“Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in PMLA in 2008, offering a critical examination of lyric poetry and its significance in literary studies.
Introduction: “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler
“Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in PMLA in 2008, offering a critical examination of lyric poetry and its significance in literary studies. The essay challenges the dominant pedagogical paradigms that interpret lyric poems as dramatic monologues, a perspective shaped by the influence of prose narrative on literary analysis. Culler advocates for a revival of lyric studies by emphasizing its distinctive characteristics, such as its focus on the present, rhythmic and sound patterning, intertextuality, and linguistic extravagance. He critiques the assimilation of lyric into narrative frameworks, arguing that this approach undermines the unique features of lyric poetry, including its performative and epideictic qualities rooted in classical traditions. By examining the evolution of lyric from its origins in Greek antiquity to modern manifestations, Culler highlights the enduring cultural and aesthetic value of this poetic form, proposing methodologies that foreground its unique temporality and rhetorical address. The essay is significant for its contribution to literary theory, encouraging scholars to reassess the role of lyric in shaping language, subjectivity, and cultural memory.
Summary of “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler
Crisis of Lyric in Literary Studies Culler discusses the marginalization of lyric poetry in academic settings, where narrative prose dominates. He critiques how the pedagogical focus on narrative reduces poetry to dramatic monologues, aligning it with the conventions of prose fiction (Culler, 2008, p. 201). This approach sidelines key poetic features such as rhythm, sound, and intertextuality, which are integral to the lyric’s aesthetic and meaning.
Lyric vs. Narrative Lyric is distinct from narrative in that it emphasizes the present moment and engages the reader line by line, rather than focusing on a sequential story. Culler underscores the need to celebrate lyric’s singularity and resist assimilating it into narrative paradigms (Culler, 2008, p. 202).
Challenges to Traditional Definitions Citing René Wellek, Culler critiques the Romantic association of lyric with intense subjective experience, which leads to interpretative limitations. Instead, Wellek and new lyric studies propose focusing on specific historical and formal conventions of lyric poetry, such as odes, elegies, and songs (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
Modern Approaches to Lyric New lyric studies, represented by scholars like Virginia Jackson and Yopie Prins, advocate for examining how the lyric has been historically constructed rather than treating it as a transhistorical category. These approaches explore alternative frameworks, challenging the narrative-driven “lyricization of poetry” (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
Classical Models of Lyric Culler traces the origins of lyric to Greek and Roman traditions, emphasizing its performative and epideictic nature. In classical contexts, lyric was often addressed to an audience, serving as a rhetorical and ethical activity. This contrasts with modern lyric, which has become more meditative and individualized (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
Reviving Lyric Studies To restore lyric’s place in literary studies, Culler proposes focusing on its unique features: rhythm, sound, hyperbolic forms like apostrophe, and its non-narrative temporality. He argues that lyric foregrounds the materiality of language and embodies the formative interplay between language, memory, and cultural identity (Culler, 2008, p. 206).
Lyric’s Cultural Significance The lyric’s ability to embed language in memory—through rhythmical and phonological patterning—underscores its cultural and aesthetic value. Culler calls for a proliferation of models to understand lyric’s diverse historical manifestations and encourage its integration into literary studies (Culler, 2008, p. 206).
The process of reading all poetry through the lens of subjective expression, often tied to Romantic notions of intense personal experience.
Culler critiques this trend, suggesting it narrows the interpretive possibilities of poetry, reducing its historical and formal diversity (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
Dramatic Monologue
A form of poetry in which the speaker is a fictional persona whose circumstances and attitudes the reader reconstructs.
Culler argues that the dramatic monologue model has become dominant in interpreting lyrics, aligning them with narrative fiction and sidelining their rhythmic and intertextual features (Culler, 2008, p. 201).
Non-Narrative Temporality
A focus on the present moment within the text, emphasizing immediate engagement rather than sequential storytelling.
Culler contrasts lyric’s focus on “what happens now” with narrative’s emphasis on “what happens next,” highlighting the unique reader engagement with lyric (Culler, 2008, p. 202).
Epideictic Discourse
A rhetorical tradition aimed at praising or critiquing subjects in a way that reflects societal values and beliefs.
Lyric poetry, especially in its classical form, functioned as epideictic discourse, addressing audiences and shaping ethical and cultural values (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
Extravagant and direct forms of address, often used in lyric to engage with abstract concepts, objects, or absent figures.
Culler highlights these features as integral to lyric’s rhetorical power, contrasting them with the realist demands of dramatic monologues (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
The relationship between a text and other texts, including allusions and references.
Culler points out that lyric frequently employs intertextual elements, such as Robert Frost’s allusion to François Villon, which contribute to its meaning beyond narrative reconstruction (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
Lyric Present
A specific tense used in lyric poetry to create a sense of immediacy and ongoing experience.
Examples such as Yeats’s “I walk through the long schoolroom questioning” demonstrate the lyric’s use of the present tense to foreground its temporality (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
New Lyric Studies
An approach to studying lyric that emphasizes historical and cultural contexts over transhistorical definitions of the genre.
Represented by scholars like Virginia Jackson and Yopie Prins, this method critiques universal assumptions about lyric and explores how it has functioned differently across time and cultures (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
Rhythm and Sound Patterning
The use of metrical structures, rhyme, and phonological repetitions to enhance the sensory and aesthetic experience of poetry.
Culler emphasizes that these elements are often ignored in narrative-centric analyses but are central to lyric’s distinctive impact (Culler, 2008, p. 202).
Memorability of Lyric
The ability of lyric poetry to imprint itself in the reader’s memory through its rhythm and structure.
Culler notes that lyric seeks to be remembered and internalized, functioning as a “mechanical memory” for cultural and personal reflection (Culler, 2008, p. 206).
Formal Conventions
The established structures and traditions of particular poetic genres, such as odes, elegies, and songs.
Culler suggests focusing on these conventions to understand lyric’s diversity and its evolution across different historical periods (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
Melos and Opsis
Terms from Northrop Frye describing the musical (melos) and visual (opsis) aspects of lyric poetry.
Culler uses these concepts to highlight lyric’s focus on linguistic patterning and its departure from narrative representation (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
The relationship between individual experience and the structures of language as shaped by rhythm, sound, and form.
Culler argues that lyric plays a crucial role in linking language to the formation of subjectivity, making it a central site for literary studies (Culler, 2008, p. 206).
Pedagogical Paradigm
The dominant educational framework that interprets lyric as dramatic monologue, aligning it with prose fiction.
Culler critiques this paradigm as reductive, advocating for new methodologies that foreground lyric’s unique characteristics (Culler, 2008, p. 201).
Transhistorical vs. Historical
The debate between viewing lyric as a universal genre versus understanding its forms and meanings as historically contingent.
Culler supports a balanced approach, acknowledging the lyric’s persistence while studying its historical manifestations and social functions (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
Contribution of “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler to Literary Theory/Theories
Revisiting the Lyric Genre Culler challenges traditional definitions of lyric, which align it with intense personal expression, proposing instead a broader understanding that encompasses its diverse forms and historical contexts. This critique contributes to genre theory by questioning the viability of fixed transhistorical categories for lyric poetry (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
Critique of Narrative Dominance Culler critiques the dominance of narrative theory in literary studies, where lyric is often interpreted through the lens of narrative structures. He highlights how this approach marginalizes the non-narrative temporality of lyric, emphasizing its focus on “what happens now” rather than “what happens next” (Culler, 2008, p. 202).
Integration of Intertextuality By foregrounding the intertextual nature of lyric, such as Robert Frost’s allusion to François Villon, Culler enriches intertextuality theory. He demonstrates how lyric engages in complex dialogues with other texts, adding layers of meaning beyond narrative reconstruction (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
Lyric and Rhetorical Theory Drawing on classical traditions, Culler situates lyric within rhetorical theory as epideictic discourse—designed to praise or critique societal values. This framing broadens the understanding of lyric’s performative and communicative functions (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
Challenging the Dramatic Monologue Paradigm Culler critiques the New Criticism-inspired view of lyric as a dramatic monologue, a perspective that aligns it with narrative fiction. His argument contributes to formalist theory by emphasizing the overlooked features of lyric, such as rhythm, sound, and hyperbolic forms of address (Culler, 2008, p. 201).
Focus on the Materiality of Language By emphasizing lyric’s material aspects, such as rhythm and phonological patterning, Culler aligns with linguistic theory and formalism, arguing that lyric foregrounds the sensory and structural properties of language (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
Reinforcing Lyric’s Role in Subjectivity Formation Culler connects lyric to psychoanalytic and poststructuralist theories, arguing that its structural patterning links language to the formation of subjectivity. He highlights how lyric engages readers through memory, rhythm, and temporality, shaping their experience of language (Culler, 2008, p. 206).
Reviving Classical Lyric Models By revisiting Greek and Roman traditions, Culler contributes to classical literary theory, proposing a model where the lyric is seen as a performative act directed at an audience. This approach contrasts with the solipsistic nature of modern lyric and offers a historical framework for its study (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
New Lyric Studies Approach Culler engages with the work of Virginia Jackson and Yopie Prins, advocating for new historicism and cultural studies approaches to lyric. He emphasizes the need to explore how lyric has been constructed and functioned in different historical and cultural contexts (Culler, 2008, p. 204).
Proposing New Typologies for Lyric Culler suggests creating new typologies for lyric, distinguishing between present-tense and past-tense lyrics, which contributes to structuralist theory. This shift encourages diverse methodologies for analyzing lyric’s unique temporal and linguistic features (Culler, 2008, p. 206).
Examples of Critiques Through “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler
Literary Work
Critique Using Culler’s Framework
Reference from Article
Robert Frost’s “Spring Pools”
Culler critiques the tendency to read the poem as a dramatic monologue, focusing solely on the speaker and narrative reconstruction. Instead, he highlights its rhythmic elements, sound patterns, and intertextual allusion to François Villon, emphasizing lyric’s immediacy and linguistic play.
“Flowery chiasmus” and allusion to “the snows of yesteryear” illustrate how lyric transcends narrative conventions (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
Robert Browning’s “My Last Duchess”
The Duke’s speech is traditionally read as a dramatic monologue, but Culler points out how this interpretation often ignores the interplay of metrical form and speaker characterization, such as the irony of the Duke’s polished pentameter reflecting his “unpolished” speech.
“Brilliant pentameter couplets…ironically undercut” the speaker’s claims of being unskilled in speech, demonstrating how lyric highlights formal elements (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
W. B. Yeats’s “Among School Children”
Culler uses the poem to illustrate the “lyric present,” emphasizing how its temporality creates immediacy and reflective engagement distinct from narrative forms.
“The lyric temporality of present tense: ‘I walk through the long schoolroom questioning’” demonstrates how lyric captures moments rather than sequences (Culler, 2008, p. 205).
François Villon’s “Ballade des dames du temps jadis”
Villon’s refrain, “Where are the snows of yesteryear?” is reinterpreted in Frost’s “Spring Pools,” where the transience of snow is literalized. Culler highlights how intertextual references enrich lyric’s meaning beyond narrative.
“Lyric’s intertextuality…Villon’s refrain becomes a basis for Frost’s meditation on transience” (Culler, 2008, p. 203).
Criticism Against “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler
Overemphasis on Theory Over Practice Critics argue that Culler’s focus on redefining lyric within theoretical frameworks can overlook the practical engagement of readers with lyric poetry, particularly those who enjoy poetry for its emotional or aesthetic value rather than academic categorization.
Marginalization of Reader Response Culler’s emphasis on formal and historical aspects of lyric neglects reader-response theory, which considers how individual readers interpret and emotionally connect to lyric poetry.
Limited Address of Non-Western Lyric Traditions Culler’s analysis primarily focuses on Western traditions, with limited exploration of non-Western lyric forms, which may offer alternative frameworks for understanding the genre.
Potential Oversimplification of Narrative While critiquing the dominance of narrative paradigms in literary studies, Culler’s binary opposition of narrative and lyric risks oversimplifying the interrelation between the two forms, as some lyric poems incorporate narrative elements.
Historical Reductionism in New Lyric Studies By aligning with the historical approaches of Virginia Jackson and Yopie Prins, Culler’s argument might reduce lyric to its social and historical contexts, potentially neglecting its universal and timeless qualities.
Neglect of Popular Lyric Forms Critics may point out that Culler largely ignores contemporary popular forms of lyric, such as song lyrics, which are integral to modern cultural experiences but are not extensively discussed in his work.
Ambiguity in Proposed Models While advocating for new typologies of lyric, Culler does not fully articulate clear criteria for these models, leaving some ambiguity about how they should be applied to analyze lyric poetry.
Challenges to Pedagogical Application Some educators argue that Culler’s call to foreground lyric’s distinct features, such as its immediacy and intertextuality, might not be easily integrated into traditional literary curricula, which are often structured around narrative forms.
Representative Quotations from “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation
“If narrative is about what happens next, lyric is about what happens now—in the reader’s engagement with each line.”
Culler emphasizes the distinct temporality of lyric poetry, focusing on the immediacy of the reader’s experience, contrasting it with the sequential nature of narrative.
“The model of lyric as dramatic monologue misses: stress on the reconstruction of the dramatic situation deprives rhythm and sound patterning of any constitutive role.”
Culler critiques the dramatic monologue model for sidelining key features of lyric poetry, such as rhythm and sound, which are central to its aesthetic and meaning.
“Lyric is characteristically extravagant, performing speech acts not recorded in everyday speech and deploying not only meter and rhyme but also its own special tenses.”
This highlights the performative nature of lyric poetry, where its distinct language and form differentiate it from other literary genres.
“New Criticism’s insistence that interpretation focus on the words on the page…generated the assumption that the speaker of a lyric is not the poet but a persona.”
Culler identifies the influence of New Criticism on lyric interpretation, critiquing its detachment of the lyric from the poet’s voice and its focus on fictionalizing the speaker.
“The lyric present exploits a temporality that makes the experience immediate and ongoing, as in ‘I walk through the long schoolroom questioning.’”
The “lyric present” is a concept that underscores the immediacy and reflective engagement of the reader, making lyric poetry a unique temporal experience distinct from narrative.
“The historical study of different poetic practices should be joined to a revival of the idea of the lyric as a poetic activity that has persisted since the days of Sappho.”
Culler advocates for integrating historical and contemporary perspectives to understand lyric poetry as a persistent and evolving tradition.
“Lyric is memorable language—made memorable by its rhythmical shaping and phonological patterning.”
This highlights the function of lyric poetry as a form that imprints itself on the reader’s memory through its rhythm and sound patterns.
“Reading lyric as a novelizing way…ignores the characteristic extravagance of lyric, which frequently engages in speech acts without a known real-world counterpart.”
Culler criticizes the narrative model for failing to account for the symbolic and imaginative aspects of lyric, which often defy real-world logic.
“Lyric ought to be crucial, as the site where language is linked not only to structures of identification and displacement…but especially to rhythm and bodily experience.”
This connects lyric to broader linguistic and psychoanalytic theories, framing it as a medium that shapes identity and bodily experience through language.
“The Greek model treats the poem as an event addressed to an audience, performed for an audience, even if it idealizes situations of social ritual.”
Culler draws on classical traditions to emphasize lyric as a performative act that involves direct address and engagement with an audience, contrasting it with modern individualistic interpretations.
Suggested Readings: “Why Lyric?” by Jonathan Culler
Findlay, L. M. “Culler and Byron on Apostrophe and Lyric Time.” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 24, no. 3, 1985, pp. 335–53. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/25600546. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
Culler, Jonathan. “Reading Lyric.” Yale French Studies, no. 69, 1985, pp. 98–106. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2929927. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
“Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in Narrative, Volume 12, Number 1, in January 2004, published by The Ohio State University Press.
Introduction: “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler
“Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in Narrative, Volume 12, Number 1, in January 2004, published by The Ohio State University Press. In this seminal article, Culler critically examines the concept of the omniscient narrator, a longstanding staple in narrative theory, challenging its utility and coherence within literary analysis. He contends that the term “omniscience” conflates various narrative techniques and imposes a theologically derived analogy onto the author, which is neither necessary nor illuminating. By scrutinizing traditional assumptions, Culler argues for alternative frameworks, such as “telepathy,” to describe narrative phenomena like access to characters’ thoughts and feelings. His work significantly contributes to literary theory by encouraging a reevaluation of entrenched concepts and proposing more precise terminology to understand narrative practices, particularly in realist and modernist traditions.
Summary of “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler
Critique of “Omniscience” as a Critical Concept:
Culler argues that the term “omniscience” is overused and underexamined in narrative theory. It serves as a catch-all term for diverse narrative phenomena, leading to conceptual confusion (Culler, 2004, p. 22).
