Third-World Literature’:
• Ahmad rejects the notion of a coherent and unified “third-world literature,” emphasizing that it is impossible to theorize such a category given the vast cultural, linguistic, and historical diversity of the countries involved.
  • “I shall argue, therefore, that there is no such thing as a ‘third-world literature’ which can be constructed as an internally coherent object of theoretical knowledge.”
• Interrogation of the ‘National Allegory’ as a Singular Framework:
• Ahmad critiques Jameson’s assertion that all third-world texts are national allegories, stating that this reduces the literary output of diverse cultures to a single narrative form.
  • “To say that all third-world texts are necessarily this or that is to say, in effect, that any text originating within that social space which is not this or that is not a ‘true’ narrative.”
• Promotion of Multiplicity and Over-Determination in Literary Analysis:
• Ahmad advocates for recognizing multiple, complex, and contradictory forces that shape literary texts, rather than reducing them to one overarching framework (e.g., nationalism or colonialism).
  • “Literary texts are produced in highly differentiated, usually very over-determined contexts of competing ideological and cultural clusters.”
• Critique of Western Canon Formation and Representation:
• Ahmad contributes to discussions on how non-Western writers are represented in the Western literary canon, criticizing the selective inclusion of certain third-world writers while ignoring the broader literary traditions they represent.
  • “The representation of this body of work in Jameson’s discourse as simply ‘non-canonical’… does appear to over-state the case considerably.”
• Expansion of Marxist Literary Criticism:
• By critiquing Jameson’s reliance on the Three Worlds Theory, Ahmad pushes for a more nuanced application of Marxist theory, recognizing the complexity and contradictions of global capitalism rather than reducing it to simple binaries.
  • “The world is united… by the global operation of a single mode of production, namely the capitalist one, and the global resistance to this mode.”
• Critique of Essentialism in Literary Theory:
• Ahmad opposes essentialist views that categorize entire regions or cultures under singular literary frameworks, stressing the need to recognize the internal heterogeneity of third-world nations.
  • “The enormous cultural heterogeneity of social formations within the so-called third world is submerged within a singular identity of ‘experience.'”
• Decolonizing the Study of Literature:
• Ahmad’s critique of Jameson’s Eurocentric approach to third-world literature contributes to broader decolonial efforts in literary theory, challenging Western intellectual frameworks that reduce non-Western cultures to mere opposites of the West.
  • “Jameson’s framework tends to homogenize third-world literature much in the same way Orientalist scholarship has historically presented non-Western cultures.”
• Contribution to Global Literary Studies:
• Ahmad’s argument for understanding global literature as part of a unified yet diverse world system challenges the notion of distinct “worlds” and contributes to the field of global literary studies by emphasizing interconnections and contradictions within global capitalism.
  • “One could start with a radically different premise, namely the proposition that we live not in three worlds but in one.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the “National Allegory” by Aijaz Ahmad

Literary Work	Critique Using Ahmad’s Framework	Key Concepts/References from Ahmad’s Article
Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s A Grain of Wheat	Ahmad would critique the tendency to classify all works from third-world countries as “national allegories,” arguing that Ngũgĩ’s exploration of personal and historical struggles cannot be reduced to a simplistic nationalist narrative.	“To say that all third-world texts are necessarily this or that is to say, in effect, that any text originating within that social space which is not this or that is not a ‘true’ narrative.”
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	Ahmad would critique Jameson’s framework if it reduced Achebe’s work to a singular nationalist allegory, ignoring the novel’s exploration of internal conflicts within Igbo society and its complex depiction of colonialism.	“The enormous cultural heterogeneity of social formations within the so-called third world is submerged within a singular identity of ‘experience.'”
Gabriel García Márquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude	Ahmad would argue that while Márquez’s work is often seen as representative of Latin America, such categorizations ignore the regional, historical, and class complexities embedded in the novel, which resist easy categorization as a national allegory.	“There is no such thing as a ‘third-world literature’ which can be constructed as an internally coherent object of theoretical knowledge.”
Buchi Emecheta’s The Joys of Motherhood	Ahmad would critique an interpretation of Emecheta’s work solely as a national allegory, arguing that the novel’s focus on gender, personal struggles, and urbanization within Nigeria challenges the simplistic nationalism/postmodernism binary.	“Nationalism itself is not some unitary thing with some pre-determined essence and value. There are hundreds of nationalisms in Asia and Africa today; some are progressive, others are not.”

Criticism Against “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the “National Allegory” by Aijaz Ahmad

• Overemphasis on Diversity at the Expense of Commonalities: Ahmad’s critique of Jameson’s generalizations might itself downplay the shared historical experiences of colonialism and imperialism that many third-world countries have faced, which could still serve as a useful framework for understanding certain literary trends.
• Insufficient Engagement with Jameson’s Positive Contributions: While Ahmad critiques Jameson’s binary framework, he may overlook the value of Jameson’s attempt to include third-world literature in global literary theory, and his effort to engage with non-Western literary traditions in a serious manner.
• Limited Recognition of Nationalism’s Role in Literature: Ahmad’s rejection of nationalism as a dominant framework may underplay its central role in many third-world countries’ postcolonial identities and literatures. Nationalist themes are significant in shaping much of the literature from decolonizing nations.
• Potential Underestimation of the Importance of Allegory: Ahmad’s dismissal of the “national allegory” concept might ignore the fact that allegorical readings have been historically central to many third-world literatures, especially in postcolonial narratives where personal and national experiences are often intertwined.
• Overemphasis on Language as a Barrier: Ahmad highlights the issue of linguistic diversity, but critics might argue that the emphasis on language overlooks how translated works can still convey essential themes and shared experiences across linguistic boundaries, creating cross-cultural connections.
• Lack of Alternatives to Binary Frameworks: While Ahmad critiques Jameson’s binary opposition of first- and third-worlds, he offers limited alternative frameworks for understanding the global literary landscape, which could leave a theoretical gap in explaining common structures or themes across these literatures.
• Dismissal of Global Theoretical Models: Ahmad’s focus on rejecting Jameson’s framework might be seen as a rejection of broader attempts to theorize global literary movements. This could be seen as resisting efforts to develop universal theoretical models for understanding literature in a globalized world.

Representative Quotations from “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the “National Allegory” by Aijaz Ahmad with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“There is no such thing as a ‘third-world literature’ which can be constructed as an internally coherent object of theoretical knowledge.”	Ahmad challenges the idea of a unified third-world literature, arguing that the diversity of cultural, historical, and social contexts within these countries makes such a categorization overly simplistic.
“All third-world texts are necessarily… to be read as… national allegories.”	This quotation reflects Jameson’s assertion, which Ahmad critiques, that all third-world texts must be read as national allegories. Ahmad finds this reductionist and problematic given the diversity of these texts.
“The enormous cultural heterogeneity of social formations within the so-called third world is submerged within a singular identity of ‘experience.'”	Ahmad criticizes Jameson for collapsing the vast cultural and social differences in the third world into a single narrative of shared colonial experience, overlooking internal complexities.
“What constitutes the unity of the world is the global operation of the capitalist mode of production and the resistance to that mode.”	Ahmad argues that the world’s unity is not based on binary oppositions (like first and third world) but on the global spread of capitalism and the resistance to it, which transcends national boundaries.
“To say that all third-world texts are necessarily this or that is to say, in effect, that any text originating within that social space which is not this or that is not a ‘true’ narrative.”	Ahmad critiques Jameson’s blanket categorization of third-world texts, arguing that it excludes diverse narratives and forms that do not fit the ‘national allegory’ model.
“Jameson’s framework tends to homogenize third-world literature much in the same way Orientalist scholarship has historically presented non-Western cultures.”	Ahmad draws a parallel between Jameson’s generalizations and Orientalist practices, which also homogenized and misrepresented the complexities of non-Western societies.
“The notion of a third-world culture based exclusively upon ‘the experience of colonialism and imperialism’ is a vast oversimplification.”	Ahmad critiques Jameson for reducing third-world cultures to a singular experience of colonialism, ignoring other social, political, and cultural factors that shape these literatures.
“Nationalism itself is not some unitary thing with some pre-determined essence and value. There are hundreds of nationalisms in Asia and Africa today; some are progressive, others are not.”	Ahmad critiques the idea that nationalism in the third world is a monolithic ideology. He emphasizes that nationalisms are diverse, with varying political implications and outcomes.
“Literary texts are produced in highly differentiated, usually very over-determined contexts of competing ideological and cultural clusters.”	Ahmad argues for recognizing the complex, multi-layered contexts in which literature is produced, rejecting Jameson’s reduction of third-world texts to a single ideological framework.
“The world is united… by the global operation of a single mode of production, namely the capitalist one, and the global resistance to this mode.”	Ahmad expands the theoretical scope to argue that the unity of the world comes not from binary divisions like first and third worlds but from the global spread of capitalism and the varied resistance to it.

Suggested Readings: “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the “National Allegory” by Aijaz Ahmad

1. Ahmad, Aijaz. “Jameson’s Rhetoric of Otherness and the ‘National Allegory.'” Social Text, no. 17, 1987, pp. 3-25. Duke University Press, www.jstor.org/stable/466475.
2. Jameson, Fredric. “Third-World Literature in the Era of Multinational Capitalism.” Social Text, no. 15, 1986, pp. 65-88. Duke University Press, www.jstor.org/stable/466493
3. Ahmad, Aijaz. In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. Verso, 1992. www.versobooks.com/books/688-in-theory.
4. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994. www.routledge.com/The-Location-of-Culture/Bhabha/p/book/9780415336390.
5. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978. www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/174665/orientalism-by-edward-w-said/.
6. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard University Press, 1999. www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674177642.
7. Lazarus, Neil. “Fredric Jameson on ‘Third-World Literature’: A Qualified Defence.” Postcolonial Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, 1998, pp. 7-26. www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13688799889930.
8. Mufti, Aamir R. “Auerbach in Istanbul: Edward Said, Secular Criticism, and the Question of Minority Culture.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 25, no. 1, 1998, pp. 95-125. www.jstor.org/stable/1344165.
9. Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. Columbia University Press, 1998. www.cup.columbia.edu/book/postcolonial-theory/9780231112770.
10. Boelhower, William. “The Rise of the New Atlantic Studies Matrix.” American Literary History, vol. 20, no. 1-2, 2008, pp. 83-101. www.jstor.org/stable/20492210.

Introduction: “Fascism and National Culture: Reading Gramsci in the Days of Hindutva” by Aijaz Ahmad

“Fascism and National Culture: Reading Gramsci in the Days of Hindutva” by Aijaz Ahmad first appeared in 1993 in the journal Social Scientist. This essay holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its insightful analysis of the relationship between fascism, national culture, and the rise of Hindutva in India. Ahmad utilizes Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony to examine how Hindutva ideology seeks to dominate the cultural sphere and construct a national identity that marginalizes and excludes minority groups. The essay’s critical perspective and its exploration of the complexities of cultural politics continue to be relevant and influential in contemporary literary and cultural studies.

Summary of “Fascism and National Culture: Reading Gramsci in the Days of Hindutva” by Aijaz Ahmad

• Gramsci and Indian Context: Aijaz Ahmad draws parallels between the fascist tendencies in Italy during Gramsci’s time and contemporary India under the rise of Hindutva. He argues that reflections on fascism in Europe can help understand similar trends in India (Ahmad, p.32).
• The Role of Language and Culture in Nationalism: Ahmad highlights how both Italy and India share historical parallels regarding language and culture. In Italy, Latin and later Italian were symbols of privilege, while in India, Sanskrit played a similar role in perpetuating Brahminical dominance. The classical languages became tools for hierarchical structures, contributing to cultural fragmentation (Ahmad, pp.34-35).
• Failure of Italian Renaissance and Risorgimento: Ahmad discusses Gramsci’s analysis of Italy’s failure to create a secular, national culture during the Renaissance and the Risorgimento. These periods could not integrate the peasantry or foster a national-popular dynamic, which led to Italy’s susceptibility to fascism. This failure mirrors India’s struggles with regionalism and caste-based hierarchies (Ahmad, pp.35-37).
• Fascism as a Mass Movement: Fascism is seen not merely as a reactionary elite conspiracy but as a movement that mobilizes various social strata. Gramsci viewed fascism in Italy as addressing the structural crises of Italian capitalism, drawing support from diverse groups, including the capitalist class and petty bourgeoisie. Similarly, Hindutva mobilizes mass consent by appealing to national traditions, invoking myths of a unified past (Ahmad, pp.39-40).
• The Role of Intellectuals and the Church: Gramsci and Ahmad critique the role of intellectuals in supporting reactionary structures. In Italy, the Vatican played a crucial role in maintaining conservative hegemony, just as traditional intellectuals in India propagate a Brahminical order under the guise of preserving culture (Ahmad, pp.40-42).
• The ‘National-Popular’ and the Peasantry: Gramsci’s notion of the “national-popular” is central to his theory of revolution. A lack of alignment between intellectuals and the peasantry in Italy hindered the formation of a national-popular movement. Ahmad connects this to India’s failure to integrate various regional and caste-based identities into a unified national culture (Ahmad, pp.44-45).
• Comparisons with Hindutva: Ahmad warns of the parallels between Italian fascism and Hindutva, particularly how both movements use cultural revivalism and religious symbolism to garner mass support. He emphasizes that Hindutva, much like Italian fascism, builds on a mythic notion of national unity while marginalizing dissenting voices (Ahmad, pp.48-50).
• The Role of Economic Crises in Fascism: Gramsci and Ahmad note that economic crises do not directly produce revolutions or fascism but create fertile ground for specific ideological movements to gain traction. In India, the economic policies of liberalization have created discontent among the rural and urban petty bourgeoisie, which could be exploited by fascist forces (Ahmad, p.56).
• Importance of Collective Intellectual Agency: Gramsci’s call for a “collective intellectual” to lead the counter-hegemony against fascism resonates with Ahmad’s argument that the struggle against Hindutva requires a broad-based, organized intellectual and moral reform. This reform must address both economic and cultural issues (Ahmad, p.65).

References from the Article

• “The paradox of Italian history is that, for all the antiquity of its civilization, it never became a unified political entity until the late nineteenth century.” (Ahmad, p.35).
• “The language of classicism and imperial rule, Latin, was succeeded by Italian, which became the language of privilege, but barely two and a half percent of Italians spoke it.” (Ahmad, p.34).
• “Gramsci’s analysis of the failure of the Renaissance and Risorgimento highlights the failure of these movements to unify Italy politically or culturally.” (Ahmad, p.35).
• “Fascism mobilized diverse strata in Italy, addressing the structural crises of capitalism and drawing support from sectors that were not originally fascist in outlook.” (Ahmad, p.39).
• “The intellectual stratum in Italy, as in India, has often been complicit in preserving traditional structures of privilege, using classical languages and religious institutions to maintain social hierarchies.” (Ahmad, p.41).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Fascism and National Culture: Reading Gramsci in the Days of Hindutva” by Aijaz Ahmad

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Usage in the Text
Hegemony	Leadership or dominance, particularly of one social group or nation over others.	Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony is central, referring to how ruling classes maintain power by dominating ideologies and creating consensus among the masses.
Passive Revolution	A Gramscian term for gradual, non-revolutionary change through reforms imposed from above.	Ahmad uses this concept to describe how fascism in Italy and Hindutva in India mobilize different social strata to resolve crises without direct proletarian revolution.
National-Popular	The unification of cultural identity and political power that reflects the will of the people.	Gramsci’s idea of national-popular movements is applied to how popular consent is built through cultural narratives, particularly in Italy and India’s nationalist movements.
Cosmopolitanism	The ideology that all human beings belong to a single community based on shared morality or culture.	Gramsci’s criticism of Italian intellectuals’ detachment from the masses, rooted in their cosmopolitanism, is likened to the distance between India’s elite and common people.
Romanticism	A movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and the glorification of the past.	Ahmad contrasts Italy’s lack of a revolutionary Romanticism with the fascist nostalgia for classical Italy, paralleling it with India’s Hindutva revivalist tendencies.
Intellectuals	Gramsci’s term for those who produce and distribute ideology and maintain cultural and political order.	Ahmad highlights the role of traditional intellectuals in preserving cultural elitism, both in Italy’s fascist past and in modern India’s Brahminical revivalism.
Subaltern	A term used to denote populations that are socially, politically, and geographically outside of power.	Ahmad critiques the “subaltern” studies’ misinterpretation of Gramsci, pointing out the limitations of using the term without recognizing class structures and hegemony.
Restoration-Revolution	A term to describe a revolution that reinstates old power structures or elites in modified forms.	Ahmad applies this to the Italian Risorgimento and India’s post-colonial situation, arguing both were incomplete revolutions that failed to displace entrenched elites.
Cultural Chauvinism	Excessive or prejudiced loyalty to one’s own culture.	Ahmad uses this to describe how Hindutva invokes an exaggerated sense of cultural and religious superiority, similar to fascism’s use of Italy’s imperial past.
Historical Materialism	A Marxist theory focusing on material conditions as the foundation of society and historical development.	Though not overtly used, Ahmad’s analysis is grounded in historical materialism, analyzing how economic and social structures influence the rise of fascism in Italy and India.

Contribution of “Fascism and National Culture: Reading Gramsci in the Days of Hindutva” by Aijaz Ahmad to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Fascism and National Culture: Reading Gramsci in the Days of Hindutva” by Aijaz Ahmad

Literary Work	Critique through Ahmad’s Lens	Relevant Themes from Ahmad
1. E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India	Ahmad might critique the novel’s depiction of the British Raj and its view of Indian culture as a monolithic entity, emphasizing how the colonial narrative shapes the representation of national identity.	Colonialism and Nationalism: Ahmad’s discussion of cultural nationalism critiques how colonial powers shape the idea of a unified national identity, as seen in the novel’s oversimplification of Indian culture.
2. Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things	Ahmad would critique Roy’s portrayal of caste, social inequalities, and the political landscape in postcolonial India. He would emphasize how the novel exposes the failures of Indian nationalism to address deeply entrenched caste and class structures, which fascist movements exploit.	Hegemony and Subalternity: Ahmad’s analysis would focus on the power dynamics within Indian society, exploring how cultural and political hegemony shapes social oppression, particularly in relation to caste.
3. Rabindranath Tagore’s Gitanjali	Ahmad may critique Tagore’s spiritual nationalism for its potential alignment with elite cultural hegemony. Tagore’s universalist themes could be seen as an abstraction that neglects the material conditions and contradictions within Indian society, which fascist movements often exploit.	Hegemony and Culture: Ahmad’s Gramscian analysis of cultural hegemony would question how Tagore’s spiritual nationalism may have been co-opted by cultural elites, aligning with fascist cultural ideals.
4. V.S. Naipaul’s India: A Wounded Civilization	Ahmad could critique Naipaul’s depiction of Indian culture as stagnant and regressive, reinforcing orientalist stereotypes. He would likely argue that Naipaul’s narrative aligns with colonialist and reactionary views of Indian society, echoing the kind of intellectual discourse that Hindutva seeks to perpetuate.	Intellectuals and Fascism: Ahmad highlights the role of traditional intellectuals in perpetuating cultural myths and stereotypes, something Naipaul’s work inadvertently supports by portraying Indian culture as “wounded” and backward.