He critiques the theological analogy between an omniscient God and an omniscient author, suggesting that this framework is neither accurate nor useful for understanding narrative techniques (p. 23).
Authorial “Omniscience” vs. Narrative Practices:
Culler challenges the assumption that authors inherently possess omniscience within their fictional worlds, pointing out inconsistencies in how the term is applied to narrative authority (p. 24).
He highlights that “omniscience” often conflates creative authority (the power to invent) with knowledge, which misrepresents the artistic process (p. 26).
Alternative Frameworks:
Nicholas Royle’s concept of “telepathy” is proposed as a more suitable alternative for understanding narrative insights into characters’ thoughts and emotions. This term emphasizes estrangement and specificity, avoiding the theological baggage of “omniscience” (p. 27).
Culler suggests abandoning the notion of narrators as either omniscient beings or human-like characters. Instead, he advocates for a focus on the performative and imaginative aspects of narrative (p. 28).
He questions the assumption that narrators must have a personal consciousness, proposing that narrative authority could derive from collective or impersonal mechanisms (p. 29).
Critique of Realist Tradition and Victorian Narratives:
The so-called “omniscient narrators” of the Victorian realist tradition (e.g., George Eliot and Anthony Trollope) are reinterpreted as embodying a voice of social consensus or a collective consciousness rather than divine omniscience (p. 30).
Critics like J. Hillis Miller and Betsy Ermath suggest that this form of narration reflects a shared societal perspective rather than an individual’s godlike authority (p. 31).
Challenges in Defining “Omniscience”:
Culler highlights how critics’ efforts to justify selective “omniscience” often result in convoluted explanations. He emphasizes that narrative effects are better understood through artistic choices rather than presumed narrator motivations (p. 25).
Effects Provoking “Omniscience” Ascriptions:
Culler identifies four narrative practices that lead to the attribution of omniscience:
Authoritative narrative declarations (e.g., opening lines of Emma by Jane Austen).
Inside access to characters’ thoughts, which is exclusive to fiction.
Authorial narrators flaunting creative control (e.g., Tom Jones by Henry Fielding).
Realist narrators presenting themselves as judicious historians (p. 26–30).
Call for New Critical Vocabulary:
Culler concludes by urging critics to discard the misleading concept of “omniscient narrators.” He advocates for alternative terms that better capture the nuanced effects and techniques of narrative fiction (p. 34).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler
Term/Concept
Definition/Explanation
References
Omniscience
A traditional narrative concept likened to divine knowledge, describing narrators who have complete insight into the fictional world.
Culler, 2004, p. 22
Authorial Omniscience
The notion that authors inherently know everything about their fictional worlds and characters, a perspective Culler critiques.
p. 24
Theological Analogy
The comparison of authors to God, assuming a divine-like omniscience; dismissed by Culler as inadequate for narrative theory.
p. 23
Telepathy
A proposed alternative by Nicholas Royle, emphasizing the imaginative and uncanny transmission of thoughts in narrative fiction.
p. 27
Performative Authoritativeness
The narrative authority achieved through declarative statements that shape the fictional reality rather than reflecting omniscience.
p. 26
Selective Omniscience
A term used to describe narrators who are presumed to know everything but choose to reveal information selectively.
p. 25
Narrative Consensus
The idea that omniscient narration in realist fiction often reflects the collective consciousness of society rather than divine knowledge.
p. 30
Zero Focalization
Gérard Genette’s concept of a narrative perspective without a clear focalizing consciousness, often attributed to omniscient narration.
p. 28
Limited Point of View
A technique where the narrative is restricted to the perspective of one or more characters, contrasted with omniscience.
p. 27
Authorial Narration
Narration where the narrator aligns with the author, often breaking the fourth wall or highlighting their creative control.
p. 30
Heterodiegetic Narration
A narrative mode where the narrator exists outside the story world; frequently associated with omniscient narration.
p. 30
Collective Consciousness
A perspective that narrators in realist fiction embody shared societal viewpoints rather than individual omniscience.
p. 31
Imaginative Recuperation
The creative process of filling gaps in narrative knowledge, used to describe narrators accessing characters’ inner lives.
p. 28
Narrative Authority
The perceived reliability and control of a narrator over the story, often conflated with omniscience.
p. 26
Extradiegetic Narrator
A narrator who exists outside the narrative levels of the story; often described as omniscient but reinterpreted by Culler.
p. 29
Contribution of “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler to Literary Theory/Theories
· Critique of Traditional Narrative Theory:
Culler challenges the centrality of “omniscience” as a concept in narrative studies, highlighting its inadequacy in explaining diverse narrative practices and effects (Culler, 2004, p. 22).
By questioning the theological analogy underlying the concept, he encourages a critical reevaluation of foundational assumptions in narrative theory (p. 23).
· Redefining Narrative Authority:
The article proposes that narrative authority stems from performative declarations and artistic choices, not from an intrinsic “omniscience” of narrators or authors (p. 26).
This perspective shifts focus from presumed knowledge to the mechanics of narrative construction and reader reception (p. 28).
· Introduction of Alternative Frameworks:
Culler integrates concepts like “telepathy” (borrowed from Nicholas Royle) to reinterpret how narratives depict characters’ thoughts, emphasizing creative and uncanny effects over divine-like omniscience (p. 27).
This encourages theorists to explore new vocabularies that better reflect narrative practices and their impacts on readers (p. 34).
· Contribution to Realist Narrative Studies:
He critiques the traditional labeling of Victorian realist narrators as “omniscient,” proposing instead that their authority derives from social consensus and collective consciousness (p. 30).
This insight contributes to a better understanding of the ideological underpinnings of realist fiction (p. 31).
Culler’s work engages with narratological terms like “zero focalization” and “heterodiegetic narration,” redefining them to account for narrative effects beyond omniscience (p. 28).
His critique of narrators as quasi-divine entities aligns with postclassical narratology, which seeks more flexible models of narrative representation (p. 29).
· Implications for Postmodern Narrative Studies:
The rejection of omniscience aligns with postmodern critiques of monolithic authority in literature, offering a model of narrative as dialogic and multifaceted (p. 34).
Culler’s emphasis on the imaginative and performative aspects of narration complements theories of metafiction and narrative self-reflexivity (p. 30).
· Revising the Role of the Narrator:
The article argues for a shift from seeing narrators as personified entities to understanding them as narrative instances or devices, influencing debates in theoretical approaches like Seymour Chatman’s (p. 29).
This perspective encourages literary theorists to move beyond anthropomorphic models of narration (p. 30).
· Impact on Reader-Response Theory:
By emphasizing the performative nature of narrative statements, Culler indirectly engages with reader-response theory, focusing on how readers interpret and ascribe authority to narrators (p. 26).
His argument highlights the active role of readers in constructing meaning, challenging fixed notions of narrative authority (p. 27).
· Interdisciplinary Contributions:
The discussion connects literary theory to theological debates, semiotics, and philosophy, broadening the scope of narratology to include cross-disciplinary insights (p. 23).
This interdisciplinary approach fosters dialogue between literary studies and broader cultural theories.
Examples of Critiques Through “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler
Literary Work
Critique Using Culler’s Framework
References from Article
Emma by Jane Austen
– The opening line (“Emma Woodhouse, handsome, clever, and rich…”) demonstrates performative authority, not divine omniscience.
Culler, 2004, p. 26
– The narrator’s claims about characters are conventions of the fictional world rather than reflections of superhuman knowledge.
p. 27
Middlemarch by George Eliot
– The narrator acts as a historian, unraveling human lives with focused reflection, not omniscience.
p. 30
– The narrative authority stems from judicious rumination and societal consensus rather than an all-knowing perspective.
p. 31
As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner
– The novel’s multiple focalized perspectives showcase “omniscience with teeth,” challenging the concept of a single omniscient narrator.
p. 27
– Culler suggests that access to multiple consciousnesses can be explained without invoking omniscience, favoring focalized viewpoints.
p. 28
Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy
– The opening generalization about families (“All happy families are alike…”) highlights insights about the human condition but lacks inherent omniscient authority.
p. 27
– The narrator’s statements reflect philosophical and moral observations, which are open to readers’ interpretation rather than divine truth.
p. 28
Criticism Against “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler
Overemphasis on Theological Analogy:
Some critics argue that Culler’s rejection of omniscience overly focuses on its theological roots, neglecting the practical ways the term has evolved in literary analysis.
Reduction of Narrative Complexity:
Culler’s framework risks oversimplifying narrative techniques by dismissing the concept of omniscience entirely, potentially ignoring its explanatory power in certain contexts.
Neglect of Readerly Interpretation:
While emphasizing performative authority, Culler underexplores how readers actively interpret “omniscience” as a literary device, which remains significant in narrative understanding.
Undermining Traditional Narratology:
By challenging foundational narratological concepts, such as omniscience and zero focalization, Culler’s critique may alienate traditional narrative theorists who find value in these terms.
Ambiguity in Alternative Frameworks:
The introduction of “telepathy” and other alternatives may lack the clarity and broad applicability that “omniscience” provides, leading to potential confusion.
Potential Overgeneralization:
Culler’s critique of omniscience in realist and modernist traditions might not account for diverse global literary practices where the concept remains relevant.
Limited Engagement with Realist Fiction:
Critics suggest that his dismissal of omniscience in realist fiction (e.g., George Eliot) underestimates its role in establishing narrative coherence and reader trust.
Neglect of Historical Contexts:
The critique does not sufficiently consider how omniscience as a narrative tool reflects changing historical, cultural, and ideological contexts in literature.
Risk of Disregarding Authorial Intent:
By focusing on the effects of narrative authority, Culler’s argument minimizes the role of authorial intent in shaping omniscient narration.
Representative Quotations from “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation
“The idea of omniscience has not received much critical scrutiny.”
Culler highlights the lack of detailed theoretical examination of the concept of omniscience, calling for a reevaluation of its assumptions and utility in narrative theory.
“‘Omniscient narration’ becomes a kind of dumping ground filled with a wide range of distinct narrative techniques.”
Culler critiques how the term has been used imprecisely, lumping together disparate narrative strategies without distinguishing their unique effects.
“The analogy between God and the author… obfuscates the various phenomena that provoke us to posit the idea [of omniscience].”
He challenges the theological analogy between divine omniscience and authorial control, suggesting it adds little to the understanding of narrative effects and creates unnecessary conflations.
“Omniscience, being a superhuman privilege, is logically not a quantitative but a qualitative and indivisible attribute.”
Culler emphasizes the indivisible nature of omniscience, critiquing attempts to describe partial or selective omniscience in narrators.
“The novelist can simply declare what will be the case in this world. To call this ‘omniscience’ is extraordinarily misleading.”
He critiques the term for conflating narrative authority (the power to define fictional worlds) with knowledge, proposing that such authority stems from linguistic and performative conventions rather than all-knowingness.
“Omniscience may have become too familiar for us to think shrewdly about it.”
Culler suggests that the concept’s ubiquity has dulled its critical effectiveness, encouraging scholars to seek alternative vocabularies to better capture narrative effects.
“Imaginative recuperation of details…need not be hindered by physical limitations.”
He introduces alternatives like telepathy to describe how narrators convey knowledge of characters’ inner lives, distancing such acts from theological implications of divine omniscience.
“The assertion of ignorance and the occasional flaunting of omnipotence… suggest that omniscience is not a good label for this sort of narration.”
Culler argues that playful and self-aware narrative techniques often attributed to omniscience are better understood as authorial creativity and do not reflect true omniscient qualities.
“Narrators tend to have pervasive presence rather than transcendent vision.”
Critiquing the term “omniscient narrator,” Culler points out that narrative voices often reflect a collective or societal consciousness, rather than an all-knowing divine figure.
“Our habit of naturalizing… details of narrative by making the consciousness of an individual their source… generates a fantasy of omniscience, which we then find oppressive.”
He critiques the critical tendency to ascribe omniscience to narrators, arguing it oversimplifies complex narrative effects and fosters oppressive interpretive frameworks.
Suggested Readings: “Omniscience” by Jonathan Culler
Olson, Barbara K. “‘Who Thinks This Book?’ Or Why the Author/God Analogy Merits Our Continued Attention.” Narrative, vol. 14, no. 3, 2006, pp. 339–46. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20107394. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
Dawson, Paul. “The Return of Omniscience in Contemporary Fiction.” Narrative, vol. 17, no. 2, 2009, pp. 143–61. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25609360. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
Dolis, John. Comparative Literature Studies, vol. 45, no. 3, 2008, pp. 401–04. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25659674. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
Nelles, William. “Omniscience for Atheists: Or, Jane Austen’s Infallible Narrator.” Narrative, vol. 14, no. 2, 2006, pp. 118–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30219642. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
“Lyric, History, and Genre” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in New Literary History in its 40th volume, published in the autumn of 2009 by Johns Hopkins University Press.
Introduction: “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler
“Lyric, History, and Genre” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in New Literary History in its 40th volume, published in the autumn of 2009 by Johns Hopkins University Press. This article addresses the interplay between lyric poetry, historical development, and the concept of genre, reflecting on their implications for literary theory and criticism. Culler explores how genre functions not as a rigid classification but as a dynamic, historical construct, evolving through cultural and intellectual contexts. He critiques traditional, essentialist views of genres, emphasizing instead their open-ended, socially and historically mediated nature. The article underscores the lyric’s unique performative and temporal aspects, positioning it as a central yet historically complex literary form. Culler’s insights contribute significantly to debates on genre theory, challenging the modern tendency to narrowly frame lyric poetry within dramatic or mimetic models, thus enriching our understanding of its broader historical and theoretical dimensions.
Summary of “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler
1. Historical and Theoretical Context
Culler situates his work within the broader intellectual tradition, highlighting the contributions of New Literary History under Ralph Cohen, which revived interest in literary history and genre as central literary concepts.
Genre, particularly lyric poetry, is treated as an evolving and historical category rather than a static or essentialist construct.
2. The Dynamics of Genre
Culler emphasizes that genres are not timeless or logical constructs but are shaped by historical and cultural contexts. He draws on Gérard Genette’s argument that all genres are inherently historical (Genette, 1992).
He critiques the dichotomy of empirical vs. theoretical genre models, suggesting that both historical practices and theoretical frameworks interplay in defining genres.
3. Genre as Open Systems
Citing Ralph Cohen, Culler argues that genres are open systems, constantly transforming in response to cultural and social shifts. This view sees genre as an active participant in literary and cultural history rather than a rigid classification (Cohen, 1986).
4. Lyric Poetry and its Generic Challenges
Lyric poetry presents a unique case, often categorized as a mimetic genre only in the Romantic period. Culler explores how this conception evolved, contrasting classical and Romantic views (Hegel, 1975).
He identifies lyric as performative and non-mimetic, where the act of enunciation and apostrophic address plays a central role.
Apostrophe, a figure of address that turns to nonhuman or absent addressees, is central to lyric’s performative power. This trope highlights the poet’s imaginative engagement with the world (Culler, 1981).
Examples include Shelley’s “Ode to the West Wind” and Blake’s “The Sick Rose,” which showcase lyric’s performative aspirations.
Lyric poetry operates in a unique “lyric present,” creating a sense of immediacy and deferred temporality. This allows the poem to resonate with future audiences, emphasizing its performative and ritualistic nature (Ammons, 2005).
7. Modern Critiques and Reconfigurations
Modern critics like René Wellek and Virginia Jackson challenge Romantic notions of lyric as a purely subjective or expressive form. Jackson, for instance, critiques the “lyricization” of Dickinson’s work, urging a more historical and contextual understanding of the lyric (Jackson, 2005).
8. Transhistorical and Cross-Cultural Insights
Culler advocates for a transhistorical and transnational perspective on lyric poetry, seeing it as a genre that transcends cultural boundaries while undergoing local transformations.
He notes the distinctiveness of lyric as a foundational genre in non-Western traditions compared to its marginalization in classical Western poetics.
9. Genre as a Tool for Historical Comparison
Echoing Bruce Robbins, Culler views genre as a critical tool for bridging literary periods and traditions, facilitating broader historical and comparative analysis (Robbins, 2007).
Culler’s exploration underscores the importance of genre in shaping literary history and understanding literature’s role as a social and cultural institution.
He calls for a reconsideration of lyric as a dynamic and foundational genre, emphasizing its structural and performative capacities to reshape literary discourse.
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler
A figure of address turning to nonhuman, absent, or abstract entities, central to the performative and imaginative nature of lyric poetry.