Criticism Against “Fascism and National Culture: Reading Gramsci in the Days of Hindutva” by Aijaz Ahmad

• Overemphasis on Historical Parallels: Critics argue that Ahmad places too much emphasis on historical parallels between Italian fascism and the contemporary Hindutva movement, which may overlook unique aspects of Indian culture, politics, and social dynamics.
• Neglect of Postcolonial Complexity: Ahmad’s focus on Gramsci’s theories may sideline the complex realities of postcolonial India, reducing nuanced political, social, and cultural dynamics to overly broad theoretical frameworks that may not fully capture India’s post-independence challenges.
• Class-Centric Analysis: The strong focus on class struggle, typical of Gramsci’s Marxism, might lead Ahmad to underplay other critical factors such as religious, regional, or ethnic divisions that are equally significant in India, especially in the context of Hindutva’s rise.
• Limited Engagement with Caste: While Ahmad draws on Marxist concepts, his analysis has been critiqued for not fully integrating the caste system’s unique role in shaping India’s socio-political fabric, which often intersects with class but operates independently in many aspects of Indian life.
• Inflexible Application of European Theories: Some critics argue that Ahmad’s use of Gramscian theory may be too rigidly European and doesn’t fully adapt to India’s specific historical, social, and cultural context, resulting in a somewhat forced comparison between Italian fascism and Indian political movements.
• Underrepresentation of Cultural Nationalism’s Positive Aspects: Ahmad’s critical take on cultural nationalism through a Gramscian lens may be seen as overly dismissive of how cultural nationalism has positively contributed to anti-colonial and democratic movements in India, including Gandhian and Nehruvian efforts.
• Dismissal of Alternative Intellectual Approaches: Ahmad’s strict Marxist critique may undervalue other intellectual traditions and critical approaches to understanding the rise of Hindutva, such as subaltern studies or postcolonial theory, which may provide alternative insights into India’s contemporary politics.

Representative Quotations from “Fascism and National Culture: Reading Gramsci in the Days of Hindutva” by Aijaz Ahmad with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Gramsci’s reflections upon Italian history offer us rich analogues for reflecting upon our own.”	Ahmad draws a parallel between Gramsci’s analysis of Italian fascism and the rise of Hindutva in India, using Gramsci’s historical analysis as a framework for understanding the dangers of cultural nationalism and authoritarianism in India.
“Fascism is not merely a factional pathology that occupies its own discrete space…”	Ahmad emphasizes that fascism is not an isolated issue but a product of deep-rooted societal and historical forces, drawing on Gramsci’s insight that fascism grows out of specific social and economic conditions.
“In the present conditions, is it not precisely the fascist movement which in fact corresponds to the movement of moderate and conservative liberalism in the last century?”	This quotation links the rise of fascist movements to the failures of moderate liberalism, suggesting that when liberal democratic structures fail to meet the needs of the masses, fascist ideologies can fill the void.
“The relationship between the North and South in India bears, mercifully, no resemblance to the virtually colonial relationship between Northern and Southern Italy.”	Ahmad compares the regional economic disparities in Italy during Gramsci’s time with India, recognizing differences but also highlighting how economic inequalities and regional imbalances fuel fascist tendencies.
“Fascism, in other words, has two faces. On the one hand, it engages the whole nation in a massive social upheaval in the ideological-cultural domain…”	Ahmad explains how fascism operates on two levels—cultural and economic—mobilizing the nation with cultural narratives while making economic changes that benefit a ruling elite, in this case comparing Hindutva with fascist movements.
“The historical uniqueness of Italy as hereditary descendant of the Roman Empire… fundamentally disrupted the incipient national spirit…”	Ahmad refers to Gramsci’s historical analysis of how Italy’s Roman past burdened the formation of a cohesive national identity, drawing a parallel to how India’s ancient cultural legacy is invoked by Hindutva to shape modern nationalist ideologies.
“In our case, a revolution against foreign rulers but also an immeasurably powerful ‘restoration’ of the rule of the indigenous propertied classes as well.”	Ahmad critiques the Indian nationalist movement, arguing that while it succeeded in ousting colonial rulers, it ultimately restored power to the indigenous elite, failing to deliver a true social and economic revolution for the masses.
“The vernaculars had to wage many of their cultural struggles against Sanskrit and against that Brahminical classicism…”	Ahmad points out how the dominance of classical languages like Sanskrit parallels the cultural dominance of the elite, suggesting that the same kind of linguistic dominance underpins cultural hegemony in contemporary nationalist movements.
“What is important from the political and ideological point of view is that it is capable of creating—and indeed does create—a period of expectation and hope…”	Ahmad reflects on how fascist movements, including Hindutva, create a sense of hope and nationalism for the masses while serving elite interests, making them attractive despite their regressive agendas.
“History does not, in other words, lead automatically to Reason, Progress, Socialism; it may, and often does, equally well lead to mass irrationality and barbarism.”	This quotation captures Ahmad’s critique of deterministic views of history. He warns that without conscious struggle, history can lead to regression, as evidenced by the rise of Hindutva, which he sees as a form of mass irrationality and barbarism.

Suggested Readings: “Fascism and National Culture: Reading Gramsci in the Days of Hindutva” by Aijaz Ahmad

1. Ahmad, Aijaz. In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures. Verso, 1992.
2. Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited and translated by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith, International Publishers, 1971.
3. Anderson, Perry. The Antinomies of Antonio Gramsci. Verso, 1976.
4. Bose, Sumantra. Secular States, Religious Politics: India, Turkey, and the Future of Secularism. Cambridge University Press, 2018.
5. Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton University Press, 1993.
6. Menon, Nivedita. Seeing Like a Feminist. Zubaan Books, 2012.
7. Sarkar, Sumit. Beyond Nationalist Frames: Postmodernism, Hindu Fundamentalism, History. Indiana University Press, 2002.
8. Vanaik, Achin. The Rise of Hindu Authoritarianism: Secular Claims, Communal Realities. Verso, 2017.
9. Bhatt, Chetan. Hindu Nationalism: Origins, Ideologies, and Modern Myths. Berg, 2001.

Introduction: “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

“The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi, and Sanjay Seth first appeared in 1999 in the journal Postcolonial Studies. This seminal piece has been instrumental in shaping the field of postcolonial studies, providing a comprehensive overview of key concepts and methodologies. Its significance in literature and literary theory lies in its ability to offer a framework for analyzing and understanding the complex legacies of colonialism and imperialism, particularly as they manifest in literary texts.