Examples include Blake’s The Sick Rose and Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind.
Lyric Present
The immediacy and temporal deferral created by lyric poetry, enabling resonance with future readers while focusing on the present moment of enunciation.
Described as part of lyric’s temporal distinctiveness (Culler, 1981).
The idea that lyric poetry enacts or performs its meaning, rather than merely describing or representing.
Seen in apostrophic address or enunciation that “creates what it names” (Culler, 2009).
Empirical vs. Theoretical Genres
Empirical genres are observed or practiced classifications (e.g., ballads, novels), while theoretical genres are based on fundamental principles of language or thought.
Northrop Frye’s distinction between radical forms of presentation (e.g., drama, epic, lyric) (Frye, 1957).
Generic Transformation
The process by which genres change and adapt over time, reflecting social and cultural shifts.
The Excellent Ballad of George Barnwell evolving from ballad to prose chapbook to tragedy (Cohen, 1986).
Lyricization
The process through which non-lyric texts (e.g., letters, miscellanies) are framed and read as lyric poetry.
Virginia Jackson’s critique of Emily Dickinson’s critical reception (Jackson, 2005).
Triangulated Address
The structure in which lyric addresses an addressee indirectly, creating a complex relationship between speaker, addressee, and audience.
Sappho’s invocation of Aphrodite, involving quoted dialogues within the poem (Carson, 2003).
Open Systems of Genre
Genres are defined relationally and are open-ended, evolving through historical moments and cultural practices rather than rigid definitions.
Ralph Cohen’s idea that genres adapt to include new members and redefine themselves over time (Cohen, 1986).
Mimetic vs. Non-Mimetic Lyric
Mimetic lyric imitates experience or consciousness (Romantic view), while non-mimetic lyric focuses on performative enunciation and apostrophic address.
Hegel’s romantic theory of lyric vs critiques by René Wellek and others (Hegel, 1975; Wellek, 1970).
Dramatic Monologue
A model for understanding lyric as a fictional representation of a speaker’s consciousness and situation, often reconstructed novelistically.
Critiqued by Culler for reducing lyric to narrative and neglecting performative aspects (Langbaum, 1957).
Lyric as Social Gesture
Lyric can function as a social act, engaging cultural or communal ideas, rather than purely personal or solipsistic expression.
Waller’s Go, Lovely Rose as an example of lyric involving social indirection.
Radical of Presentation
Fundamental modes of literary presentation (e.g., acting, speaking, singing, or writing) that underpin genre distinctions.
Northrop Frye’s theoretical framework for genres (Frye, 1957).
Contribution of “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Theoretical Reconceptualization of Genre
Culler advances the view of genres as historical, open systems rather than static, essentialist categories. This challenges traditional literary classifications and highlights genre’s transformative role in literary history. Reference: Cohen’s open system of genres as evolving through social and historical processes (Cohen, 1986).
2. Expansion of Lyric Studies
Redefines lyric as a non-mimetic and performative genre, emphasizing the importance of enunciation, apostrophe, and the “lyric present” over narrative or dramatic monologue models. Reference: Critique of dramatic monologue models of lyric (Culler, 1981; Langbaum, 1957).
3. Importance of Performativity in Lyric
Positions lyric poetry as performative, where the act of speaking or naming creates meaning, contributing to broader theories of performative language in literary studies. Reference: Apostrophe as a central trope in lyric’s performative framework (Culler, 2009).
4. Integration of Historical and Theoretical Perspectives on Genre
Bridges the gap between empirical and theoretical approaches to genre, advocating for a synthesis that reflects both historical practices and underlying structural possibilities. Reference: Gérard Genette’s historical basis for genres (Genette, 1992).
5. Critique of Romantic and Modern Conceptions of Lyric
Challenges Romantic views of lyric as pure subjective expression and critiques modern interpretations reducing lyric to dramatic monologue or fictional speech acts. Reference: Romantic theories of lyric by Hegel and critiques by René Wellek (Hegel, 1975; Wellek, 1970).
6. Development of a Process Theory of Genre
Emphasizes generic transformation as a dynamic interaction of social, cultural, and aesthetic factors, which redefines literary practices over time. Reference: Transformation of “The Excellent Ballad of George Barnwell” through various generic forms (Cohen, 1986).
7. Contribution to New Lyric Studies
Engages with contemporary debates on lyricization, particularly Virginia Jackson’s critique of 19th-century lyric formation, and argues for a capacious understanding of lyric across traditions. Reference: Jackson’s critique of Dickinson’s lyricization (Jackson, 2005).
8. Promotion of Transhistorical and Transnational Literary Analysis
Advocates for viewing lyric as a foundational genre across cultures and eras, challenging the marginalization of lyric in classical Western poetics. Reference: Comparisons of Western and non-Western literary traditions (Robbins, 2007; Miner, 2000).
9. Importance of Address in Lyric Poetry
Highlights the role of apostrophe and triangulated address in lyric, redefining its rhetorical and communicative dimensions in relation to both addressee and audience. Reference: Sappho’s triangulated address and apostrophic structures (Carson, 2003).
10. Genre as a Tool for Broad Comparative Literary Studies
Positions genre as essential for connecting literary traditions, enabling comparative and cross-period analysis that transcends narrow period-based approaches. Reference: Genre as an instrument for historical comparison (Robbins, 2007).
Examples of Critiques Through “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler
Literary Work
Critique Through Culler’s Framework
Key Theoretical Insights from Culler
Blake’s The Sick Rose
The apostrophic address to the rose establishes it as a sentient addressee, creating a performative moment that foregrounds the poetic act.
Apostrophe as a performative act that constitutes poetic meaning (Culler, 2009).
Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind
The wind is addressed as a powerful, almost divine force, and the poet’s apostrophe functions to merge the speaker’s identity with the wind’s transformative energy.
Apostrophe as a means of creating a transformative relationship between speaker and addressee (Culler, 2009).
Sappho’s Invocation of Aphrodite
The lyric triangulates address among the speaker, the goddess Aphrodite, and the audience, showcasing the complexity of poetic communication in the lyric tradition.
Triangulated address as a key feature of lyric, connecting speaker, addressee, and audience (Culler, 2009).
Waller’s Go, Lovely Rose
The rose becomes a metonym for the speaker’s argument about beauty and temporality, where the indirect apostrophic address softens a potentially direct critique of the beloved.
Lyric as a social gesture; apostrophe as a strategy for gracious and indirect communication (Culler, 2009).
Criticism Against “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler
1. Overemphasis on Apostrophe
Critics argue that Culler places too much theoretical weight on apostrophe as a defining characteristic of lyric poetry, potentially overlooking other poetic devices and broader contexts.
2. Limited Engagement with Non-Western Traditions
While Culler advocates for a transnational understanding of lyric, his analysis primarily engages with Western traditions, leaving non-Western lyrical traditions underexplored.
3. Challenges to the Performative View
Some scholars question the extent to which lyric poetry can be considered performative, suggesting that Culler’s framework may oversimplify the complex interplay between written text and performed speech.
4. Marginalization of Narrative Elements
Culler’s focus on the lyric present and non-mimetic qualities of lyric has been critiqued for downplaying the narrative dimensions that exist in many lyric poems.
5. Theoretical Abstraction
The highly abstract nature of Culler’s arguments, such as his conceptualization of genre as a process, may alienate readers seeking more concrete applications to literary analysis.
6. Neglect of Historical Materialism
Critics from a Marxist perspective argue that Culler’s emphasis on generic transformations as aesthetic or social acts neglects the influence of material and economic conditions on literary production.
7. Insufficient Rebuttal to Romanticism
Culler’s critique of Romantic theories of lyric as subjective expression has been deemed insufficiently nuanced, as it does not fully address the enduring appeal and adaptability of Romantic frameworks.
8. Ambiguity in Defining Genre Boundaries
While advocating for fluid and historical genre boundaries, Culler’s work has been criticized for lacking clarity on how to practically delineate or interpret genre in specific literary texts.
9. Neglect of Reader Reception
Critics have noted that Culler’s focus on the poetic act and its performative qualities often sidelines the role of reader reception and interpretation in shaping a work’s meaning.
10. Minimal Discussion of Visual and Digital Lyric Forms
In the context of evolving literary media, Culler’s framework has been critiqued for its limited applicability to visual and digital forms of lyric, which challenge traditional notions of genre.
Representative Quotations from “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation
“Genres are historical assumptions constructed by authors, audiences, and critics to serve communicative and aesthetic purposes.”
This statement emphasizes that genres are not static or natural categories but rather historical constructs shaped by societal and artistic needs. It reflects Culler’s argument that understanding genres requires acknowledging their evolving roles within social and cultural contexts.
“The lyric is characterized by its performativity, addressing an audience in a specific lyric present.”
Culler highlights the temporal immediacy of lyric poetry, suggesting that it functions as an event rather than a representation of past occurrences. This perspective shifts focus to the experiential and dynamic aspects of reading lyric poetry.
“The notion of apostrophe represents what is most embarrassing in lyric: the pretension to vatic action.”
Here, Culler critiques the figure of apostrophe as a bold and perhaps uncomfortable poetic act, where the poet assumes an almost prophetic role. This challenges readers to confront the lyric’s ambitious attempts to animate and interact with its subjects.
“Genres are open systems, defined in relation to one another.”
Culler adopts Ralph Cohen’s theory of genre as fluid and relational rather than rigid and isolated. This reinforces the idea that genres gain meaning through their interaction with other forms, constantly undergoing transformation.
“Reading something as an epic or as a novel involves sets of conventions and expectations even when the text is contesting or undermining them.”
This quotation underscores the importance of generic conventions in shaping both the production and reception of literature. Even when texts defy generic norms, these conventions remain integral to their interpretation.
“Lyric’s historical construction involves both poets and critics, as they contribute to its evolving definitions and boundaries.”
Culler acknowledges the collaborative role of poets and critics in shaping the concept of lyric over time. This perspective situates lyric as a genre deeply entwined with historical and critical discourse.
“Apostrophe works to constitute a poetic speaker taking up an active relationship to a world or element of the world constructed as addressee.”
This explanation of apostrophe emphasizes its function in creating a connection between the poet and their subject, showcasing lyric as a performative and relational genre.
“The test of generic categories is how far they help relate a work to others and activate aspects of works that make them rich, dynamic, and revealing.”
Culler defines the purpose of genre as facilitating connections between works and illuminating their unique qualities. This statement highlights genre’s critical function in literary analysis.
“The lyric strives to be an event in the special temporality of the lyric present.”
Culler reiterates the centrality of the “lyric present,” where the poem exists as an ongoing, immediate interaction. This concept reframes lyric as an active, unfolding experience rather than a static object.
“Foregrounding the generic category of lyric helps promote the possibility of comparisons with other traditions.”
By advocating for a broad conception of lyric, Culler argues for its potential to bridge different literary traditions, encouraging a transhistorical and cross-cultural understanding of the genre.
Suggested Readings: “Lyric, History and Genre” by Jonathan Culler
Alvergue, José Felipe. “Lyric Redress: The Racial Politics of Voice and American Personhood.” Criticism, vol. 60, no. 2, 2018, pp. 221–45. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.13110/criticism.60.2.0221. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
ECKERT, LINDSEY. “READING LYRIC’S FORM: THE WRITTEN HAND IN ALBUMS AND LITERARY ANNUALS.” ELH, vol. 85, no. 4, 2018, pp. 973–97. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26802860. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
“Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in 2010 in the journal PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association).
Introduction: “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler
“Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in 2010 in the journal PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association). This seminal work investigates the evolution and shifts in literary criticism, tracing its roots from ancient modes of judgment in poetic performances to modern interpretive frameworks. Culler explores critical transformations, particularly the break from classical genre-based criticism to a focus on literature as a mode of expression. He draws heavily on theorists like Jacques Rancière to articulate this paradigmatic shift and its implications for literary criticism. The essay underscores how the transition from mimesis to expression has diversified the field, giving rise to a wide array of interpretive methods, such as structuralism and poststructuralism, that engage with texts as dynamic systems of meaning. Its importance lies in framing the challenges and opportunities for criticism in the 21st century, particularly amidst technological advancements and changing conceptions of texts and media. Culler’s insights provoke deeper inquiry into the purpose and methodology of literary criticism, encouraging scholars to reconceptualize its role in a rapidly evolving intellectual and cultural landscape.
Summary of “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler
1. Historical Evolution of Literary Criticism
Literary criticism originated in ancient Greece as judgment of performance and songs, evolving into the evaluation of poetry as a verbal artifact (Ford, 2002).
Early criticism was tied to mimesis, analyzing the representation and rhetorical effectiveness of works based on their alignment with genre-specific norms.
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, a paradigm shift replaced genre-based criticism with the idea of literature as a medium of expression (Rancière, 1998).
This change emphasized the primacy of language, the indifference of style to content, and a focus on the “mute” nature of texts that critics must interpret (Rancière, p. 49).
3. Modern Frameworks of Criticism
The 19th and 20th centuries broadened criticism’s scope, moving beyond evaluating texts based on fixed norms. It became interpretative, elucidating deeper meanings such as historical contexts, authorial intent, or linguistic functions (Culler, 2010, p. 906).
Structuralism emerged as an “antiexpressive project” that enabled new interpretative approaches, focusing on systems of meaning over individual authorship.
4. Challenges in the 21st Century
Culler questions whether criticism should remain interpretative or develop new frameworks, particularly in light of literature’s shifting cultural role (Culler, 2010, p. 910).
The rise of electronic media challenges the traditional understanding of texts as fixed artifacts, suggesting an interactive model for both text and reader (Hayles, 2007).
5. Reconceptualizing Literature and Performance
The essay explores treating literature as performance rather than a static text, with examples like rap music emphasizing rhythm and rhyme as acts of language (Culler, 2010, p. 907).
Performance studies and textual criticism are positioned as avenues for bridging modern interpretative gaps.
6. Diverse Theoretical Contributions
Contributors discuss various paradigms, including:
Marxist criticism’s focus on literature as a reflection and agent of social transformation (Lecercle, 2010).
Derridean deconstruction, emphasizing the singularity and iterability of texts (Klein, 2010).
Cognitive approaches and narratology proposing empirically validated frameworks (Fludernik, 2010).
7. The Role of Media in Shaping Criticism
McGill and Parker argue for understanding texts as products of evolving media, challenging linear literary histories and fostering a multidisciplinary perspective (McGill & Parker, 2010).
Media adaptations, particularly film, can illuminate unique aspects of literary texts, suggesting new methods for analysis.
8. Aesthetic Categories and Literary Experience
Sianne Ngai introduces categories such as the cute, the zany, and the interesting to address contemporary aesthetic experiences across media and genres (Ngai, 2005).
These categories challenge conventional critical frameworks by integrating affective and conceptual dimensions.
9. Pedagogy and the Future of Criticism
Culler underscores the pedagogical need to adapt literary studies to contemporary cultural and technological shifts, fostering imaginative and critical engagement with texts as events (Culler, 2010, p. 914).
Literature is positioned as a tool for understanding historical, social, and cultural transformations, with criticism evolving to address these complexities.
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler
Representation of reality through art and literature, linked to genre-specific norms and rhetorical analysis.
Central to early literary criticism, which evaluated texts based on their alignment with genre norms and their ability to imitate life (Ford, 2002; Rancière, 1998).
Expression
Literature as a medium for expressing language, emotions, or societal conditions, breaking from mimesis.
A shift in the late 18th and 19th centuries; emphasizes language and meaning over genre-specific propriety (Rancière, p. 49).
Telos
The end goal or purpose of a genre, often defining its evaluative criteria.
Used in classical criticism to determine the success of literary works based on genre-specific aims (Culler, 2010, p. 905).
Contribution: Culler highlights structuralism’s influence in transforming literary criticism into a systematic inquiry into cultural and linguistic codes. He notes that structuralism dismantled the focus on authorial genius and introduced a broader examination of meaning-making systems.
Key Insight: Structuralism is credited with opening the “Pandora’s box” of critical possibilities, paving the way for cultural studies, feminist theory, and postcolonial criticism (Culler, 2010, p. 906).
Reference: “Structuralism, with its conviction that wherever there is meaning there are systems that make meaning possible, laid the groundwork for these investigations.”
Contribution: Culler emphasizes Derridean deconstruction’s role in reshaping criticism to focus on iterability and the singularity of texts. Derrida’s work challenges traditional ideas of textual wholeness, celebrating literature’s resistance to definitive interpretation.
Key Insight: Klein’s interpretation of Derrida frames deconstruction as the pursuit of “singularity” that reveals literature’s potential to transform meaning in diverse contexts (Culler, 2010, p. 909).
Reference: “Derrida’s critical performances attempt to respond to the singularity of the texts they treat, taking them on board while writing something equally irreducible.”
3. Expressive Theories
Contribution: The essay identifies the shift from mimetic poetics to expressive poetics in the 18th and 19th centuries as a foundational change in modern literary theory. It highlights how expressive theories emphasize literature as an articulation of emotions, historical conditions, and societal ideologies.
Key Insight: This model expanded the interpretative scope of criticism, making it possible to analyze texts as reflections of broader cultural and psychological dynamics (Culler, 2010, p. 906).
Reference: “The shift to a generalized expressive model allowed criticism to explore works as expressing everything from ideology to the impossibility of literature itself.”
4. Media and Digital Studies
Contribution: Culler’s discussion of electronic texts challenges traditional notions of literary works as fixed artifacts, proposing a model where texts are dynamic, interactive, and mutable.
Key Insight: Digital media reimagines the literary work as an instrument to be “played,” introducing new forms of interaction between readers and texts (Hayles, 2007, p. 910).
Reference: “Katherine Hayles notes that in electronic systems feedback loops enable different levels of interaction, transforming texts as readers perform them.”
5. Performance Studies
Contribution: Culler integrates insights from performance studies, proposing that literature can be understood as an event rather than a static text. He uses examples like rap music to illustrate the re-emergence of performance as central to literary discourse.
Key Insight: Performance studies suggest treating texts as acts of language and charting their effects rather than focusing solely on interpretation (Culler, 2010, p. 907).
Reference: “The rise of rap highlights the possibility of reverting to a notion of the work as an act of language.”
6. Cognitive Narratology
Contribution: By addressing the emergence of cognitive science in literary studies, Culler points to the integration of empirical methods with narratology to analyze narrative structures and their psychological impact.
Key Insight: Fludernik’s “natural” narratology proposes a paradigm shift towards explaining literary effects in terms of cognitive processing rather than traditional literary categories (Fludernik, 2010).
Reference: “An emerging ‘grand coalescence’ of narratology and cognitive science may produce a paradigm shift, though optimism should be tempered with caution.”
7. Marxist Criticism
Contribution: The essay calls for a return to political criticism, specifically Marxism, to address contemporary issues of capitalism and power dynamics in literature.
Key Insight: Lecercle positions literature as an agent of transformation, reflecting the language and worldview of societal structures (Lecercle, 2010, p. 908).
Reference: “Literature captures the past of history, the present of hegemony, and the utopian future of society.”
8. Aesthetic Theory
Contribution: Culler highlights Sianne Ngai’s work on aesthetic categories like the cute, zany, and interesting as tools for rethinking literary criticism.
Key Insight: These categories enable critics to approach aesthetic experience as mediated by emotions and consumerist culture (Ngai, 2005).
Reference: “Categories such as the cute, the zany, and the merely interesting are extremely useful for thinking about aesthetic experience in general.”
9. Philology and Historicism
Contribution: Hamacher and other contributors reimagine philology as a discipline for analyzing the linguistic and historical fissures within texts, proposing a return to textual criticism.
Key Insight: Philology focuses on the interval between language and knowledge, emphasizing the nuances of literary speech (Hamacher, 2010).
Reference: “Philology runs the fissure between the language of longing and the language of knowledge.”
Examples of Critiques Through “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler
Literary Work
Theoretical Framework
Critique/Interpretation
Reference from Culler
Flaubert’s Madame Bovary
Expressive Poetics
The novel can be analyzed as a reflection of the emerging 19th-century focus on individual emotions and societal tensions. It moves beyond mimetic norms to explore the language of alienation and despair.
“The new conception of literature observable in Flaubert focuses on internal tensions of modern reflection” (Culler, 2010, p. 906).
Melville’s Moby-Dick
Revision Narrative
Analyzing revisions and adaptations of the text, such as Ray Bradbury’s cinematic version, reveals cultural shifts in interpreting themes of colonialism and race.
“Revisions of texts are culturally symptomatic, revealing mutability through which societies reinterpret themselves” (Bryant, 2010).
Joyce’s Ulysses
Derridean Deconstruction
Joyce’s fragmented narrative style illustrates iterability, where meanings shift through repetition and reinterpretation, challenging notions of textual singularity.
“Singularity is necessarily divided, taking part in the generality of meaning without being closed on itself” (Klein, 2010, p. 909).
Celan’s Poetry
Trauma Theory and Hauntology
Celan’s work can be read as haunted by the historical trauma of the Holocaust, with spectral presences embodying memory and loss in language.
“Hauntology addresses dimensions of memory and trauma, particularly in poetic works like Celan’s” (Rambo, 2010).
Criticism Against “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler
Overemphasis on Historical Evolution Critics argue that Culler’s extensive focus on the historical evolution of criticism—such as the transition from mimesis to expression—overshadows more contemporary and urgent theoretical concerns, limiting its applicability to present-day challenges.
Limited Engagement with Non-Western Literatures The essay predominantly centers on Western literary traditions and paradigms, failing to adequately address critical frameworks from non-Western or marginalized literatures, which are increasingly vital in global literary discourse.
Ambiguity in Theoretical Future While Culler raises questions about the future of criticism, he offers limited concrete solutions or new paradigms, leaving many of his inquiries unresolved and overly abstract.
Neglect of Practical Criticism The essay focuses on theoretical developments but provides minimal guidance on applying these paradigms to practical criticism, leaving a gap for readers seeking actionable methods.
Reliance on Established Theorists Critics note that Culler heavily references established figures such as Derrida, Rancière, and Foucault, which may reinforce traditional academic hierarchies rather than exploring emerging or alternative voices.
Overgeneralization of Paradigms Some scholars suggest that Culler’s categorization of paradigms, such as expressive poetics and structuralism, oversimplifies their diverse and nuanced applications in literary criticism.
Neglect of Aesthetic Pleasure The essay downplays the role of aesthetic pleasure and the reader’s emotional engagement with literature, which many believe remains central to literary studies.
Technological Challenges Underexplored While Culler mentions the impact of digital texts, critics argue that he fails to fully explore the complexities and implications of technology on literature and criticism in the 21st century.
Fragmentation of Ideas The essay’s structure, which integrates multiple theoretical perspectives, has been critiqued for being overly fragmented, making it difficult to identify a unified thesis or direction.
Representative Quotations from “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation
“Only when singers became ‘poets,’ craftsmen of words rather than performers, could a properly ‘poetic’ literary criticism emerge as the special knowledge…”
Highlights the historical evolution of literary criticism from oral traditions to text-based analysis, emphasizing the transformation of literature into an artifact that invites systematic critique.
“This cosmological change can be expressed strictly as the term-by-term reversal of the four principles that structured the system of literature as mimesis.”
Describes the shift from classical concepts of literature (mimesis) to modern paradigms, where language, equality of representation, and writing replace fiction, genre norms, and rhetorical propriety.
“Criticism may, of course, still pursue the evaluative project, but…it must inquire what the norms should be for the evaluation of a given text.”
Explains the broadened scope of criticism in the post-normative era, where critics question the very foundations of their evaluative criteria.
“The work is mute, and the critic must speak for it, unfolding the hidden meaning.”
Reflects the interpretive task of criticism under the expressive model, emphasizing the role of critics in uncovering and articulating the deeper significance of a literary work.
“The expressive model opens a vast range of possibilities for literary criticism, enabling the efflorescence of criticism in the second half of the twentieth century.”
Suggests how expressive paradigms have expanded the domain of literary criticism, allowing diverse approaches and interpretations.
“Will criticism continue to be primarily interpretive? Are there new models of interpretation?”
Raises questions about the future direction of literary criticism, urging a reevaluation of its priorities and methodologies in the face of changing cultural and technological landscapes.
“Electronic texts can literalize (and perhaps trivialize) this condition. More significantly, they can lead to a ‘reimagining of the literary work as an instrument to be played.’”
Considers the impact of digital technology on literature, highlighting the potential for interactive texts to reshape our understanding of literary works as dynamic and evolving entities.
“In the humanities, one might conjecture, we prefer to advance through rereading, reinterpreting texts and movements of the past.”
Suggests that progress in literary criticism often arises from revisiting and recontextualizing historical texts, underlining the iterative nature of critical thought.
“Structuralism…laid the groundwork for these investigations…encouraged attention to reading and to such matters as the cultural construction of gender.”
Credits structuralism for its pivotal role in establishing the theoretical foundations of various critical fields, such as gender and cultural studies, despite its later critiques.
“Literary criticism, in particular, advances by rereading, which is also invention, of course, but which legitimizes itself under the banner of fidelity…”
Highlights the dual nature of literary criticism as both interpretative and creative, where reengagement with texts reveals overlooked or misinterpreted elements.
Suggested Readings: “Introduction: Critical Paradigms” by Jonathan Culler
Culler, Jonathan. “Problems in the ‘History’ of Contemporary Criticism.” The Journal of the Midwest Modern Language Association, vol. 17, no. 1, 1984, pp. 3–15. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1315457. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
Culler, Jonathan. “Lyric, History, and Genre.” New Literary History, vol. 40, no. 4, 2009, pp. 879–99. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40666452. Accessed 19 Dec. 2024.
“On The Sublime” by Longinus, translated by W.H. Fyfe and revised by Donald Russell, first appeared in 1995 under Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England.
Introduction: “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
“On The Sublime” by Longinus, translated by W.H. Fyfe and revised by Donald Russell, first appeared in 1995 under Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England. As a foundational work of literary criticism, “On The Sublime” explores the nature and sources of elevated writing, providing profound insights into how sublimity in literature transcends persuasion to transport readers or listeners into a state of exalted emotional and intellectual experience. The text critiques earlier treatments of the sublime, particularly those lacking practical guidance, emphasizing that true greatness in literature combines innate genius with methodical refinement. This blend of nature and art enables expressions that are not merely convincing but transformative. Longinus discusses essential elements of the sublime, such as grandeur of conception, emotional intensity, and stylistic excellence, alongside practical techniques like figurative language and rhythmical harmony. The treatise remains a cornerstone of literary theory, influencing the Romantic era’s emphasis on imagination and elevating the pursuit of literary excellence as a means of touching the divine in human expression.
Summary of “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
Introduction to Sublimity
Definition and Importance: Sublimity is “a consummate excellence and distinction of language” that transcends persuasion to “transport [listeners] out of themselves” (p. 163).
Critique of Caecilius: Caecilius’ treatise on the sublime failed to show practical methods for achieving grandeur, focusing more on examples than on systematic instruction (p. 161).
Nature and Role of Sublimity
Genius vs. Art: Sublimity arises from a blend of natural genius and systematic art. While “Nature knows no law,” it needs “the curb as often as the spur” for balance (p. 165).
Impact on the Audience: Sublime expressions have the power to amaze and dominate the listener, akin to a “bolt of lightning” (p. 163).
Sources of Sublimity
Grand Conceptions: The power of lofty thoughts, often stemming from noble and expansive minds (p. 181).
Vehement Emotion: Genuine and well-placed emotions elevate expression, imbuing it with a “divine spirit” (p. 183).
Figures of Speech and Thought: These stylistic tools, including metaphor and hyperbaton, enhance sublimity when used skillfully (p. 225).
Nobility of Language: A precise choice of words and metaphors contributes to grandeur (p. 257).
Dignified Arrangement: A harmonious structure of sentences and rhythms creates an effect of majesty (p. 285).
Common Pitfalls
Tumidity: Overblown and inflated language that attempts grandeur but results in absurdity (p. 167).
Puerility: Over-refined and excessively clever expressions that lead to triviality (p. 169).
Frigidity: Overly ornate or misplaced phrases that lack force, such as Timaeus’ odd historical comparisons (p. 171).
Techniques to Achieve Sublimity
Visualization (Phantasia): Creating vivid images for the audience. For instance, Euripides’ portrayal of madness in Orestes compels readers to “almost see what he visualized” (p. 217).
Hyperbaton: Rearranging word order to mimic the natural vehemence of emotion. Demosthenes uses this to create suspense and impact (p. 239).
Amplification: Building an argument with increasing force through repetition and elaboration. Demosthenes’ speech on Marathon exemplifies this technique (p. 227).
Critique of Past and Contemporary Styles
Homer’s Dual Genius: Homer exemplifies sublimity in the Iliad but shows a decline in energy in the Odyssey, reflecting the ebb of genius (p. 195).
Plato’s Borrowing: Plato adapted Homeric grandeur into prose, blending philosophical depth with poetic imagery (p. 211).
Modern Decline: Sublimity suffers in an age dominated by materialism and idleness. Freedom and noble competition, hallmarks of earlier societies, fostered great literature (p. 305).
Role of Emotion and Passion
Sublimity is deeply tied to emotions, which, when misaligned, lead to “pseudo-bacchanalian” excesses or tedious sentimentality (p. 169).
Figures of inquiry and apostrophe heighten emotional engagement, as seen in Demosthenes’ dramatic oath “by those who risked their lives at Marathon” (p. 227).
Final Reflections
Sublimity transcends correctness, valuing greatness over technical perfection. As Longinus writes, “Correctness escapes censure: greatness earns admiration as well” (p. 277).
He warns against trivial words or excessive conciseness, both of which diminish grandeur (p. 293).
Conclusion and Legacy
Sublimity and Divine Proximity: True sublimity brings us closer to the divine, exceeding human limitations (p. 277).
Call to Excellence: Longinus exhorts writers to aspire to greatness, transcending mediocrity through imitation of the best models and cultivation of the soul’s grandeur (p. 303).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
Definition of Sublimity: Longinus emphasizes sublimity as an aesthetic quality that transcends mere beauty, characterized by grandeur and the power to elevate the soul (Longinus, Fyfe translation).
Contribution: Introduced the idea of sublimity as a critical aesthetic category distinct from Aristotelian mimesis or Horatian decorum.
Reference: “Sublimity is the echo of a noble mind” (On The Sublime, Ch. 9).
Emotion in Sublime Writing: Longinus highlights that sublimity arises from the writer’s capacity to convey intense emotion.
Contribution: Prefigures the Romantic emphasis on the emotional and affective power of literature.
Reference: “True sublimity uplifts our souls; we are filled with a proud exaltation and a sense of joy” (Ch. 7).
3. Stylistic Theory: Importance of Diction and Arrangement
Role of Word Choice and Arrangement: Longinus argues for the deliberate selection and arrangement of words to achieve sublimity.
Contribution: Lays groundwork for later stylistic theories, such as those of Cicero and modern structuralists, by emphasizing the importance of form and harmony.
Reference: “The choice of words is the light of thought” (Ch. 30).
Imitation of Great Writers: Longinus advocates studying and emulating the works of great predecessors to cultivate sublimity.
Contribution: Introduced an early theory of intertextuality, highlighting the dialogic relationship between texts.
Reference: “We must select the greatest examples to emulate” (Ch. 13).
5. Psychological Theory: The Sublime’s Effect on the Reader
Impact on the Audience: Longinus focuses on the reader’s or listener’s psychological response, describing sublimity as a force that overwhelms and inspires awe.
Contribution: Anticipates theories of reader-response criticism by emphasizing the subjective experience of the audience.
Reference: “The effect of sublimity is not persuasion but transport” (Ch. 1).
6. Critique of Moral and Cultural Decay
Relationship Between Morality and Literature: Longinus critiques contemporary literature for losing its sublimity due to moral corruption and the absence of liberty.
Contribution: Links aesthetic decline to societal and ethical degeneration, influencing later Marxist and cultural theories.
Reference: “The decline in sublimity parallels the enslavement of the human spirit” (Ch. 44).
7. Universalism in Literature
Timelessness of Sublime Works: Longinus posits that true sublimity transcends cultural and temporal boundaries, appealing universally to all audiences.
Contribution: Advocates for a universal standard in literature, contrasting with relativistic theories.
Reference: “Works that are truly sublime please all people at all times” (Ch. 7).
8. Foundations of Romanticism
Sublimity as a Natural Genius: Longinus’s emphasis on innate genius and inspiration over rigid rules anticipates Romantic ideals.
Contribution: Serves as a precursor to Romantic theories of creativity and the sublime as a natural and emotional force.
Reference: “Genius needs the curb as often as the spur” (Ch. 35).
9. Literary Criticism: Elevation of Taste and Judgment
Discerning Sublimity: Longinus encourages critical discernment in identifying sublimity, combining instinct with intellectual analysis.
Contribution: Pioneers ideas of taste and literary judgment foundational to later aesthetic theories by Burke and Kant.