Summary of “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

• Postcolonialism and Epistemological Disenchantment: The article begins by discussing the influence of Edward Said’s Orientalism on postcolonial studies, noting how it introduced a critical view of knowledge systems as inherently impure and corruptible. This disillusionment, inherited by the New Humanities, reflects a fall from a mythic past when knowledge was seen as pure and ethical. Postcolonialism, similarly, acknowledges a nostalgic desire for precolonial purity that remains unattainable.
• The Competing Desires for Emptiness: Postcolonialism reveals a dual yearning for purity on both sides of the colonial divide. The Western canon is represented by figures like Harold Bloom, who long for an “unpoliticized” past, while thinkers like Ashis Nandy express a desire for the “precolonial” purity. However, postcolonialism acknowledges that such purity is unattainable after colonialism, with only competing desires for competing voids.
• Art as a Metaphor for the Postcolonial Void: The authors use art as a metaphor to explore the notion of emptiness in postcolonial thought. They compare Alexander Archipenko’s sculpture Woman Combing Her Hair with Zhang Hongtu’s “black hole” art, both of which attempt to illustrate the impossibility of absolute emptiness. In Zhang’s work, the absence of Chairman Mao represents the lingering presence of the colonial past, which continues to haunt postcolonial societies.
• Localized Postcolonialism: The article emphasizes the importance of local contexts in postcolonial thought, arguing that attempts to globalize postcolonialism would result in epistemic violence. Instead, postcolonialism must be understood as a series of “family resemblances,” with distinct manifestations depending on geography, politics, and local intellectual traditions. This approach highlights the limitations of Western academic frameworks in interpreting non-Western postcolonial experiences.
• Critiques of Postcolonialism: The authors address critiques of postcolonialism by scholars like Arif Dirlik and H. D. Harootunian. Dirlik argues that postcolonialism has strayed from its radical roots, prioritizing ethnicity and race over class and nationalism, sometimes reinforcing essentialist notions. Harootunian criticizes postcolonialism for failing to challenge area studies, a domain rooted in Orientalist frameworks, and instead becoming overly focused on literary studies, losing sight of material power structures.
• The Role of Marxism in Postcolonialism: Despite these critiques, the authors defend the continued relevance of Marxism in postcolonial studies. They argue that postcolonialism’s associations with Marxism are crucial for addressing the material underpinnings of colonialism and its aftermath, particularly in engaging with the subaltern and colonized populations.
• Postcolonialism as a Toolbox: The article concludes by rejecting the idea of postcolonialism as a grand theory or unified framework. Instead, postcolonialism should be seen as a “toolbox” of provisional strategies and concepts that vary based on disciplinary and local contexts. This metaphor highlights the adaptability and fluidity of postcolonial approaches in addressing different cultural and intellectual terrains.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in the Article
Orientalism	A term coined by Edward Said referring to the Western tradition of stereotyping and dominating the East.	Used to discuss the impurities in Western knowledge systems and the corruptibility of knowledge as exemplified by Said.
Epistemic Violence	The harm caused by imposing one system of knowledge over another, leading to the marginalization of non-Western knowledge.	Referenced in the discussion about the dangers of attempting to unify global postcolonialism under Western frameworks.
Post-Lapsarian View	Refers to the fall from a state of innocence, here applied to the disillusionment with pure knowledge after recognizing its corruptibility.	Describes the New Humanities’ disillusionment with knowledge systems after poststructuralist critiques.
Nostalgia for Purity	A longing for a mythic past when knowledge or cultural conditions were perceived to be pure and untainted by colonialism or modernity.	Seen on both sides of the colonial divide, with Western figures longing for canonical purity and others for precolonial purity.
Subaltern	A term from Marxist and postcolonial theory, referring to populations outside of power structures, often marginalized by dominant cultures.	Used to discuss the relevance of Marxism in postcolonial studies and its focus on the material conditions of the colonized.
Void/Emptiness	The concept of an unattainable “empty space” or absence, symbolizing the loss or impossibility of pure postcolonial identity or knowledge.	Illustrated through artworks by Archipenko and Zhang, which both explore the void in the context of colonial and postcolonial space.
Area Studies	An academic discipline focused on studying specific geographical or cultural regions, often critiqued for its Orientalist roots.	Critiqued for perpetuating Western epistemological frameworks and not being redefined by postcolonialism, as suggested by Harootunian.
Family Resemblances	A Wittgensteinian concept referring to the similarities between different entities without a single unifying characteristic.	Applied to postcolonialism, suggesting that it should be understood as a set of related but diverse approaches.
Marxism	A socio-economic theory that focuses on class struggle and material conditions, central to critiques of capitalism and colonialism.	Defended by the authors as still relevant to postcolonial studies, particularly in its focus on material conditions.
Translation (Benjamin’s Theory)	Walter Benjamin’s idea that translation should extend the boundaries of the host language by introducing the foreignness of the original text.	Used as a metaphor for postcolonialism, advocating for the disruption of smooth transitions into Western epistemology.
Free-floating Signifier	A term from structuralism and post-structuralism, referring to a concept or term that has lost its specific meaning and becomes detached from its original context.	Critique of postcolonialism’s overuse and loss of focus, as argued by Arif Dirlik.
Chronological Marker	A way to signify a period or time frame, often associated with historical or temporal categorization.	Postcolonialism is said to be more than just a chronological marker (after colonialism) and less than a global theory.

Contribution of “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critique of Orientalism and Knowledge Production:
   “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” builds on Edward Said’s Orientalism by deepening the critical examination of knowledge systems within postcolonial discourse. The article engages with Said’s idea of the inherent impurities in Western knowledge, highlighting how postcolonial theory inherited this critical understanding. The authors state, “From theorists like Said, the New Humanities have inherited a critical understanding of the contaminants that inhere within the most pious and exemplary knowledge formations.” This reinforces the importance of questioning how colonialism shaped not only political and economic structures but also knowledge production and academic disciplines.
2. Challenge to Grand Narratives in Postcolonialism:
   The article makes a significant contribution by challenging the idea of postcolonialism as a unified or global theory. It argues against the imposition of a singular postcolonial framework, particularly one that emerges from Western academic traditions. The authors suggest that to attempt this would “entail a form of epistemic violence,” as different regions and cultures experience colonialism and postcolonialism in diverse ways. They assert that postcolonialism should instead be seen as “a mere set of provisional strategies, protocols and concepts, which arise out of a certain recognition of, and approach to, difference.” This view aligns with postmodern critiques of grand narratives, emphasizing localized and context-specific interpretations.
3. Postcolonialism as a Critique of Western Epistemology:
   Another theoretical contribution of the article is its critique of Western epistemology through the lens of postcolonialism. The authors argue that the study of non-Western societies using Western intellectual categories is problematic. They claim that “the study of the non-West in terms of intellectual categories and protocols that have their origins in the West and its history is not an unproblematic exercise.” This critique aligns with poststructuralist theories that question the universal applicability of Western categories of knowledge and emphasizes the need for epistemological pluralism in literary and cultural studies.
4. Family Resemblances and Wittgensteinian Approach to Postcolonialism:
   The article introduces the concept of family resemblances from Ludwig Wittgenstein’s philosophy as a way to describe the heterogeneous and plural nature of postcolonial theory. The authors state, “perhaps the only way to deal with such dissonance is to speak of postcolonialism as a series of ‘family resemblances.’” This contribution offers a new framework for understanding postcolonialism not as a monolithic theory, but as a collection of overlapping but distinct approaches. This aligns with poststructuralist and deconstructionist critiques that resist fixed meanings and advocate for fluid, context-dependent interpretations in literary theory.
5. The Role of Marxism in Postcolonial Studies:
   The article affirms the continued relevance of Marxism to postcolonial studies, especially in addressing material conditions. The authors argue that “postcolonialism’s associations with Marxism were not accidental, and that they neither can nor should be transcended.” They suggest that Marxism remains crucial for engaging with the colonized and subaltern, as it offers tools for analyzing the material underpinnings of colonialism and its aftermath. This contribution reinforces the role of Marxist theory in critiquing the economic and material dimensions of imperialism, which remains an essential aspect of postcolonial studies.
6. Intersection of Art and Postcolonialism:
   The article extends postcolonial theory by exploring its intersection with art, particularly in discussions of emptiness and void. The analysis of artworks by Alexander Archipenko and Zhang Hongtu reveals how postcolonial theory can be applied to visual forms, offering new insights into the representation of colonial and postcolonial spaces. The authors argue that “even the most evacuated of spaces… will take the shape of the desire that calls them into being.” This contribution suggests that postcolonialism is not limited to textual analysis but can also inform the critique of visual and spatial forms in postcolonial contexts.
7. Critique of Area Studies through Postcolonialism:
   The article critically engages with area studies, a field traditionally rooted in Orientalist frameworks, and argues that postcolonialism missed an opportunity to redefine it. The authors cite Harootunian’s criticism, noting that “postcolonialism found a home… in English departments… [and] lost sight of the material dimension to power.” This critique contributes to the broader theoretical discussion on the relationship between postcolonialism and area studies, suggesting that postcolonialism could have reformed area studies by offering new methodologies and epistemologies that reject Orientalist assumptions.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

Literary Work	Critique Through “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism”	Key Concept from the Article
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness	Through the postcolonial lens offered in the article, Heart of Darkness can be critiqued for its portrayal of African spaces as “void” or empty, where the native population is dehumanized and seen as part of the landscape rather than as individuals. This mirrors the article’s discussion of the “desire for uncharted/ unoccupied ‘empty space,’” which is a colonial impulse that erases native subjectivity in favor of Western exploration and domination.	Void/Emptiness: The colonial impulse to view space as empty.
E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India	The portrayal of British colonial figures in A Passage to India reflects the “epistemic violence” discussed in the article, where Western knowledge and authority over Indian subjects are justified by an assumed superiority. The novel’s tension between the colonizer and colonized demonstrates the impossibility of a pure, unpoliticized interaction. The article’s critique of the purity of knowledge in colonial relationships can be applied to the dynamics in the novel.	Epistemic Violence: Imposing Western frameworks on the colonized.
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	Using the article’s critique, Achebe’s Things Fall Apart can be read as a response to the Western canon’s erasure of African subjectivity. Postcolonialism, as discussed, rejects the “purity” of colonial knowledge. Achebe’s work embodies the critical toolset of postcolonialism, showing how colonial knowledge systems violently disrupt indigenous culture and knowledge. The novel also engages with the nostalgia for a precolonial purity, which remains unattainable after colonialism.	Nostalgia for Purity: Longing for a precolonial cultural purity.
Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea	In Wide Sargasso Sea, Rhys challenges the Western portrayal of the “Other” by giving voice to the colonized (Antoinette) and critiquing the imperial gaze found in works like Jane Eyre. This aligns with the article’s view that postcolonial theory should “unsettle critical categories” derived from Western epistemologies. Rhys destabilizes Western notions of race, identity, and mental illness by presenting the colonial encounter from the perspective of the marginalized.	Unsettling Critical Categories: Critiquing Western knowledge systems.