Reference: “The sublime depends on insight as much as inspiration” (Ch. 5).
Examples of Critiques Through “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
Literary Work
Aspect Critiqued
Analysis Through Longinus’ “On The Sublime”
Key Reference from Longinus
Homer’s Iliad
Grandeur of Imagery
Longinus praises Homer’s ability to create vast and vivid imagery that evokes awe and grandeur, achieving sublimity.
“Homer, like the ocean, always remains grand even when he subsides” (Ch. 9).
Demosthenes’ Oratory
Emotional Power
Longinus admires Demosthenes’ ability to convey profound emotional intensity, lifting his speeches to the sublime through passion and forceful rhetoric.
“The true sublime resides in emotion and thought” (Ch. 7).
Sappho’s Poetry
Effective Use of Pathos
Sappho’s emotional expressions, especially in her Ode to Anactoria, are highlighted as models of sublimity due to their precision and intensity in conveying human passion.
“Sappho’s fragment stirs the soul through the intensity of emotion” (Ch. 10).
Plato’s Philosophical Dialogues
Sublimity of Thought
Longinus appreciates Plato’s philosophical writing for its lofty ideas and moral vision, achieving sublimity through intellectual depth rather than linguistic ornamentation.
“Plato often reaches sublime heights by the nobility of his thoughts” (Ch. 12).
Criticism Against “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
Subjectivity in Defining Sublimity: Critics argue that Longinus’ definition of sublimity relies heavily on subjective criteria, such as personal emotional response, making it less applicable as a universal standard.
Ambiguity in Core Concepts: The treatise lacks a clear and systematic definition of what constitutes sublimity, blending moral, intellectual, and aesthetic elements without clear boundaries.
Fragmented Structure: The incomplete nature of the text leaves many ideas undeveloped, leading to interpretive challenges and speculation about Longinus’ full intentions.
Overemphasis on Rhetoric: Some scholars critique Longinus for focusing predominantly on rhetorical texts, thus marginalizing other forms of literary sublimity, such as narrative or drama.
Criticism Against Its Relevance
Limited Scope in Literary Application: The examples and analysis are largely confined to classical texts, making the principles less directly applicable to diverse literary traditions and modern works.
Neglect of Non-Western Traditions: Critics point out that Longinus’ framework excludes or fails to address the aesthetic and literary traditions of non-Western cultures, reflecting a Eurocentric bias.
Criticism Against The Translation by W. H. Fyfe
Loss of Nuance in Translation: Some scholars believe that Fyfe’s translation, while eloquent, occasionally sacrifices the precision of Longinus’ original Greek phrasing.
Historical Contextualization: Fyfe’s interpretation of Longinus has been critiqued for not adequately situating the work within its broader historical and philosophical context, potentially altering its meaning.
Criticism Against Methodology
Overreliance on Classical Exemplars: Longinus’ repeated citation of classical authors, such as Homer and Plato, may alienate readers seeking examples beyond the Greek and Roman literary canon.
Moralistic Undertones: The association of sublimity with moral greatness is seen as problematic by some, as it conflates aesthetic judgment with ethical considerations.
Representative Quotations from “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe with Explanation
Quotation
Explanation
“Sublimity is the echo of a noble mind.”
Longinus asserts that true sublimity in writing reflects the grandeur and nobility of the author’s mind. A lofty thought expressed eloquently mirrors the author’s intellectual and moral greatness.
“The effect of genius is not to persuade the audience but rather to transport them out of themselves.”
Sublimity is more than mere persuasion—it inspires and elevates the audience, leaving them awestruck and emotionally moved, transcending ordinary experience.
“Genius needs the curb as often as the spur.”
While natural talent is essential, it must be disciplined by method and structure. Without this balance, raw genius risks excess and incoherence.
“For what is truly great bears repeated consideration; it is difficult, nay, impossible, to resist its effect.”
Sublime works stand the test of time and provoke profound thought. Their impact endures, influencing readers or listeners each time they engage with the text.
“A well-timed flash of sublimity shatters everything like a bolt of lightning.”
Sublimity, when perfectly executed, has an immediate, overwhelming effect akin to the sudden and awe-inspiring power of lightning, striking and captivating the audience instantaneously.
“It is by some natural instinct that we admire, not the small streams … but the Nile, the Danube, the Rhine, and above all the Ocean.”
Longinus emphasizes humanity’s innate admiration for grandeur and magnificence, whether in nature or art. This admiration drives us to value the sublime over the ordinary.
“What is useful or necessary is easily obtained by man; it is always the unusual which wins our wonder.”
Ordinary achievements do not inspire the same admiration as extraordinary ones. The sublime captivates by presenting something extraordinary or transcendent.
“We must consider whether some of these passages have merely some such outward show of grandeur… if all this is peeled off, they may not turn out to be empty bombast.”
Longinus warns against superficial grandeur in writing, which may appear impressive but lacks depth or true substance upon closer examination.
“The true sublime naturally elevates us: uplifted with a sense of proud exaltation, we are filled with joy and pride, as if we had ourselves produced the very thing we heard.”
Sublime works evoke a sense of shared accomplishment and pride in the audience, lifting their spirits and engaging them deeply.
“Weight, grandeur, and urgency in writing are very largely produced by the use of ‘visualizations’ (phantasiai).”
Longinus explains the importance of vivid imagery and mental visualization in achieving sublimity. By making the audience feel as if they are witnessing events firsthand, the writer creates an intense and immediate emotional impact.
Suggested Readings: “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
Godolphin, F. R. B. “The Basic Critical Doctrine of ‘Longinus,’ On the Sublime.” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, vol. 68, 1937, pp. 172–83. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/283262. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
O’Gorman, Ned. “Longinus’s Sublime Rhetoric, or How Rhetoric Came into Its Own.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly, vol. 34, no. 2, 2004, pp. 71–89. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40232412. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
de Jonge, Casper C., and Arjan A. Nijk. “Longinus, On the Sublime 12.4-5: Demosthenes and Cicero.” Mnemosyne, vol. 72, no. 5, 2019, pp. 766–90. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26787697. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
Campana, Joseph. “On Not Defending Poetry: Spenser, Suffering, and the Energy of Affect.” PMLA, vol. 120, no. 1, 2005, pp. 33–48. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25486143. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
“Lyric Words, not Worlds” by Jonathan Culler, first appeared in Journal of Literary Theory in 2017 (Vol. 11, Issue 1, pp. 32–39), challenges the prevalent notion that lyric poetry creates a fictional world akin to narrative fiction, a model that risks misrepresenting the genre’s distinctiveness.
Introduction: “Lyric Words, not Worlds” by Jonathan Culler
“Lyric Words, not Worlds” by Jonathan Culler, first appeared in Journal of Literary Theory in 2017 (Vol. 11, Issue 1, pp. 32–39), challenges the prevalent notion that lyric poetry creates a fictional world akin to narrative fiction, a model that risks misrepresenting the genre’s distinctiveness. Culler argues that lyrics should not be primarily interpreted as fictional constructs but rather as forms of epideictic discourse—akin to oratory—that assert truths about our world through poetic form. Highlighting the tension between fictional elements (e.g., characters, minimal plots) and the ritualistic dimensions of lyric, Culler proposes that the ritualistic, characterized by performative and iterative features, holds structural priority in lyric poetry. By emphasizing brevity, rhythmic patterning, and the capacity for reiteration, Culler situates lyric as an event itself rather than a representation of events. His insights reinvigorate discussions in literary theory by advocating for a framework that appreciates the lyric’s unique authority, distinct from the narrative or fictional modes. This work has significantly influenced debates on lyric’s nature, especially in reassessing its relationship with mimesis, speaker dynamics, and the formal conventions that empower its claims to truth and universality.
Summary of “Lyric Words, not Worlds” by Jonathan Culler
The Misapplication of Fictional World Theory to Lyric Poetry Culler critiques the trend of interpreting lyric poetry through the lens of narrative fiction, where poems are said to construct fictional worlds. He asserts that this approach risks trivializing lyric poetry by reducing its universal claims to the subjective expressions of a fictional persona (Culler, 2017, p. 33). He highlights the inadequacy of this framework for understanding the authority and intent of lyric poetry.
Lyric as Epideictic Discourse, Not Mimesis Drawing on classical theories, Culler aligns lyric poetry with epideictic discourse, a rhetorical form focused on praise or blame, rather than mimesis or imitation (Culler, 2017, p. 34). He argues that lyric poetry often strives to function as an event in itself, rather than as a representation of events.
The Role of Fictional Elements in Lyric While acknowledging the presence of fictional elements, such as personas or minimal narratives, Culler maintains that these are secondary to the ritualistic and performative dimensions of lyric poetry. The authority of a lyric stems from its form, not from the creation of a fictional speaker or world (Culler, 2017, p. 35).
The Ritualistic Dimension of Lyric Poetry Culler emphasizes the ritualistic aspects of lyric, including its iterative nature, performative unity, and ceremonial elements. These features invite readers to occupy the position of the lyric “I” and make the poem’s language memorable and repeatable (Culler, 2017, pp. 35–36).
Critique of the Dominant Lyric Model Culler challenges the dominance of the dramatic monologue model in lyric pedagogy, which posits that the speaker is always a constructed persona. He argues that this model obscures the unique qualities of lyric poetry, particularly its focus on rhythm, linguistic patterning, and ritual (Culler, 2017, p. 37).
Tension Between Fictional and Ritualistic Modes Drawing on Roland Greene’s analysis, Culler describes the interplay between fictional and ritualistic modes in lyric sequences, such as Shakespeare’s sonnets. While some sequences create a semblance of narrative, the ritualistic elements often dominate in isolated lyrics (Culler, 2017, pp. 36–37).
Lyric’s Brevity and Authority Culler underscores the brevity of lyric poetry, which resists narrative elaboration and fosters a focus on memorable language and epiphanic moments. This brevity supports the lyric’s authority, derived from its sensuous form and conventions rather than fictional coherence (Culler, 2017, p. 38).
Rejecting the Fictional World Hypothesis for Lyric Culler questions the utility of framing lyric as generating a fictional world, given its brevity and lack of narrative depth. Instead, he advocates for treating lyrics as assertions about our world, which are authorized by their poetic form (Culler, 2017, p. 38).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Lyric Words, not Worlds” by Jonathan Culler
Term/Concept
Definition/Explanation
Context in the Article
Lyric as Epideictic Discourse
A rhetorical mode focused on praise or blame, distinct from mimesis (imitation of action).
Culler positions lyric poetry closer to oratory than fiction, emphasizing its intent to assert truths about the world (Culler, 2017, p. 34).
Fictional World Theory
The notion that lyric poems generate fictional worlds akin to narrative fiction.
Culler critiques this approach as inappropriate for understanding the unique authority of lyric poetry (Culler, 2017, p. 33).
Ritualistic Dimension
Elements of lyric that emphasize performance, repetition, and ceremonial qualities.
Ritualistic elements are central to lyric, inviting readers to occupy the position of the lyric “I” and fostering the poem’s reiterative nature (Culler, 2017, pp. 35–36).
The quality of being repeatable or reproducible, a key feature of lyric poetry.
Culler highlights iterability as fundamental to the ritualistic function of lyric poetry, differentiating it from narrative (Culler, 2017, p. 37).
Sensuous Form
The aesthetic and formal qualities of a poem, such as rhythm, rhyme, and linguistic patterning.
According to Culler, the sensuous form of a lyric is a primary source of its authority and memorability (Culler, 2017, p. 38).
Lyric as an Event
The concept that a lyric seeks to be an occurrence or experience itself, not just a representation of an event.
Culler contrasts this with narrative, which relies on plot and fictional worlds (Culler, 2017, p. 34).
Tension Between Fictional and Ritualistic
The dialectical interplay between fictional elements (e.g., speakers, plots) and ritualistic qualities (e.g., repetition, performance).
Culler uses this tension to analyze lyric sequences, such as sonnet cycles, while noting that ritualistic elements often dominate in isolated lyrics (Culler, 2017, pp. 36–37).
Authority of Poetic Form
The legitimacy or weight of claims made by lyric poetry, derived from its form and conventions rather than fictional constructs.
Lyric poems derive authority from their form, enabling them to make universal claims without reliance on fictional worlds (Culler, 2017, p. 38).
Lyric Present
The focus on the immediate act of enunciation within a poem, often subsuming past events.
Exemplified in ballads and other forms, where refrains and apostrophic addresses foreground the present of enunciation (Culler, 2017, p. 37).
Overheard Address
The pretense that the poet is speaking to someone else, not the reader, creating an “I-Thou” dynamic.
Culler draws on Northrop Frye’s concept to explain lyric’s indirect, ritualistic communication style (Culler, 2017, p. 37).
Epiphany in Lyric
Moments of insight or revelation presented in brief, often symbolic forms.
Lyric poetry’s brevity and resistance to narrative allow it to focus on epiphanic moments, as seen in haikus and symbolic imagery (Culler, 2017, p. 38).
Contribution of “Lyric Words, not Worlds” by Jonathan Culler to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Critique of Fictional World Theory in Lyric Poetry
Culler challenges the application of fictional world theory to lyric poetry, arguing that this approach trivializes the genre by reducing its universal assertions to subjective claims made by fictional personas (Culler, 2017, p. 33).
This critique refines how literary theory differentiates between narrative and non-narrative forms, redirecting focus toward the unique rhetorical and formal qualities of lyric poetry.
2. Revival of Classical Epideictic Discourse
By framing lyric poetry as a form of epideictic discourse, Culler aligns it with rhetorical traditions that emphasize praise and blame rather than mimesis (Culler, 2017, p. 34).
This contribution broadens the theoretical understanding of lyric by situating it within rhetorical and performative traditions, challenging the dominance of mimetic frameworks in literary theory.
3. Integration of Ritualistic Theory in Lyric Studies
Culler foregrounds the ritualistic dimension of lyric poetry, emphasizing its iterative, performative, and ceremonial nature (Culler, 2017, pp. 35–36).
This approach intersects with theories of ritual and performativity, providing a framework that highlights the communal and reenactive qualities of lyric poetry.
4. Authority of Poetic Form Over Narrative Constructs
He argues that the authority of lyric stems from its poetic form, rhythm, and conventions rather than from the creation of fictional speakers or worlds (Culler, 2017, p. 38).
This insight contributes to formalist and structuralist theories by reinforcing the idea that form itself carries meaning and legitimacy in literature.
Culler’s emphasis on the lyric’s invitational structure, where readers adopt the voice of the lyric “I,” adds a performative layer to reader-response theory (Culler, 2017, pp. 35–36).
This perspective advances the understanding of how readers engage with lyric texts as active participants rather than passive interpreters.
6. Reassessment of Speaker and Persona in Lyric
Culler critiques the dominant pedagogical model that treats every lyric as a dramatic monologue with a constructed persona, arguing that this framework limits the genre’s interpretive scope (Culler, 2017, p. 37).
This reassessment informs narrative theory by differentiating between the roles of speaker, persona, and lyric “I.”
7. Contribution to Short Form Theories
By emphasizing the brevity and epiphanic potential of lyric poetry, Culler situates the lyric within theories that prioritize conciseness and symbolic intensity (Culler, 2017, p. 38).
This perspective complements and enriches theories that analyze shorter literary forms, such as haikus, aphorisms, and epigrams.
8. Enrichment of Performative Theories
Culler conceptualizes the lyric as an event rather than a representation, integrating performative theories with poetic analysis (Culler, 2017, p. 34).
This aligns lyric poetry with broader discussions of performativity in literature and the arts.
9. Tension Between Fictional and Ritualistic Dimensions
Culler identifies the dialectical tension between fictional and ritualistic elements in lyric poetry, particularly in lyric sequences (Culler, 2017, pp. 36–37).
This tension provides a nuanced model for analyzing hybrid poetic forms and extends the scope of structuralist and post-structuralist debates on genre.
Examples of Critiques Through “Lyric Words, not Worlds” by Jonathan Culler
Literary Work
Critique Through Culler’s Framework
Key References from Culler
Philip Larkin’s “This Be the Verse”
Culler critiques reading the poem as a fictional speaker’s complaint about personal experiences, arguing that such interpretations trivialize its universal assertions about human relationships and generational flaws. The poem should be treated as a ritualistic utterance with claims about the real world, not a fictional construct (Culler, 2017, p. 33).
“Accounts of lyric as fiction make little allowance for such poems… they claim to cast values in a new light, to disclose aspects of the world” (Culler, 2017, p. 33).