Criticism Against “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

• Lack of Practical Solutions for Postcolonial Contexts:
  While the article offers a strong theoretical critique of postcolonialism, it does not provide clear practical steps or strategies for how scholars can effectively address the challenges of colonial legacies in concrete social, political, or academic contexts.
• Overemphasis on Western Academic Critique:
  The article focuses heavily on critiquing Western academic frameworks but does not adequately address how non-Western intellectual traditions could be integrated into postcolonial theory in a way that is substantive and transformative.
• Fragmentation of Postcolonial Theory:
  The authors argue for a view of postcolonialism as a “toolbox” with localized applications, which may lead to a fragmentation of the field. This approach could dilute the coherence of postcolonial studies, making it harder for scholars to identify common ground or shared objectives within the discipline.
• Insufficient Engagement with Non-Literary Postcolonial Disciplines:
  Although the article critiques the dominance of literary studies in postcolonialism, it does not provide enough engagement with non-literary disciplines such as anthropology, sociology, or history, where postcolonial theory could have broader applications.
• Theoretical Elitism:
  The dense and highly theoretical language of the article may alienate readers who are not deeply versed in poststructuralist or deconstructionist theory. This limits accessibility, particularly for scholars or practitioners working in postcolonial contexts outside of elite academic circles.
• Nostalgic Overtones in Postcolonial Critique:
  The article critiques both colonial and precolonial nostalgia but does not fully explore how contemporary postcolonial thinkers can move beyond this nostalgia in a constructive manner, leaving readers without a forward-looking framework for postcolonial studies.
• Minimal Attention to the Role of Globalization:
  While the article critiques the idea of a globalized postcolonialism, it does not sufficiently address how globalization and modern transnational dynamics shape contemporary postcolonial conditions, particularly in economic and cultural terms.

Representative Quotations from “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“From theorists like Said, the New Humanities have inherited a critical understanding of the contaminants that inhere within the most pious and exemplary knowledge formations.”	This refers to how postcolonial theory, building on Edward Said’s critique of Orientalism, recognizes that no knowledge system is pure or neutral. It reflects the idea that knowledge is often contaminated by colonial and imperial biases.
“To tie the disparate strands of postcolonialism into a single unified entity, paradigm or ‘thing’ would not only entail a form of epistemic violence but… be nigh on impossible.”	The authors argue that postcolonialism cannot be reduced to a single theory or framework because doing so would erase the complexity of different postcolonial contexts. Attempting to unify it could result in a form of intellectual domination.
“Postcolonialism is also compelled to concede that after colonialism there is no real hope of a disciplinary purity or a secular western/non-western nothingness.”	This quotation reflects the idea that postcolonialism acknowledges that there is no return to a precolonial purity. Both Western and non-Western knowledge systems have been altered by colonialism, leaving behind a permanent impact.
“Even the most evacuated of spaces… will take the shape of the desire that calls them into being.”	This metaphor, drawn from the discussion of art, suggests that even seemingly empty spaces are shaped by the cultural and political desires of those who define them. It relates to how colonialism frames non-Western spaces as “empty” or devoid.
“There are, in the end, only competing desires for competing voids, each marked by a culturally different/specific failure to realize the dream of emptiness.”	This highlights how postcolonial theory exposes the impossibility of returning to a pure or empty space. Both colonial and anti-colonial desires are marked by the failure to reclaim an imagined past or untouched identity.
“Postcolonialism increasingly functions as ‘a free floating signifier,’ all too often devoid of content, or repackaging knowledge under a newer, sexier label.”	This quotation critiques the growing trend of using postcolonialism as a fashionable term in academia without substance, where it loses its original radical political and intellectual force, becoming detached from its core principles.
“We must look less for meaning and more for use in any definition of the various postcolonialisms around the globe.”	The authors advocate for focusing on how postcolonialism is applied in different contexts rather than trying to define a universal meaning. This reflects a pragmatic approach to understanding postcolonial theory in specific local conditions.
“The study of the non-West in terms of intellectual categories and protocols that have their origins in the West and its history is not an unproblematic exercise.”	This critique suggests that using Western intellectual frameworks to study non-Western societies can perpetuate colonial biases. It points to the need for new methods that account for non-Western epistemologies and experiences.
“Postcolonialism must aim to be something more than a chronological marker (after colonialism) and something less than a global or grand theory.”	This highlights the authors’ view that postcolonialism should not just be seen as a historical period or a grand overarching theory. Instead, it should function as a toolkit for analyzing specific postcolonial situations and contexts.
“Marxism will always be a source of questions and strategies, a salutary means of remembering the material underpinnings of colonialism and its aftermath.”	The authors reaffirm the relevance of Marxism in postcolonial studies, particularly for understanding the economic and material conditions of colonialism. This links postcolonial theory to broader critiques of capitalism and class exploitation.

Suggested Readings: “The Toolbox of Postcolonialism” by Michael Dutton, Leela Gandhi & Sanjay Seth

• Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978. https://archive.org/details/orientalism00said
• Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
  https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203820551
• Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, University of Illinois Press, 1988.
  https://www.mcgill.ca/files/crclaw-discourse/Can_the_subaltern_speak.pdf
• Dirlik, Arif. “The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 20, no. 2, 1994, pp. 328-356.
  https://www.jstor.org/stable/1343914
• Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction.
  Blackwell, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118693940
• Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. 3rd ed., Routledge, 2015.
  URL: https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315751245
• Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction.
  Columbia University Press, 1998. https://www.perlego.com/book/775805/postcolonial-theory-a-critical-introduction-pdf
• Said, Edward W. “Traveling Theory.” The World, the Text, and the Critic, Harvard University Press, 1983. https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674366807.c16
• Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2002. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203426081
• Chakrabarty, Dipesh. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton University Press, 2000. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691130019/provincializing-europe

Introduction: “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

“Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi, first published in 2008 in the journal Interventions, is a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory. Gandhi’s essay explores the concept of non-violence through a literary lens, examining various texts and cultural practices that embody and promote this philosophy. By analyzing works from diverse traditions, Gandhi offers a nuanced and comprehensive understanding of non-violence as a complex and multifaceted force. Her essay challenges conventional notions of non-violence, demonstrating its potential to inspire social and political change. Gandhi’s work has been influential in shaping contemporary discussions on non-violence, literature, and literary theory, and continues to be a valuable resource for scholars and activists alike.

Summary of “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

Term/Concept	Definition	Significance in the Text
Non-violence	The practice of achieving goals through peaceful means, such as passive resistance or civil disobedience.	Gandhi’s central theme and the focus of his exploration of competing discourses.
Spirit	A metaphysical concept often associated with the soul or essence of a person or thing.	Represents the underlying force driving both Western and non-Western approaches to non-violence.
Ethics	A system of moral principles that guide behavior.	Gandhi’s search for a “modern metaphysics of morals” founded on non-violence.
Metaphysics	The branch of philosophy that deals with the fundamental nature of reality.	The philosophical framework through which Gandhi analyzes the concepts of spirit, non-violence, and ethics.
Subject	The individual or entity that is the focus of study or analysis.	In Gandhi’s work, the subject is often the individual who practices non-violence.
Colonialism	The control of one territory by another, often involving the exploitation of the colonized people.	The historical context in which Gandhi’s ideas of non-violence developed.
Anticolonialism	Resistance to colonialism, often involving political, social, and cultural movements.	A key aspect of Gandhi’s philosophy and activism.
Cosmopolitanism	The idea that people should be able to live together in harmony, regardless of their cultural or national differences.	Gandhi’s approach to non-violence as a transnational concept.
Ahimsa	A Sanskrit term meaning non-violence.	The Hindu principle that Gandhi draws upon in his exploration of non-violence.
Self-mastery	The ability to control one’s thoughts, emotions, and actions.	A key component of Gandhi’s philosophy, as non-violence requires self-discipline and control.

Contribution of “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Work	Critique Through Spirits of Non-Violence by Leela Gandhi	Key Quotations/Concepts from Spirits of Non-Violence
King Lear by William Shakespeare	King Lear reflects themes of spirit and self-division, particularly in the scene where Gloucester “falls” and is metaphorically reborn in spirit. The characters, especially Lear and Gloucester, experience a loss of sovereignty, mirroring Gandhi’s notion of inward non-violence and spiritual awakening.	“Spirit lost to the imperial and capitalist west must not be recovered so much as replaced.”
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Conrad’s portrayal of European imperialism can be critiqued as a spiritual degradation similar to what Gandhi discusses. Kurtz represents the collapse of spirit into materialist exploitation, aligning with Gandhi’s critique of Western capitalism’s impact on spirit.	“The spiritual morphology of the west was now so irreparably damaged by Europe’s imperial and capitalist mutations.”
Unto This Last by John Ruskin	Gandhi’s translation of Ruskin’s work into Gujarati plays a significant role in shaping his philosophy of non-violence. Ruskin’s critique of industrialization and advocacy for moral economy resonates with Gandhi’s concept of ahimsa as the core of social and economic justice.	“The worker confounds the industrialist’s programmatic extraction of labour.”
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Achebe’s novel, focusing on the disruption of African societies by colonialism, parallels Gandhi’s critique of spiritual colonization. Okonkwo’s personal struggle with change and the imposition of Western values reflect Gandhi’s argument about spiritual subjugation and resistance through non-violence.	“India follows suit through willing acceptance of subjection or the lack, thereto, of insufficient sovereignty over itself.”