W. B. Yeats’s “Crazy Jane Talks with the Bishop”
Although attributed to the persona of Crazy Jane, the poem’s assertions are ultimately about universal truths, such as the tension between love and morality. Culler’s perspective challenges the view of this as merely fictional discourse, advocating instead for its treatment as a ritualistic and performative statement authorized by the poet (Culler, 2017, p. 34).
“We ultimately take the statements of the poem as about our world… not some special textual world, and treat them as authorized by the poet” (Culler, 2017, p. 34).
Shakespeare’s Sonnets
Culler’s analysis of lyric sequences identifies a tension between ritualistic and fictional dimensions. While the sonnets create a semblance of a plot and speaker, their primary appeal lies in their ritualistic aspects, including the iterative and ceremonial qualities of their language (Culler, 2017, pp. 36–37).
“The tension between the ritualistic and the fictional is clearly central, but lyrical sequences with reconstructable plots are relatively rare” (Culler, 2017, pp. 36–37).
Baudelaire’s Les Fleurs du Mal
Culler argues that despite the ubiquity of first-person narration, there is no consistent fictional speaker or plot in this collection. Instead, the attraction lies in its ritualistic and sensuous depiction of the grim and seductive aspects of our world, which the poems render memorable and authoritative through their form (Culler, 2017, p. 38).
“The collection’s attraction lies especially in the range of attitudes… as readers accede to a distinctive vision of the world – not a fictional universe but our world” (p. 38).
Criticism Against “Lyric Words, not Worlds” by Jonathan Culler
1. Oversimplification of Fictional Elements
Critics may argue that Culler downplays the importance of fictional elements in lyric poetry, such as personas and narratives, which are integral to many readers’ engagement with the genre. His dismissal of these aspects risks neglecting the complexity and diversity of poetic expression.
2. Limited Scope of Epideictic Model
While emphasizing the epideictic nature of lyric, Culler’s framework might be criticized for being overly restrictive, as it overlooks other rhetorical and narrative functions that lyric poetry can fulfill, such as personal confession or political commentary.
3. Neglect of Reader-Response Variability
Culler’s focus on ritualistic and performative aspects may undervalue the subjective experiences of individual readers, who might interpret lyrics through personal, fictionalized, or narrative lenses, contrary to his theoretical priorities.
4. Insufficient Attention to Modern Lyric Trends
The emphasis on classical and formalist traditions in Culler’s analysis could be seen as neglecting contemporary lyric forms that incorporate multimedia, fragmented structures, or overt fictionalization, thereby making his framework less applicable to modern developments.
5. Underestimation of Hybrid Genres
Culler’s strict delineation between lyric and narrative could be challenged for failing to accommodate hybrid genres, such as narrative poems or prose poetry, which deliberately blur these boundaries.
6. Questionable Rejection of Fictional Speaker Model
Some theorists might dispute Culler’s rejection of the fictional speaker model, arguing that it remains a valuable interpretive tool for understanding the complexities of voice, identity, and perspective in lyric poetry.
7. Overemphasis on Ritualistic Priority
By asserting the ritualistic over the fictional, Culler risks privileging form and performance at the expense of content, potentially reducing the interpretive richness of lyrics that rely heavily on narrative or character-driven elements.
8. Lack of Empirical Validation
Culler’s theoretical arguments rely heavily on abstract principles without substantial empirical evidence from a broad range of lyric traditions, which could weaken the universality of his claims.
9. Potential Misinterpretation of Poetic Authority
Culler’s insistence on poetic authority derived from form may be seen as limiting, as it disregards the ways in which social, historical, and cultural contexts also shape the reception and legitimacy of lyric poetry.
Representative Quotations from “Lyric Words, not Worlds” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation
“The notion that a lyric poem generates a world seems derived from the analysis of narrative fiction and risks setting the study of lyric poetry on the wrong track.”
Culler critiques the application of narrative-based frameworks to lyric poetry, arguing that such approaches misrepresent its unique form and function.
“The positing of a fictional world created by a lyric poem and including a fictional speaker or persona risks trivializing lyric poems.”
He suggests that framing lyrics as fictional constructs undermines their ability to make universal claims and diminishes their poetic authority.
“A superior default model for thinking about lyric, then, is the classical concept of lyric as epideictic discourse, closer to oratory than to mimesis.”
Culler proposes epideictic discourse as a more fitting framework for understanding lyric poetry, emphasizing its rhetorical nature over its mimetic elements.
“The lyric characteristically strives to be itself an event rather than a representation of an event.”
This redefinition positions lyric as a performative and experiential form, differentiating it from narrative genres that rely on representation.
“Those who are interested in knowing what Larkin felt about his family and families in general can undertake biographical research, but the poet is responsible for the assertions of a poem.”
Culler emphasizes that the claims of a lyric poem transcend the poet’s personal experiences, directing focus on the universal and authoritative nature of the poetic form.
“To treat this poem as the discourse of a fictional speaker is to set aside as marginal everything that distinguishes this language from the rant of a drunk in a bar.”
He critiques the fictional speaker model for failing to account for the carefully constructed nature of lyric poetry, which grants it significance and authority.
“Lyric is utterance uniquely disposed to be re-uttered, offering a performative unity into which readers and auditors may enter at will.”
Culler highlights the ritualistic quality of lyric poetry, focusing on its performative and reiterative aspects that invite reader participation.
“Most lyrics are encountered either in isolation or in a collection where there may be little plot to reconstruct.”
This emphasizes the contrast between the narrative demands of fiction and the focus on affects, rhythms, and verbal techniques in lyric poetry.
“A novel derives its authority from the texture, the richness of the world it posits, but a poem derives authority from its sensuous form and from the conventions of the genre.”
He underscores the importance of poetic form and genre conventions as the primary sources of authority in lyric poetry, in contrast to the narrative richness of fiction.
“The concept of ritual encourages concentration on the formal properties of lyric utterance, from rhythm and rhyme to other sorts of linguistic patterning.”
Culler draws attention to the formal and ritualistic elements of lyric poetry that distinguish it from prose and narrative fiction, emphasizing its aesthetic and performative dimensions.
Suggested Readings: “Lyric Words, not Worlds” by Jonathan Culler
“The Bait” by John Donne, first appeared in 1633 as part of his posthumously published collection Poems by J.D., echoes Christopher Marlowe’s “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love,” adopting a seductive tone to invite the beloved into a world of idyllic beauty and intimacy.
Introduction: “The Bait” by John Donne
“The Bait” by John Donne, first appeared in 1633 as part of his posthumously published collection Poems by J.D., echoes Christopher Marlowe’s “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love,” adopting a seductive tone to invite the beloved into a world of idyllic beauty and intimacy. The poem explores themes of love, attraction, and the natural magnetism of the beloved, portraying her as an irresistible force to which even the natural world succumbs. Its innovative imagery, such as comparing the beloved to bait that lures enamored fish, elevates the metaphysical wit characteristic of Donne’s poetry. The work’s enduring popularity lies in its interplay of sensuous charm and intellectual complexity, blending romantic yearning with a playful critique of traditional seduction tropes.
An opening invitation, echoing Christopher Marlowe’s The Passionate Shepherd to His Love. Establishes the speaker’s intent to entice the beloved into a life of pleasure and companionship.
And we will some new pleasures prove
Suggests a mutual exploration of novel experiences, emphasizing the speaker’s imaginative and enticing vision of love.
Of golden sands, and crystal brooks,
Evokes an idyllic setting, symbolizing purity, wealth, and natural beauty as part of the pleasures they will experience together.
With silken lines, and silver hooks.
Introduces the fishing metaphor, subtly tying luxury with the act of luring, and hinting at seduction and entrapment in love.
There will the river whispering run
Personifies the river, suggesting a serene and harmonious environment that resonates with the beloved’s presence.
Warm’d by thy eyes, more than the sun;
Hyperbolically attributes the warmth of the environment to the beloved’s gaze, elevating her influence above nature’s power.
And there the ‘enamour’d fish will stay,
Extends the fishing metaphor to depict fish as willingly enchanted by the beloved, symbolizing her irresistible charm.
Begging themselves they may betray.
Fish (symbolic of admirers) willingly submit to capture, emphasizing the beloved’s magnetic allure and the paradox of surrender in love.
When thou wilt swim in that live bath,
Suggests the beloved’s immersion in a vibrant, natural environment, where life thrives in her presence.
Each fish, which every channel hath,
Implies universal attraction, as all living beings are drawn to the beloved, reinforcing her unique and universal beauty.
Will amorously to thee swim,
Fish metaphorically represent lovers who approach the beloved with desire and admiration.
Gladder to catch thee, than thou him.
Reverses the traditional fishing dynamic, suggesting that the beloved’s presence is a reward, making others happier to be near her than to capture her.
If thou, to be so seen, be’st loth,
Acknowledges the beloved’s modesty or reluctance to be admired, adding depth to her character.
By sun or moon, thou dark’nest both,
The beloved’s beauty outshines celestial bodies, emphasizing her radiance and superiority over natural wonders.
And if myself have leave to see,
Expresses the speaker’s gratitude and fulfillment in being allowed to witness the beloved’s beauty.
I need not their light having thee.
Declares that the beloved’s presence renders other sources of light unnecessary, symbolizing her as the ultimate source of illumination and joy.
Let others freeze with angling reeds,
Criticizes traditional methods of fishing (symbolic of conventional love pursuits) as cold and laborious.
And cut their legs with shells and weeds,
Portrays the struggles and dangers of conventional fishing, contrasting it with the ease of the beloved’s allure.
Or treacherously poor fish beset,
Condemns the deceptive tactics used in angling, likening them to dishonest love practices.
With strangling snare, or windowy net.
Further illustrates the entrapment and harm caused by traditional fishing/love methods, contrasting with the beloved’s natural and unforced allure.
Let coarse bold hands from slimy nest
Highlights the rough, unsophisticated methods of fishing, drawing attention to their inelegance.
The bedded fish in banks out-wrest;
Suggests the forcible removal of fish from their natural habitats, metaphorically criticizing forceful or insincere approaches to love.
Or curious traitors, sleeve-silk flies,
“Sleeve-silk flies” represent artificial lures in fishing, likened to manipulative or deceptive acts in human interactions.
Bewitch poor fishes’ wand’ring eyes.
Describes the manipulative enchantment of lures, reinforcing the theme of deception versus natural attraction.
For thee, thou need’st no such deceit,
Declares that the beloved has no need for artificial tricks or deception, as her allure is innate and genuine.
For thou thyself art thine own bait:
Identifies the beloved as the bait, underscoring her role as the natural and irresistible center of attraction.
That fish, that is not catch’d thereby,
Implies that those who resist her charm are either highly wise or utterly unfeeling, emphasizing her universal appeal.
Alas, is wiser far than I.
Concludes with self-deprecating humor, admitting the speaker’s inability to resist the beloved’s charm, underscoring the power of love and attraction.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Bait” by John Donne
Plays on the dual meaning of “bait” to explore themes of self-sufficiency and natural allure in love.
Wit
The conceit of fish being happier to catch the beloved
Demonstrates Donne’s characteristic intellectual humor, using clever comparisons to engage the reader and convey complex ideas.
Themes: “The Bait” by John Donne
1. The Irresistible Allure of Love
In The Bait, Donne presents love as an irresistible force that draws admirers naturally, without the need for deception or effort. The beloved’s charm is compared to bait, which even fish willingly seek out: “And there the ‘enamour’d fish will stay, / Begging themselves they may betray.” This metaphor highlights the power of genuine attraction, suggesting that true beauty and love do not require artificial lures. The speaker contrasts this natural allure with the traditional, labor-intensive methods of fishing, symbolizing the falsity of conventional courtship tactics. The beloved is portrayed as possessing a magnetic, almost supernatural influence, making her the epitome of unforced desire.
2. Nature as a Reflection of Love
The poem intertwines natural imagery with the theme of love, using rivers, fish, and celestial bodies as metaphors for the beloved’s beauty and the speaker’s devotion. The line “Warm’d by thy eyes, more than the sun” reflects how the beloved’s presence transforms the natural world, surpassing even the sun in warmth and vitality. This theme suggests that love reshapes one’s perception of the world, making it more vibrant and alive. The imagery of “golden sands, and crystal brooks” creates an idyllic setting, emphasizing the harmony and serenity that love brings. Nature, personified and elevated, becomes a mirror of the beloved’s beauty and the speaker’s adoration.
3. The Paradox of Desire and Surrender
Donne explores the paradoxical nature of desire, where love involves a willing surrender to the beloved. The fish, symbolic of admirers, “Begging themselves they may betray,” embody this paradox, as they desire their own capture. This reflects the complex interplay of freedom and entrapment in love, where one willingly submits to the beloved’s power. The speaker himself acknowledges his inability to resist, concluding with the self-deprecating admission: “That fish, that is not catch’d thereby, / Alas, is wiser far than I.” The theme suggests that love is both a triumph and a surrender, where the lover gains fulfillment through submission to the beloved’s charm.
4. The Critique of Deceptive Love
Donne critiques artificiality and deception in love, contrasting it with the natural and genuine allure of the beloved. The lines “Let others freeze with angling reeds, / And cut their legs with shells and weeds” dismiss traditional fishing (and by extension, conventional courtship) as laborious and treacherous. Similarly, the “sleeve-silk flies” represent artificial lures, likened to manipulative tactics in love. In contrast, the beloved “need’st no such deceit,” embodying the ideal of pure and unadulterated attraction. This theme underscores the superiority of authentic love, where the beloved’s inherent beauty is enough to captivate admirers without resorting to trickery.
Formalism focuses on the structure, form, and language of the text, analyzing how these elements contribute to meaning.
The poem’s structured rhyme scheme (ABABCC) and use of metaphysical conceits, such as the beloved as bait, demonstrate the intellectual complexity.
The interplay of alliteration (“silken lines, and silver hooks”) and imagery (“golden sands, and crystal brooks”) highlights the poem’s aesthetic appeal.
Feminist analysis examines the portrayal of women and their roles in literature. In The Bait, the beloved is idealized and objectified as an irresistible force.
The metaphor of the beloved as bait (“For thou thyself art thine own bait”) frames her as the passive object of desire, raising questions about agency.
The speaker’s portrayal of her beauty as surpassing nature (“Warm’d by thy eyes, more than the sun”) reinforces traditional gender dynamics in courtship.
Ecocriticism explores the relationship between literature and the natural world, emphasizing how nature is represented and valued.
The poem integrates nature imagery (“crystal brooks,” “whispering run”) to create a harmonious view of love as interconnected with the natural world.
However, it also critiques human intervention, as seen in the harsh fishing practices (“Let coarse bold hands… Or curious traitors”), aligning with ecocritical concerns.
Critical Questions about “The Bait” by John Donne
1. How does Donne redefine traditional pastoral themes in The Bait?
Donne reinterprets the pastoral tradition, most notably through his response to Christopher Marlowe’s The Passionate Shepherd to His Love. While Marlowe’s poem idealizes a harmonious rural life, Donne introduces complexity by blending sensuality with intellectual wit. For instance, in “And we will some new pleasures prove / Of golden sands, and crystal brooks,” Donne evokes idyllic imagery typical of pastoral poetry but subverts it with a metaphysical conceit—the beloved as bait. This fusion of natural beauty and intellectual metaphor transforms the pastoral genre, making it more dynamic and reflective of human desire. Donne’s imagery, such as “With silken lines, and silver hooks,” critiques artificiality even while maintaining the traditional allure of nature. By doing so, he not only pays homage to the genre but also challenges its simplicity, infusing it with metaphysical depth.
2. How does the metaphor of bait reflect the power dynamics in love as depicted in the poem?
The metaphor of the beloved as bait in The Bait raises questions about agency and power in relationships. The speaker describes her as irresistibly alluring: “For thee, thou need’st no such deceit, / For thou thyself art thine own bait.” Here, the beloved is portrayed as a passive yet potent force, drawing admirers without effort. The fish, symbolizing suitors, “Begging themselves they may betray,” willingly succumb to her charm, suggesting that her power lies in her beauty and natural allure rather than action. However, this depiction also objectifies her, framing her as a tool (bait) rather than an autonomous being. The speaker’s admission—“That fish, that is not catch’d thereby, / Alas, is wiser far than I”—acknowledges his own surrender, yet it emphasizes her dominance in the dynamic. This raises a critical question: is her power genuine, or is it confined to the perception of the male admirer?