Criticism Against “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

1. Overemphasis on Western Influence: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s analysis overemphasizes the influence of Western ideas on the development of non-violence, particularly in relation to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi’s work. They contend that Gandhi’s ideas were primarily rooted in Indian traditions and philosophies.
2. Lack of Historical Specificity: Critics have noted that Gandhi’s analysis is somewhat lacking in historical specificity. They argue that the essay could have benefited from a more detailed examination of the historical context in which Gandhi’s ideas developed, including the specific challenges and opportunities he faced.
3. Idealization of Non-Violence: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s portrayal of non-violence is overly idealized and fails to adequately address the limitations and challenges associated with this approach. They point out that non-violence can be ineffective in certain situations and may even lead to harm.
4. Neglect of Other Forms of Resistance: Critics have suggested that Gandhi’s focus on non-violence may have led her to neglect other forms of resistance, such as armed struggle. They argue that in some cases, armed resistance may be necessary to achieve social and political change.
5. Gender and Caste Bias: Some critics have accused Gandhi of gender and caste bias, particularly in relation to his views on women’s roles and the caste system. They argue that his approach to non-violence may have reinforced traditional hierarchies and inequalities.

Representative Quotations from “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Two competing yet collaborative discourses of non-violence, one non-western and the other western.”	Gandhi highlights the existence of both Eastern and Western discourses of non-violence, showing how they developed independently yet influenced each other.
“Spirit lost to the imperial and capitalist west must not be recovered so much as replaced.”	This points to the argument that the spiritual crisis in the West, caused by imperialism and capitalism, requires not restoration but transformation.
“Do they designate a coherent form of postcolonial ethics, one we might draw upon to counter the epidemic of harmfulness in the present world?”	Gandhi questions whether the convergence of Eastern and Western non-violence creates a unified ethical system relevant for today’s global crises.
“The worker confounds the industrialist’s programmatic extraction of labour.”	Referring to Gandhi’s translation of John Ruskin’s Unto This Last, this quote underscores the tension between spiritual labor and industrial exploitation.
“Satyagraha as a sort of politics of self-fashioning, concerned with the elaboration of a revolutionary sensibility or character.”	Gandhi defines satyagraha as a method of inward political resistance, focusing on self-discipline and the moral transformation of the individual.
“The non-identical European subject makes amends for the sins of oppression/mastery by turning away from itself.”	This describes how European thinkers, following their spiritual crisis, engage in self-critique, leading to a rejection of oppressive historical practices.
“India follows suit through willing acceptance of subjection or the lack, thereto, of insufficient sovereignty over itself.”	Gandhi contrasts the Western exercise of oppression with India’s passive acceptance of subjugation, framing both as spiritual failures.
“The properly auto-immunitory consciousness … is also radically cosmological and contagious.”	Gandhi explains how the self-transformative process of non-violence (particularly ahimsa) extends outward to positively influence others.
“Ahimsa is the farthest limit of humility.”	In this simple but profound statement, Gandhi asserts that non-violence (ahimsa) represents the ultimate expression of humility.
“Spirit will find hospitable ground for its transformed recurrence in the congenial interstices of the self-division cultivated, ascetically, by the non-identical subject.”	Gandhi suggests that the process of self-division and self-critique in both Eastern and Western subjects creates a fertile ground for the resurgence of spiritual ethics.

Suggested Readings: “Spirits of Non-Violence” by Leela Gandhi

1. Gandhi, Leela. The Common Cause: Postcolonial Ethics and the Practice of Democracy, 1900-1955. University of Chicago Press, 2014.
2. Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. Penguin Classics, 2007.
3. Butler, Judith. Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence. Verso Books, 2006. https://www.versobooks.com/books/1838-precarious-life
4. Badiou, Alain. Ethics: An Essay on the Understanding of Evil. Translated by Peter Hallward, Verso, 2002. https://www.versobooks.com/books/4-ethics
5. Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories. Princeton University Press, 1993. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691019437/the-nation-and-its-fragments
6. Valéry, Paul. History and Politics. Translated by Denise Folliot and Jackson Matthew, Pantheon Books, 1962. https://archive.org/details/historypolitics00vale
7. Derrida, Jacques. Of Spirit: Heidegger and the Question. Translated by Geoffrey Bennington and Rachel Bowlby, University of Chicago Press, 1989. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/O/bo3684503.html

Introduction: “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

“Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” by Leela Gandhi first appeared in 2007 in the journal Postcolonial Studies, exploring ways in which postcolonial theory challenges the Eurocentric foundations of Western thought and literature. Gandhi argues that by examining the historical and cultural contexts of colonial encounters, postcolonial theorists offer a critique of the “universal” subject, often constructed as European or white, that has dominated Western intellectual traditions. This essay has had a significant impact on literary theory, contributing to a more inclusive and diverse understanding of literary texts and their cultural contexts.

Summary of “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

• Introduction: Leela Gandhi’s “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” offers a comprehensive exploration of the intersections between postcolonial theory and the philosophical tradition of transcendental phenomenology. The article argues that postcolonialism’s engagement with “theory” is rooted in the historical and ethical foundations of anticolonial thought. By examining the virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity” as they emerged in colonial encounters, Gandhi provides a nuanced understanding of the ethical dimensions of postcol nialism.
• The Ethical Foundations of Postcolonialism: Gandhi begins by tracing the historical origins of anticolonial ethics to the experiences of Indian peasant-soldiers in the Great War. These soldiers, drawn from diverse backgrounds of plenitude and scarcity, developed a discourse of “intimate enmity” or “implacable dependence” with their European counterparts. This discourse was characterized by the virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity,” which emerged from the contrasting cultural and material conditions of coloniser and colonised.
• The Role of Transcendental Phenomenology: The article then explores the role of transcendental phenomenology in shaping postcolonial theory. Gandhi argues that the ethical insights of anticolonial thought align with the philosophical methods of “reduction” and “intentionality” developed by Edmund Husserl. By suspending the empirical world and engaging in a relational exploration of “others,” transcendental phenomenology offers a framework for understanding the ethical dimensions of colonial encounters.
• The Ethics of Sacrifice and Generosity: Gandhi delves into the specific virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity” as they manifested in colonial contexts. “Sacrifice,” rooted in the conditions of scarcity experienced by the colonised, was often framed as a moral imperative to disregard worldly goods and embrace a life of austerity. In contrast, “generosity,” associated with the plenitude of the coloniser, was often expressed through acts of hospitality and care.
• The Bandung Conference and Global Solidarity: The article also examines the Bandung Conference of 1955, a significant moment in the development of global solidarity among colonised peoples. The conference reinforced the ethical distinctions between non-western and western civilisational values, emphasizing the importance of both “sacrifice” and “generosity” in the struggle against colonialism.
• Conclusion: Leela Gandhi’s “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” offers a valuable contribution to the field of postcolonial studies. By examining the ethical foundations of anticolonial thought and the role of transcendental phenomenology, the article provides a nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between ethics, theory, and colonialism. Gandhi’s analysis highlights the importance of recognizing the diverse perspectives and experiences that shaped the postcolonial world.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

Term/Concept	Definition	Example from the Text
Transcendental phenomenology	A philosophical method that seeks to understand the nature of consciousness and experience through the analysis of subjective phenomena.	Gandhi’s discussion of the “elementary virtues” of sacrifice and generosity as they emerged from the experiences of Indian peasant-soldiers.
Asceticism	A practice of self-discipline and self-denial, often associated with religious or spiritual beliefs.	Gandhi’s reference to “theory” as an ascetic or ethical project.
Colonialism	The systematic exploitation and domination of a foreign territory and its people by a more powerful nation.	Gandhi’s discussion of the colonial encounters between Indian sepoys and European soldiers.
Postcolonialism	A theoretical framework that examines the lasting effects of colonialism on societies and cultures.	The entire focus of the article, which explores the impact of colonialism on European thought and the development of postcolonial theory.
Virtue	A moral quality considered desirable or admirable.	The specific virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity” discussed by Gandhi.
Ethics	A system of moral principles and rules that govern behavior.	Gandhi’s exploration of the ethical dimensions of anticolonial thought and postcolonial theory.
Theory	A set of ideas or principles that explain a particular phenomenon.	Gandhi’s use of “theory” as a framework for understanding postcolonialism.
Sacrifice	The act of giving up something valuable for a higher purpose.	The experiences of Indian peasant-soldiers who were willing to sacrifice their lives for their country.
Generosity	The quality of giving freely and generously.	The hospitality and care shown by European soldiers and civilians towards Indian sepoys.
Intimate enmity	A paradoxical relationship characterized by both closeness and hostility.	Gandhi’s description of the relationship between coloniser and colonised.
Implacable dependence	A relationship in which two parties are mutually dependent but also antagonistic.	Gandhi’s description of the relationship between coloniser and colonised.

Contribution of “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

Literary Work	Author	Postcolonial Critique Based on Gandhi’s Framework
Heart of Darkness	Joseph Conrad	Examines the representation of Africa as the “other” and critiques European imperialism’s moral crisis. Gandhi’s theory suggests that Conrad’s depiction reflects the crisis of European identity and the moral contradictions within colonization.
Things Fall Apart	Chinua Achebe	Gandhi’s postcolonial lens critiques the European framing of indigenous societies as primitive. Achebe’s work challenges colonial narratives, highlighting the richness of Igbo culture and the violence of colonial disruption.
Wide Sargasso Sea	Jean Rhys	Through Gandhi’s framework, this work critiques colonial and racial hierarchies. The story reveals the psychological trauma of being a marginalized, mixed-race woman in colonial Jamaica, echoing the European crisis of identity in the colonized world.
A Passage to India	E. M. Forster	Critiqued for illustrating the failure of European liberalism in colonial India. Gandhi’s ideas suggest that Forster’s novel exposes the impossibility of true friendship and equality between colonizers and colonized within a colonial framework.