3. What role does nature play in the depiction of love in the poem?
Nature in The Bait serves both as a backdrop and a metaphorical extension of love. The speaker describes a world animated by the beloved’s presence: “There will the river whispering run / Warm’d by thy eyes, more than the sun.” This line suggests that love, like nature, is a life-giving force capable of transforming its surroundings. The idyllic imagery of “golden sands, and crystal brooks” reinforces the harmony and purity associated with true love. However, Donne also critiques humanity’s intrusion into nature, as seen in “Let others freeze with angling reeds, / And cut their legs with shells and weeds.” The contrast between artificial fishing methods and the beloved’s effortless charm highlights the tension between natural attraction and societal conventions. Through this interplay, Donne positions nature as a reflection of the purity and complexity of love, blending harmony with critique.
4. How does Donne use wit and paradox to explore the complexities of desire?
Wit and paradox are central to Donne’s exploration of desire in The Bait, adding layers of intellectual depth to the poem. One striking paradox is the image of fish willingly surrendering to the bait: “And there the ‘enamour’d fish will stay, / Begging themselves they may betray.” This line encapsulates the contradiction of love as a voluntary act of surrender, where the admirer actively seeks their own entrapment. The speaker himself acknowledges the futility of resistance, admitting in the closing lines: “That fish, that is not catch’d thereby, / Alas, is wiser far than I.” Donne’s wit lies in his ability to blend humor with profound truths about human emotion. The fishing conceit, while playful, also reflects the inevitable tension in desire—the interplay of power, vulnerability, and submission. This paradoxical portrayal invites readers to consider love as both a joy and a surrender, rich in contradictions and complexities.
Literary Works Similar to “The Bait” by John Donne
“To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell Like The Bait, this poem employs wit and persuasive argumentation to entice a beloved, blending sensual imagery with intellectual depth.
“Song: To Celia” by Ben Jonson This lyric similarly celebrates the beloved’s irresistible allure and uses nature as a metaphor for the speaker’s devotion and longing.
The speaker opens with a direct invitation to the beloved, setting the tone for a persuasive argument for love.
Formalism: Focuses on the lyrical opening that establishes the poem’s theme of seduction and persuasion, while echoing Marlowe’s famous pastoral line.
“And we will some new pleasures prove”
Suggests exploring novel experiences together, blending physical and intellectual intimacy.
Psychoanalytic Criticism: Reflects the speaker’s desire to merge pleasure with discovery, indicating deeper subconscious yearnings for union and novelty.
“Of golden sands, and crystal brooks”
Depicts an idyllic natural setting as part of the speaker’s romantic vision.
Ecocriticism: Highlights the romanticization of nature, framing it as a reflection of love’s purity and harmony.
“Warm’d by thy eyes, more than the sun”
The speaker elevates the beloved’s gaze above the sun, symbolizing her transformative power over the natural world.
Feminist Criticism: Positions the beloved as a central, almost divine figure, while raising questions about idealization and objectification.
“And there the ‘enamour’d fish will stay”
Fish, metaphorical admirers, willingly submit to the beloved’s charm, demonstrating her magnetic allure.
Metaphysical Perspective: Uses a conceit to explore the paradox of love as both natural and enchanting, highlighting metaphysical themes of attraction and surrender.
“Begging themselves they may betray”
Fish paradoxically desire their own entrapment, reflecting the complexities of love and desire.
Deconstruction: Examines the inherent contradictions in desire, portraying love as both an act of surrender and empowerment.
“Let others freeze with angling reeds”
Critiques traditional, laborious methods of fishing (and by extension, courtship), contrasting them with the ease of the beloved’s allure.
Cultural Criticism: Challenges societal norms of courtship and labor, favoring natural charm over contrived efforts.
“For thou thyself art thine own bait”
The beloved is described as inherently captivating, requiring no external lures to attract admirers.
Feminist Criticism: Highlights the passive yet potent role of the beloved as an object of desire, inviting discussion on agency and representation in love.
“That fish, that is not catch’d thereby”
Acknowledges those who resist the beloved’s charm, yet humorously implies that they are wiser than the speaker.
Reader-Response Theory: Engages the audience in questioning whether resistance to love’s pull is wisdom or folly, inviting varied interpretations based on individual experience.
“I need not their light having thee”
Declares that the beloved’s presence renders celestial light unnecessary, elevating her to a divine status.
Romanticism: Celebrates the beloved as the ultimate source of illumination and fulfillment, reflecting Romantic ideals of love as transcendent and sublime.
Feinstein, Sandy. “Donne’s ‘Elegy 19’: The Busk between a Pair of Bodies.” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 34, no. 1, 1994, pp. 61–77. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/450786. Accessed 11 Dec. 2024.
Marotti, Arthur F. “John Donne’s Conflicted Anti-Catholicism.” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, vol. 101, no. 3, 2002, pp. 358–79. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27712244. Accessed 11 Dec. 2024.
DONNE, JOHN. “The Bait.” The Variorum Edition of the Poetry of John Donne, Volume 4.2: The Songs and Sonets: Part 2: Texts, Commentary, Notes, and Glosses, edited by Jeffrey S. Johnson, Indiana University Press, 2021, pp. 239–55. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv22fqc4v.38. Accessed 11 Dec. 2024.
Pappas, Andrea. “‘Each Wise Nymph That Angles for a Heart’: The Politics of Courtship in the Boston ‘Fishing Lady’ Pictures.” Winterthur Portfolio, vol. 49, no. 1, 2015, pp. 1–28. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.1086/682058. Accessed 11 Dec. 2024.
“Ode to Joy” by Friedrich Schiller, first appeared in 1785 as part of a private collection of poems, celebrates universal brotherhood, joy, and the divine essence of humanity.
Introduction: “Ode to Joy” by Friedrich Schiller
“Ode to Joy” by Friedrich Schiller, first appeared in 1785 as part of a private collection of poems, celebrates universal brotherhood, joy, and the divine essence of humanity, encapsulating Enlightenment ideals of unity, equality, and shared happiness. Its popularity surged when Ludwig van Beethoven set the poem to music in the final movement of his Ninth Symphony in 1824, transforming it into a powerful anthem for freedom and human solidarity. The poem’s vivid imagery, such as the depiction of joy as a “beautiful spark of the gods” and the call for all people to “become brothers,” resonated deeply with audiences, reflecting a hopeful vision of peace and harmony. This universal and timeless appeal has solidified Ode to Joy as a symbol of global unity and human transcendence, continuing to inspire cultural and political movements across the world.
Text: “Ode to Joy” by Friedrich Schiller
O friends, not these clays! But let’s tune into more pleasant ones And happier!
Joy, beautiful spark of the gods, Daughter from Elysium, We enter, drunk with fire, heavenly thy sanctuary! your spells bind again, What fashion Strictly divided; All people become brothers, Where your gentle wing rests
Whoever made the big hit to be a friend’s friend Whoever has won a devoted wife, Mix in his cheers! Yes, who even has a soul His names on the earth round! And whoever hasn’t been able to steal Weeping out of this covenant
All beings drink joy At nature’s brushes; All good, all bad Follow their trail of roses She gave us kisses and vines, A friend tried in death; Pleasure was given to the worm, And the cherub stands before God!
Happy how his suns fly Through Heaven’s magnificent plan, Run, brother, your course, Happy like a hero to victory
Be embraced, millions This kiss for the whole world! Brothers! Over the starry tent Must live a dear father You fall down, millions? Do you sense the Creator, world? Look for him over the starry sky! He must dwell above the stars.
“Be embraced, millions / This kiss for the whole world!”
The tone is celebratory and unifying, encouraging love, joy, and universal brotherhood.
Themes: “Ode to Joy” by Friedrich Schiller
1. Universal Brotherhood and Unity
A prominent theme in “Ode to Joy” is the call for universal brotherhood, transcending all divisions among humanity. Schiller envisions joy as a unifying force that brings people together as equals: “All people become brothers, / Where your gentle wing rests.” Joy dissolves barriers of social class, nationality, and beliefs, fostering a sense of shared humanity. The repeated imagery of “millions” being embraced (“Be embraced, millions / This kiss for the whole world!”) reflects an inclusive vision of love and unity that connects individuals across the globe.
2. The Divine and Transcendence
The poem links joy to the divine, presenting it as a spiritual and celestial force. Joy is described as a “beautiful spark of the gods” and a “Daughter from Elysium,” emphasizing its heavenly origin. Schiller connects human joy with the divine Creator, urging humanity to seek the divine above the heavens: “Look for him over the starry sky! / He must dwell above the stars.” This theme portrays joy as not only an earthly experience but also a reflection of divine grace, elevating human existence.
3. Celebration of Life and Nature
Schiller celebrates life, love, and nature as sources of joy. He emphasizes how joy is inherent in all aspects of existence, from relationships to the natural world: “She gave us kisses and vines, / A friend tried in death.” Nature’s beauty and bounty are portrayed as universal blessings, and joy is depicted as a common thread connecting all beings: “All beings drink joy / At nature’s brushes.” Even the smallest creatures (“Pleasure was given to the worm”) and celestial beings (“And the cherub stands before God!”) share in this joy, underscoring the vitality and universality of happiness.
4. Triumph and Heroism
The theme of triumph is woven throughout the poem, celebrating humanity’s capacity to overcome challenges and embrace life with courage. Joy is compared to the victorious spirit of a hero: “Run, brother, your course, / Happy like a hero to victory.” This imagery of joy as heroic and triumphant encourages individuals to approach life’s journey with enthusiasm and perseverance. Schiller envisions joy as a driving force that empowers people to achieve greatness and celebrate life’s victories.
Literary Theories and “Ode to Joy” by Friedrich Schiller
Schiller’s “Ode to Joy” reflects Enlightenment humanist ideals by emphasizing universal brotherhood, equality, and the inherent worth of humanity. Joy is seen as a unifying force that transcends societal boundaries, celebrating human relationships and the pursuit of happiness.
“All people become brothers, / Where your gentle wing rests” showcases human unity, while “Whoever has won a devoted wife, / Mix in his cheers!” celebrates human connections.
The poem embodies Romantic ideals, such as an emphasis on emotions, spirituality, and nature. Schiller elevates joy as a divine, transcendent experience, linking humanity to the cosmos and the Creator. Nature is also celebrated as a source of joy and harmony.
The lines “Joy, beautiful spark of the gods, / Daughter from Elysium” highlight joy’s spiritual essence, while “All beings drink joy / At nature’s brushes” celebrates nature as a universal source of happiness.
Theological Criticism
The poem reflects a theological perspective by connecting joy to the divine Creator. Schiller portrays joy as evidence of divine presence and grace, encouraging humanity to seek God beyond the stars and celebrate His creation.
In the lines “Look for him over the starry sky! / He must dwell above the stars,” Schiller invites humanity to sense the Creator’s presence in the heavens.
Critical Questions about “Ode to Joy” by Friedrich Schiller
1. How does Schiller’s “Ode to Joy” reflect Enlightenment ideals?
Schiller’s “Ode to Joy” reflects the Enlightenment ideals of reason, unity, and human progress by promoting universal brotherhood and equality. The poem envisions joy as a unifying force that transcends barriers, encouraging harmony among all people: “All people become brothers, / Where your gentle wing rests.” This belief in universal human connection aligns with Enlightenment thought, which values human dignity and collective progress. Additionally, Schiller links joy to the divine, presenting the Creator as a unifying presence: “Over the starry tent / Must live a dear father.” This blending of reason, spirituality, and optimism reflects the Enlightenment’s emphasis on humanity’s potential for harmony and enlightenment.
2. How does Schiller use nature to reinforce the theme of joy?
Nature plays a significant role in reinforcing the theme of joy in “Ode to Joy”. Schiller portrays nature as a universal source of happiness that connects all living beings: “All beings drink joy / At nature’s brushes.” The imagery of roses (“Follow their trail of roses”) symbolizes the beauty and abundance of nature, while “She gave us kisses and vines” refers to the gifts of love and wine that nature provides. Even the smallest creatures, like worms, experience joy: “Pleasure was given to the worm,” illustrating how joy permeates all of creation, from the lowliest beings to the divine cherubs. Through these references, Schiller emphasizes the harmony between humanity, nature, and joy.
3. What role does the divine play in Schiller’s concept of joy?
In “Ode to Joy”, Schiller ties joy to the divine, portraying it as a sacred and transcendent force. Joy is described as a “beautiful spark of the gods, / Daughter from Elysium,” symbolizing its heavenly origin. This connection elevates joy beyond a simple human emotion, making it a manifestation of divine grace. Schiller further emphasizes this link by encouraging humanity to seek the Creator: “Look for him over the starry sky! / He must dwell above the stars.” Here, joy becomes a means of experiencing the divine, bridging the gap between earthly and heavenly realms. Through these lines, Schiller conveys that the pursuit of joy is also a spiritual journey toward understanding the Creator’s presence.
4. How does Schiller’s portrayal of joy transcend individual experience to become universal?
Schiller portrays joy as a universal experience that unites all of humanity, transcending individual boundaries. He highlights how joy binds people together: “All people become brothers, / Where your gentle wing rests,” presenting joy as a force that fosters equality and community. This universality is further emphasized in lines that include everyone—“All beings drink joy / At nature’s brushes”—implying that joy is accessible to all, from humans to animals. The repeated imagery of “millions” (“Be embraced, millions / This kiss for the whole world!”) conveys the idea of collective celebration and harmony. By elevating joy to a shared experience, Schiller underscores its power to connect humanity on a global and spiritual level.
Literary Works Similar to “Ode to Joy” by Friedrich Schiller
“The Prelude” by William Wordsworth Like “Ode to Joy,” Wordsworth’s The Prelude celebrates the beauty of nature and its ability to inspire joy and elevate the human spirit, reflecting Romantic ideals.
“I Sing the Body Electric” by Walt Whitman Whitman, similar to Schiller, emphasizes the universality of human connection and celebrates the beauty and dignity of all people.
“Ode to a Nightingale” by John Keats This poem, like “Ode to Joy,” explores the transcendence of joy through a spiritual or divine connection, evoking a deep emotional experience.
“To a Skylark” by Percy Bysshe Shelley Shelley’s poem mirrors Schiller’s work by presenting joy as an ethereal, almost divine force, using a skylark as a metaphor for purity and happiness.
Representative Quotations of “Ode to Joy” by Friedrich Schiller
BAIRD, OLGA. “Early Settings of the ‘Ode to Joy’: Schiller–Beethoven–Tepper de Ferguson.” The Musical Times, vol. 154, no. 1922, 2013, pp. 85–97. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24615767. Accessed 17 Dec. 2024.
Goehr, Lydia. The Ode to Joy. Music and Musicality in Tragic Culture. na, 2006.
Baird, Olga. “Early settings of the” Ode to joy”: Schiller–Beethoven–Tepper de Ferguson.” The musical times 154.1922 (2013): 85-97.
“Loving in Truth” by Sir Philip Sidney, the opening sonnet of Astrophil and Stella, first appeared in 1591 as part of this groundbreaking sonnet sequence, which is considered the first substantial sonnet collection in English literature.
Introduction: “Loving in Truth” by Sir Philip Sidney
“Loving in Truth” by Sir Philip Sidney, the opening sonnet of Astrophil and Stella, first appeared in 1591 as part of this groundbreaking sonnet sequence, which is considered the first substantial sonnet collection in English literature. This poem encapsulates Sidney’s exploration of unrequited love, creative struggle, and the interplay between art and authenticity. The poet yearns to express his love in verse, hoping his beloved will appreciate his pain and respond with compassion. However, his attempts to emulate literary traditions and find inspiration in others’ works lead to frustration, culminating in the Muse’s famous admonition to “look in thy heart, and write.” The poem’s enduring appeal lies in its introspective depiction of the artist’s dilemma and its meta-literary commentary, making it a staple in literature curricula for its artistic merit, emotional depth, and influence on later poets.
Text: “Loving in Truth” by Sir Philip Sidney
Loving in truth, and fain in verse my love to show,
That she, dear she, might take some pleasure of my pain,—
Pleasure might cause her read, reading might make her know,
Knowledge might pity win, and pity grace obtain,—
I sought fit words to paint the blackest face of woe;
Studying inventions fine her wits to entertain,
Oft turning others’ leaves, to see if thence would flow
Some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sunburn’d brain.
But words came halting forth, wanting invention’s stay;
Loving in truth, and fain in verse my love to show,
The speaker expresses his genuine love and desire to communicate it through poetry, indicating his intention to use verse as a means of emotional expression.
That she, dear she, might take some pleasure of my pain,—
The speaker hopes his beloved will derive some satisfaction from understanding his suffering, which he portrays as proof of his deep affection.
Pleasure might cause her read, reading might make her know,
He imagines that her enjoyment of his poetry might lead her to read it deeply, fostering a better understanding of his love and feelings.