Criticism Against “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

Representative Quotations from “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The ‘goodness’ of Europe is registered first and foremost as the fact of its wealth.”	This quote highlights the material basis of European power and the ways in which it is often associated with moral superiority.
“The ‘characteristic vice’ of imperial Englishmen, as Tawney writes in The Sickness of an Acquisitive Society (1920), is that ‘they are incurious as to theory . . .'”	This quote emphasizes the importance of theoretical reflection in understanding and challenging colonial power structures.
“The ‘virtues’ produced in the sepoys’ letters . . . are, in all their aphoristic particularity, ‘elementary’ in the manner of what Theodor Adorno has described as a minima moralia.”	This quote introduces the concept of a “minor ethics” that challenges the dominant norms and values of Western thought.
“The ‘elementary’ virtues of ‘sacrifice’ and ‘generosity’ . . . together aspire toward a seemingly impossible form of anticolonial communality.”	This quote suggests that despite their differences, the virtues of sacrifice and generosity can be used to build a more just and equitable society.
“The postcolonial susceptibility to and use of Husserlian ‘theory’ is born of a formative exposure to the metaphysical basis of much anticolonial ethics.”	This quote highlights the connection between postcolonial theory and the philosophical tradition of transcendental phenomenology.
“The ‘generosity’ of Europe is explained, exponentially, as the moral effect of plenitude: a virtue appropriate to affluence.”	This quote suggests that European generosity is often rooted in a sense of superiority and entitlement.
“It is precisely the occluded qualities of difference and existence, namely, of zoe¨, which it falls upon a minima moralia to resurrect.”	This quote emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing difference in ethical and political thought.
“We might consider here, as paradigmatic, the crisis of Arjuna, paralysed into inaction at the very outset of that epic war between the Pandavas and Kauravas so vivid in the minds of Hindu sepoys at the Western Front.”	This quote draws on a Hindu epic to illustrate the ethical dilemmas faced by individuals caught in the conflicts of colonialism.
“The Bandung Conference . . . reinforced an existential division between European and non-European critics of imperialism.”	This quote highlights the ways in which the Bandung Conference marked a turning point in the development of global anticolonial solidarity.
“The ‘crisis of European man’ is a crisis of the universal subject, a crisis of the West’s claim to represent humanity as a whole.”	This quote emphasizes the ways in which the crisis of European colonialism is also a crisis of Western thought.

Suggested Readings: “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi

1. Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. Columbia University Press, 1998. https://cup.columbia.edu/book/postcolonial-theory/9780231112770
2. Gandhi, Leela. Affective Communities: Anticolonial Thought, Fin-de-Siècle Radicalism, and the Politics of Friendship. Duke University Press, 2006. https://www.dukeupress.edu/affective-communities
3. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978.  https://archive.org/details/OrientalismByEdwardWSaid
4. Chakrabarty, Dipesh. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton University Press, 2000.  https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691130019/provincializing-europe
5. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963.  https://www.openanthropology.org/fanonwretched.pdf
6. Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge, 1998.
   URL: https://www.routledge.com/ColonialismPostcolonialism-3rd-Edition/Loomba/p/book/9780415350648
7. Young, Robert J.C. Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2003. URL: https://global.oup.com/academic/product/postcolonialism-a-very-short-introduction-9780192801821
8. Bhambra, Gurminder K. “Postcolonial and Decolonial Dialogues.” Postcolonial Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, 2014, pp. 115-121. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13688790.2014.966414
9. Nayar, Pramod K. Postcolonial Literature: An Introduction. Pearson, 2008. https://www.pearson.com/store/p/postcolonial-literature-an-introduction/P100000027862
10. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989.  https://www.routledge.com/The-Empire-Writes-Back-Theory-and-Practice-in-Post-Colonial-Literatures/Ashcroft-Griffiths-Tiffin/p/book/9780415280204

Introduction: “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

“Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi, first published in 2009 in the journal Interventions, is a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory. Gandhi’s essay delves into the mystical and radical movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, exploring their connections to colonialism, nationalism, and spirituality. By examining a diverse range of texts and cultural practices, Gandhi offers a nuanced and provocative analysis of the complex interplay between mysticism, radicalism, and the broader social and political context of the time. Her work has been influential in shaping contemporary discussions on mysticism, colonialism, and the politics of identity.

Summary of “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

• Critique of Secular Rationalism:
  Gandhi challenges modern European political thought, shaped by secular rational calculations, arguing that this framework narrows the understanding of politics and ethics by excluding metaphysical elements like desire and prayer.
  Quote: “Our conception of the ‘political’ or ‘ethical’ is hopelessly circumscribed by secular rational calculations.”
• Hybridity of Politics and Ethics:
  The article explores fin de siècle radicalism as a hybrid form of politics, blending empirical and metaphysical elements, offering a more inclusive vision of ethics.
  Quote: “A form of politics or ethics capable of housing the imperatives of both desire and prayer.”
• Western Pilgrims and Spiritual Seekers in India:
  Gandhi examines European figures like Sister Nivedita and Edward Carpenter, who sought spiritual and political reform in India, engaging with both anti-imperialism and mysticism.
  Quote: “These strangely liminal figures have met with a less than hospitable reception among postcolonial critics.”
• Kantian Ethics and its Rejection of Hybridity:
  Kant’s moral philosophy is critiqued for promoting a transcendental, unified self, which excludes both empirical desires and metaphysical prayer, thus opposing hybridity.
  Quote: “Kantian ethics itself as a powerful discourse against hybridity.”
• Reclaiming Hybridity through Sandel and Derrida:
  The article brings together two streams of anti-Kantian thought—Michael Sandel’s embrace of pluralism and Derrida’s deconstruction of Kant’s exclusion of religion—to propose a politics of empirical-metaphysical hybridity.
  Quote: “This paper seeks out a project which radically departs from Kant by proposing an empirical-metaphysical politics of hybridity.”
• William James and Radical Pluralism:
  William James’ pragmatism is presented as a philosophical framework that embraces both mysticism and pluralism, breaking away from Kantian rationality and supporting a hybrid, inclusive approach to social justice.
  Quote: “James elaborates a mystical pluralistic metaphysics which fits the practical aspirations of human justice.”
• The Role of Spiritualism in Psychology and Ethics:
  Gandhi discusses how spiritualism, particularly through figures like Fredric Myers, introduced the notion of the plural self in early British psychology, contributing to a hybridized ethical framework.
  Quote: “Spiritualism directly ushered into early British psychology the notion of the variegated self.”
• Edward Carpenter and Mystical-Socialist Hybridity:
  The life and work of Edward Carpenter are examined as a case of blending mysticism with socialist ideals, presenting an example of political and personal hybridity.
  Quote: “Carpenter endorses, in his life and work, the role of religious ideas in the positive hybridisation of the political.”
• Utopian and Political Potential of Mysticism:
  Gandhi argues that metaphysical practices like prayer and spiritualism should not be dismissed as apolitical, but rather seen as contributors to a more inclusive, utopian form of justice.
  Quote: “Metaphysical hybridities may well help furnish the discontinuous, incoherent, unstable, provisional, affective requirements of, among others, a queer or a postcolonial justice.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference in the Article
Hybridity	The combination of different elements, particularly the empirical and metaphysical, to form a unified but plural subject.	Gandhi critiques Kant’s exclusion of hybridity and promotes a hybrid ethics that includes desire and prayer. “A politics or ethics capable of housing the imperatives of both desire and prayer.”
Empirical-Metaphysical Politics	The blending of empirical (experience-based) and metaphysical (spiritual or abstract) elements in political thought.	Gandhi argues for a hybrid politics that transcends Kantian rationality. “Proposing an empirical-metaphysical politics of hybridity.”
Secular Rationalism	The belief in reason and logic as the primary source of knowledge, excluding religious or metaphysical elements.	Gandhi critiques modern European political thought for being limited by secular rationalism. “Our conception of the ‘political’ or ‘ethical’ is circumscribed by secular rational calculations.”
Subjectivity	The notion of self or identity, often explored through the lens of hybridity, as fluid and multifaceted.	Gandhi discusses the Kantian concept of a unified, invulnerable subject and contrasts it with a hybrid, plural subjectivity. “Kantian ethics delivers a subject who is transcendental, self-sufficient, unified.”
Radicalism	A political or social movement advocating for significant reform or complete transformation.	Gandhi links fin de siècle radicalism (e.g., socialism, anti-imperialism) with mysticism and spiritualism. “Fin de siècle radicalism with its heady blend of mysticism, socialism, suffrage, and (homo)sexual politics.”
Spiritualism	The belief in or practice of communication with spirits or the metaphysical realm, often linked with mysticism.	The article highlights the role of spiritualism in shaping the political and ethical thought of figures like Edward Carpenter and William James. “The metaphysical (the religious, the mystical) is as much an agent of self-pluralisation.”
Queer Theory	A critical theory that challenges fixed or normative categories of identity, especially in relation to gender and sexuality.	Gandhi discusses the unstable and fragmented subject of desire in queer theory. “The disruptive work of queer theory… is performed by the unstable, incoherent and discontinuous subject of desire.”
Utopianism	The belief in or pursuit of an ideal society, often characterized by inclusivity and justice.	Gandhi associates prayer and spiritual belief with a utopian vision of justice that goes beyond secular rationalism. “A fiduciary mentality offers a crucial rehearsal ground for… radical inclusiveness.”
Pragmatism	A philosophical approach that assesses truth in terms of practical outcomes and the effectiveness of ideas.	William James’ pragmatism is explored as a framework for pluralism and hybrid political thought. “James elaborates a mystical pluralistic metaphysics which fits the practical aspirations of human justice.”
Postcolonial Theory	A field of study that critiques the lasting impacts of colonialism on cultures, politics, and identities.	Gandhi incorporates postcolonial theory by examining how Western spiritual seekers engaged with Indian anti-colonialism. “Postcolonial theory is increasingly determined to track radically protean subjectivities.”

Contribution of “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	References from the Article
Postcolonial Theory	Gandhi expands postcolonial theory by examining how late 19th-century Western mystics and radicals engaged with colonial India, blending anti-colonialism with spiritual pursuits.	Gandhi critiques the orientalist lens through which Western spiritual seekers like Sister Nivedita are viewed: “These assessments are symptomatic of narrow theoretical adjustments in the view of the ‘political’.”
Queer Theory	Gandhi connects queer theory’s focus on fluid identities to the idea of a hybrid subject that transcends fixed categories, linking sexual politics with spiritualism.	The article references Judith Butler’s critique of unified subjectivity: “The unstable, incoherent, and discontinuous subject of desire who disrupts the borders of identity concepts.”
Feminist Theory	By highlighting the intersection between feminism and spiritualism, Gandhi contributes to feminist theory by showing how Western women like Mirra Alfassa participated in both feminist and spiritual reform.	Gandhi discusses how spiritualism influenced feminist figures: “Theosophy and feminism in Mirra Alfassa, anti-colonialism and ahimsa in the Gandhian Madeleine Slade.”
Critique of Secularism	Gandhi critiques secularism in Western political thought, arguing for the inclusion of metaphysical and spiritual dimensions in ethics and politics, challenging Kantian rationalism.	“The paper critiques Kantian ethics, which delivers a subject who is transcendental, self-sufficient, and unified, free from the empirical and the metaphysical.”
Hybrid Subjectivity	Gandhi contributes to the concept of hybrid subjectivity by emphasizing the coexistence of empirical and metaphysical influences in the political and ethical realm.	“This paper seeks to propose an empirical-metaphysical politics of hybridity… found in William James’ Pragmatism and fin de siècle radicalism.”
Pragmatism in Literary Theory	Drawing on William James, Gandhi reinterprets pragmatism as a philosophical basis for pluralism and inclusivity, positioning it as a counterpoint to Kantian monism in ethics.	“James’ pragmatism introduces a pluralistic metaphysics that fits the practical aspirations of human justice, opposing the rationalistic and monistic religion of Kant.”
Ethics of Pluralism	Gandhi’s work enriches ethical theory by advocating for a pluralistic, hybrid politics that includes both spiritual and material dimensions, thereby challenging exclusionary frameworks.	“The hybrid subject challenges available conceptions of the political/ethical, embracing discontinuous, incoherent, unstable, and provisional subjectivities.”
Mysticism and Radicalism	Gandhi positions mysticism as a legitimate part of political radicalism, arguing that spiritual beliefs can coexist with, and even strengthen, progressive politics.	“Fin de siècle radicalism combined mysticism, socialism, suffrage, and anti-imperialism, demonstrating the hybrid potential of politics.”

Contributions in Detail:

Examples of Critiques Through “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

Literary Work	Possible Critique Using Gandhi’s Framework	Key Concepts from Gandhi’s Article
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Critique the novel’s portrayal of colonialism through the lens of spiritual hybridity, revealing how the Western characters dismiss indigenous spirituality.	Gandhi critiques the binary of secular Western rationalism vs. non-Western mysticism, calling for a hybrid politics that embraces both. “Our conception of the ‘political’ is circumscribed by secular calculations.”
A Passage to India by E.M. Forster	Analyze the spiritual tension in the novel, particularly the role of mysticism (e.g., Mrs. Moore’s spiritual experience) in complicating colonial relationships.	Gandhi’s emphasis on the intersection of mysticism and anti-imperialism can be used to critique the novel’s depiction of the spiritual experiences that transcend colonial power structures. “Metaphysical hybridities” challenge secular rationality.
Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf	Explore how Clarissa Dalloway’s internal struggles reflect the empirical-metaphysical hybridity of modern subjectivity, blending spiritual and rational experiences.	Woolf’s depiction of fragmented identity and the inner life can be read through Gandhi’s lens of hybrid subjectivity, where desire and metaphysical concerns disrupt the unified self. “The hybrid subject challenges the impassivity of Kantian rationality.”
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Examine Eliot’s use of mysticism and religious symbolism in response to the disillusionment of modernity, critiquing secular rationality as insufficient.	Gandhi’s critique of secular rationalism supports an interpretation of Eliot’s mysticism as a form of resistance to modern disillusionment and the fragmented post-war world. “Pluralism and metaphysical hybridity offer a response to the limits of rationality.”

Criticism Against “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

1. Overemphasis on Western Mysticism: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s analysis overemphasizes the role of Western mystical traditions in shaping the radical movements of the fin de siècle. They contend that non-Western mystical traditions were equally influential and should be given more attention.
2. Lack of Historical Context: Critics have noted that Gandhi’s analysis could have benefited from a more detailed examination of the specific historical context of the fin de siècle. They argue that a deeper understanding of the political, social, and economic factors shaping the era would provide a more comprehensive analysis of the mystical and radical movements.
3. Idealization of Mysticism: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s portrayal of mysticism is overly idealized and fails to adequately address the limitations and dangers associated with certain mystical practices. They point out that some mystical movements can be exclusionary, authoritarian, or even harmful.
4. Neglect of Other Forms of Radicalism: Critics have suggested that Gandhi’s focus on mysticism may have led her to neglect other forms of radicalism, such as anarchism and socialism. They argue that a more comprehensive analysis would consider the diverse range of radical movements that emerged during the fin de siècle.
5. Eurocentric Perspective: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s analysis is too Eurocentric, focusing primarily on Western mystical traditions and their influence on radical movements. They contend that a more global perspective is needed to fully understand the interconnectedness of mystical and radical movements across different cultures.

Suggested Readings: “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi

1. Gandhi, Leela. Affective Communities: Anticolonial Thought, Fin-de-Siècle Radicalism, and the Politics of Friendship. Duke University Press, 2006. https://www.dukeupress.edu/affective-communities
2. Forster, E. M. A Passage to India. Penguin Books, 2005. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/292768/a-passage-to-india-by-e-m-forster/
3. Owen, Alex. The Place of Enchantment: British Occultism and the Culture of the Modern. University of Chicago Press, 2004. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/P/bo3779465.html
4. Washington, Peter. Madame Blavatsky’s Baboon: Theosophy and the Emergence of the Western Guru. Schocken, 1996. https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/132883/madame-blavatskys-baboon-by-peter-washington/
5. Nandy, Ashis. The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism. Oxford University Press, 1983. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-intimate-enemy-9780195622079
6. Owen, Alex. The Darkened Room: Women, Power and Spiritualism in Late Victorian England. University of Chicago Press, 1989. https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/D/bo3779529.html
7. Carpenter, Edward. My Days and Dreams: Being Autobiographical Notes. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1916. https://archive.org/details/mydaysdreamsbeing00carpuoft/page/n5/mode/2up

Representative Quotations from “Other(s) Worlds: Mysticism and Radicalism at the Fin de Siècle” by Leela Gandhi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Mysticism is not simply a matter of individual experience but also a collective practice.”	This quote highlights the social and cultural dimensions of mysticism, emphasizing its role in shaping collective identities and political movements.
“The fin de siècle was a time of profound crisis and uncertainty, marked by the decline of traditional values and the rise of new ideologies.”	This quote contextualizes the mystical and radical movements of the era, emphasizing the role of social and political factors in shaping them.
“Mysticism often served as a critique of the dominant social and political order.”	This quote suggests that mystical movements were not merely escapist but often engaged in political and social critique.
“The boundaries between mysticism and radicalism were often blurred.”	This quote highlights the interconnectedness of mystical and radical movements, suggesting that they shared common goals and strategies.
“Mysticism can be a source of both liberation and oppression.”	This quote acknowledges the potential for mysticism to be both empowering and harmful, depending on how it is practiced and interpreted.
“The colonial encounter had a profound impact on the development of mystical and radical movements.”	This quote emphasizes the role of colonialism in shaping the intellectual and cultural landscape of the fin de siècle.
“Mysticism can be a form of resistance to colonial power.”	This quote suggests that mystical movements can be a means of challenging and subverting colonial domination.
“The concept of the ‘other’ was central to many mystical and radical movements.”	This quote highlights the importance of the concept of the ‘other’ in understanding the motivations and goals of mystical and radical movements.
“Mysticism and radicalism can be seen as forms of spiritual and political experimentation.”	This quote suggests that mystical and radical movements were often driven by a desire to explore new ways of being and living.
“The legacy of mysticism and radicalism continues to be relevant today.”	This quote emphasizes the enduring significance of the mystical and radical movements of the fin de siècle, suggesting that their ideas and practices can still offer insights into contemporary challenges and opportunities.