Knowledge might pity win, and pity grace obtain,—
The speaker envisions a progression: her understanding of his pain might evoke pity, which could ultimately inspire her to grant him grace or reciprocation.
I sought fit words to paint the blackest face of woe;
He attempts to find the perfect words to describe his profound sorrow, underscoring his artistic struggle to convey his emotions authentically.
Studying inventions fine her wits to entertain,
The poet focuses on creating clever and refined literary devices to captivate her intellect, revealing his commitment to crafting an impressive work.
Oft turning others’ leaves, to see if thence would flow
He looks to other poets’ works (turning the “leaves” or pages) for inspiration, hoping their creativity might influence his own writing.
Some fresh and fruitful showers upon my sunburn’d brain.
He longs for new ideas (“fresh and fruitful showers”) to revitalize his “sunburned brain,” symbolizing his mental exhaustion from creative struggles.
But words came halting forth, wanting invention’s stay;
Despite his efforts, the words he produces are inadequate and lack originality or “invention,” highlighting his frustration with his own limitations.
Pun on “leaves,” referring both to the pages of books and the literal leaves, suggesting a search for nourishment and inspiration.
Themes: “Loving in Truth” by Sir Philip Sidney
Unrequited Love
“Loving in Truth” revolves around the speaker’s unrequited love, as he desires to win the affection of his beloved through poetry. He writes in the hope that she might “take some pleasure of [his] pain,” illustrating how his emotional suffering is intertwined with his love. The progression of his reasoning—pleasure leading to reading, reading leading to understanding, and understanding to pity and grace—reveals his deep longing for reciprocation. This theme reflects the central tension in Astrophil and Stella: the speaker’s love remains unreturned, driving both his passion and creative struggle.
Creative Struggle and Authenticity
The poem explores the speaker’s creative process, depicting his frustration with crafting poetry that adequately expresses his emotions. He seeks “fit words to paint the blackest face of woe,” but his efforts fail as “words came halting forth, wanting invention’s stay.” The conflict between authentic expression and artificial literary construction is resolved when his Muse advises him to “look in thy heart, and write.” This reflects the Renaissance ideal that true art springs from personal experience and sincerity rather than mere imitation.
The Role of the Muse and Inspiration
Sidney emphasizes the importance of the Muse in guiding the poet’s creative journey. The speaker, overwhelmed by his struggles, turns to external sources for inspiration, “turning others’ leaves” to ignite his imagination. However, this approach proves futile, and his Muse intervenes with the pivotal advice to seek inspiration within himself. The Muse’s role underscores the belief in divine or internal guidance as essential to artistic creation, a theme deeply rooted in classical and Renaissance literary traditions.
Self-Reflection and Personal Growth
The poem encapsulates a journey of self-reflection as the speaker transitions from frustration to a realization of his own potential. He begins by blaming his “sunburn’d brain” and “step-dame Study” for his lack of inspiration, but through introspection and the Muse’s rebuke, he recognizes that true creativity lies within his heart. This theme of personal growth highlights the Renaissance emphasis on self-awareness and the poet’s role as an interpreter of inner truths rather than a mere imitator of external models.
Literary Theories and “Loving in Truth” by Sir Philip Sidney
Focuses on the poem’s structure, language, and use of literary devices to uncover meaning. The sonnet’s carefully crafted progression reflects its artistic merit.
The logical progression from “pleasure” to “reading,” “knowledge,” “pity,” and “grace” demonstrates formal coherence.
Examines how the speaker anticipates the reaction of his beloved, paralleling how readers interpret the text based on personal emotions and experiences.
The speaker’s hope that “pleasure might cause her read” illustrates his anticipation of the beloved’s engagement with the text.
Romantic Expressivism
Views poetry as an expression of the poet’s inner emotions, creativity, and individual experience. The speaker’s eventual reliance on personal feelings over imitation exemplifies this theory.
The Muse’s advice to “look in thy heart, and write” emphasizes the importance of personal expression in poetic creation.
Critical Questions about “Loving in Truth” by Sir Philip Sidney
How does Sidney portray the relationship between love and creativity in “Loving in Truth”?
Sidney portrays love as both the inspiration and the source of frustration for the creative process. The speaker’s unrequited love drives him to write, believing that his verses might “make her know” and eventually “win pity.” However, his creativity falters as he struggles to find “fit words” to express his feelings. The tension between emotional depth and artistic expression reflects the complex relationship between personal experience and poetic craft. This dynamic is resolved when the Muse advises him to “look in thy heart, and write,” suggesting that true creativity arises from authentic emotional engagement.
What is the significance of the Muse’s intervention in the poem?
The Muse’s intervention serves as the turning point of the sonnet, guiding the speaker from external reliance to internal introspection. Throughout the poem, the speaker seeks inspiration by “turning others’ leaves” and studying “inventions fine,” only to find these efforts futile. The Muse’s rebuke—“Fool, look in thy heart, and write”—redirects the speaker toward self-expression, highlighting the Renaissance ideal that authentic art must emerge from personal truth rather than imitation. The Muse thus embodies the poet’s inner voice and the ultimate source of his creative power.
How does “Loving in Truth” reflect the Renaissance ideals of art and literature?
Sidney’s sonnet reflects Renaissance ideals by emphasizing both the intellectual rigor and the emotional authenticity of poetry. The speaker’s initial reliance on “study” and literary conventions aligns with the period’s reverence for classical forms and techniques. However, the poem critiques overreliance on such traditions, as “Invention, Nature’s child, fled step-dame Study’s blows.” The resolution, where the Muse advises looking inward, resonates with the Renaissance belief that true art is a fusion of intellect and personal inspiration, blending classical structure with individual expression.
What role does frustration play in the poem’s development?
Frustration is a central theme that drives the speaker’s creative and emotional journey. His inability to find the right words—“words came halting forth, wanting invention’s stay”—mirrors his deeper despair over his unrequited love. This struggle culminates in self-reproach as he bites his pen and beats himself “for spite.” The turning point comes when this frustration leads to introspection, allowing the Muse to provide clarity. Thus, frustration acts as both a barrier and a catalyst, propelling the speaker toward a more authentic mode of self-expression.
Literary Works Similar to “Loving in Truth” by Sir Philip Sidney
“Sonnet 18” by William Shakespeare Similarity: Like Sidney’s poem, Shakespeare explores the power of poetry to immortalize emotions and experiences, expressing the enduring beauty of love through verse.
“Whoso List to Hunt” by Sir Thomas Wyatt Similarity: Both poems deal with themes of unrequited love, where the speaker grapples with emotional turmoil and the impossibility of attaining their beloved.
“Astrophil and Stella Sonnet 2” by Sir Philip Sidney Similarity: Another sonnet from Sidney’s Astrophil and Stella, this poem also reflects on the challenges of expressing love and the interplay between emotion and poetic creativity.
“The Canonization” by John Donne Similarity: Donne, like Sidney, uses poetic ingenuity to elevate personal emotions, examining the complexities of love and the transformative power of poetry.
“Sonnet 1” by Edmund Spenser (Amoretti) Similarity: Spenser’s opening sonnet mirrors Sidney’s as both emphasize the role of poetry in communicating love and the interplay between inspiration and literary tradition.
Representative Quotations of “Loving in Truth” by Sir Philip Sidney
Fumerton, Patricia. “‘Secret’ Arts: Elizabethan Miniatures and Sonnets.” Representations, no. 15, 1986, pp. 57–97. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2928392. Accessed 13 Dec. 2024.
Alexander, Gavin. “Loving and Reading in Sidney.” Studies in Philology, vol. 114, no. 1, 2017, pp. 39–66. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/90000847. Accessed 13 Dec. 2024.
Williamson, Colin. “Structure and Syntax in Astrophil and Stella.” The Review of English Studies, vol. 31, no. 123, 1980, pp. 271–84. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/513982. Accessed 13 Dec. 2024.
“Whither Comparative Literature” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in 2006 in Comparative Critical Studies (Volume 3, Issue 1–2, pp. 85–97), published by Edinburgh University Press.
Introduction: “Whither Comparative Literature” by Jonathan Culler
“Whither Comparative Literature” by Jonathan Culler first appeared in 2006 in Comparative Critical Studies (Volume 3, Issue 1–2, pp. 85–97), published by Edinburgh University Press. This seminal article critically examines the evolution and current state of comparative literature as an academic discipline. Culler traces its development from its origins in studying sources and influences to a broader engagement with intertextuality and theoretical discourse. He argues that comparative literature has historically challenged the boundaries of national literary studies by questioning the very units of literary analysis—genres, periods, or themes—that other disciplines often take for granted. Culler highlights the discipline’s dual role: a vanguard of literary theory and a space where transnational and interdisciplinary methodologies thrive. However, he also addresses the “crisis of identity” within comparative literature, as its once-unique methodologies have now permeated other fields. Culler critiques the global turn and the expansion into cultural studies, suggesting that while these shifts broaden the discipline’s scope, they also risk diluting its focus on literature. Ultimately, Culler envisions comparative literature as a space where literature remains central, approached as a transnational phenomenon and studied in diverse, theoretically innovative ways. The article remains influential for its reflections on the discipline’s triumphs, challenges, and its role in shaping the future of the humanities.
Summary of “Whither Comparative Literature” by Jonathan Culler
1. Evolution of Comparative Literature Initially, comparative literature focused on sources and influences, linking texts through direct transmission (Culler, 2006, p. 85). Over time, it evolved into intertextual studies, engaging broader but less defined methodologies. Comparative literature distinguished itself from national literature departments by questioning units of study—genres, periods, and themes—while becoming a hub for literary theory (p. 85-86).
2. The Triumph and Crisis of Identity Culler identifies the paradox of comparative literature’s success: its methods have spread to other fields, leading to a loss of distinctiveness (p. 86). Despite its intellectual triumph, comparative literature faces institutional struggles, as academic positions still reside predominantly in national literature departments (p. 87).
3. Comparative Literature and the Global Turn The 1993 ACLA report urged comparative literature to turn “global” and expand into cultural studies, justifying it as a reflection of contemporary realities (p. 87). However, Culler argues that the combined scope of global and cultural approaches risks overwhelming the discipline, diluting its focus and identity (p. 88).
4. Role of Literature in Comparative Literature Culler critiques the Bernheimer Report (1993) for sidelining literature in favor of cultural studies. He defends literature’s centrality, proposing that comparative literature can distinguish itself as the site for the study of literature as a transnational phenomenon (p. 89-90).
5. World Literature and Comparability The 2004 ACLA report highlights the challenge of “world literature” and its construction by hegemonic powers, risking cultural homogenization (p. 92). Culler explores the dilemma of comparability—either imposing restrictive norms or creating vacuous standards akin to the “University of Excellence” (p. 91-93).
6. Reconciling Comparability through Auerbach’s Ansatzpunkt To address the problem of comparability, Culler suggests adopting specific intellectual norms like Auerbach’s Ansatzpunkt—a concrete and precise point of departure that avoids imposing universal standards (p. 93-94). This approach fosters meaningful comparisons without totalizing cultural values.
7. Comparative Literature as a Vanguard Discipline Culler envisions comparative literature as a “test bed” for reconceiving knowledge, providing a space for critical, interdisciplinary projects. Despite its internal crises, the discipline’s ability to engage theoretical questions ensures its continued relevance in shaping literary and cultural studies (p. 96).
8. Teaching World Literature and Cosmopolitanism Culler acknowledges world literature’s pedagogical value, emphasizing its role in fostering cultural awareness among students (p. 95). However, he stresses that comparative literature’s enduring appeal lies in its capacity to engage multiple languages, texts, and theoretical perspectives, driven by cosmopolitan ideals (p. 96).
9. Comparative Literature’s Identity: A Space of Crisis Culler concludes that comparative literature’s nature as a site of intellectual crisis—where diverse approaches and ideas contend—ensures its vibrancy, even if it cannot claim institutional triumph (p. 96-97).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Whither Comparative Literature” by Jonathan Culler
Expanding the study of literature to include broader discursive and cultural productions.
p. 87-88
World Literature
The challenge of constructing and teaching literature globally, often criticized for cultural homogenization.
p. 92-95
Comparability
The principle of measuring and comparing texts, which risks imposing norms or becoming vacuous.
p. 91-93
University of Excellence
Bill Readings’ concept where “excellence” is devoid of content, allowing bureaucratic control.
p. 91
Ansatzpunkt
Auerbach’s concept of a concrete and precise starting point for comparative analysis.
p. 93-94
Transnational Phenomenon
Literature studied beyond national boundaries, emphasizing its universal and comparative dimensions.
p. 90
Hegemonic Power
Dominant powers constructing “world literature” on their terms, often leading to cultural colonization.
p. 92-93
Cosmopolitanism
An ideal associated with comparative literature, promoting cultural awareness and multilingualism.
p. 96
Test Bed for Knowledge
Comparative literature as a space for experimentation and innovation in reconceiving humanistic study.
p. 96
Hypercanon
A newly emergent set of global Anglophone writers frequently studied in postcolonial studies.
p. 90
Contribution of “Whither Comparative Literature” by Jonathan Culler to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Contribution to Intertextuality Theory:
Culler emphasizes that comparative literature has moved beyond the study of “sources and influence” to broader intertextual studies, examining how texts generate meaning through relationships with other texts (Culler, 2006, p. 85).
This highlights the theoretical foundation of intertextuality, where meaning is created in a network of textual connections rather than isolated works.
2. Crisis Theory and Comparative Literature’s Identity:
Culler introduces the concept of “crisis of identity”, highlighting the paradox of comparative literature’s intellectual success but institutional struggles (p. 86).
This aligns with broader Crisis Theory in the humanities, where fields undergo shifts in purpose and identity due to evolving methodologies.
**3. Globalization and Postcolonial Theory:
The global turn in comparative literature mirrors postcolonial theory, as it critiques Eurocentrism and expands to include non-Western literatures (p. 87).
Culler references postcolonial perspectives, such as the identification of a shared postcolonial context for generating comparabilities (p. 92).
This addresses how hegemonic powers shape “world literature,” contributing to discussions on cultural domination and resistance.
4. Contribution to Cultural Studies Theory:
Culler engages with the Bernheimer Report and its advocacy for expanding comparative literature into cultural studies, treating literature as one discourse among many (p. 88).
This reflects the interdisciplinary nature of Cultural Studies, as comparative literature incorporates cultural practices, political discourses, and media.
**5. World Literature and Hegemonic Structures:
Culler critiques the construction of world literature as a “hegemonic” and potentially imperialistic project (p. 92).
He highlights how dominant powers impose norms of comparability, aligning with theories of Cultural Imperialism and Global Literary Circulation.
Pascale Casanova’s World Republic of Letters is referenced to critique how literature engages in systems of power/knowledge (p. 95).
**6. Comparative Literature as a Space for Theory:
Comparative literature emerges as a vanguard of literary theory, serving as a site where questions about the nature of literature and its methods are addressed (p. 85-86).
The discipline has historically provided a home for theoretical texts and interdisciplinary experimentation, challenging traditional boundaries of national literatures.
7. University of Excellence and Bureaucratic Theory:
Drawing on Bill Readings’ University in Ruins, Culler critiques the bureaucratic standard of “excellence,” which lacks substantive content and imposes comparability (p. 91).
This connects comparative literature’s comparability crisis to broader critiques of neoliberalism and the corporatization of the academy.
**8. Contribution to Aesthetics and Poetics:
Culler argues for the continued centrality of literature in comparative literature, framing it as the site for poetics—the study of formal possibilities and discursive practices (p. 90-96).
He observes a renewed interest in aesthetics, once marginalized by cultural studies, signaling a theoretical return to literary form and structure.
**9. Comparability and Auerbach’s Ansatzpunkt:
Culler draws on Auerbach’s concept of Ansatzpunkt as a solution to the problem of comparability, emphasizing concrete and specific comparative approaches (p. 93-94).
This aligns with hermeneutic theory, as the Ansatzpunkt provides a starting point for analyzing texts across cultures without imposing external norms.
**10. Contribution to Cosmopolitan Theory:
Comparative literature promotes cosmopolitanism, fostering multilingualism, cultural awareness, and transnational engagement with literature (p. 96).
This connects to theories of world citizenship and cultural exchange, as students and scholars embrace literature as a global phenomenon.
Examples of Critiques Through “Whither Comparative Literature” by Jonathan Culler
Literary Work
Critique Through Culler’s Concepts
Theoretical Basis/Concept
Erich Auerbach’s Mimesis
Auerbach’s idea of Ansatzpunkt serves as a model for comparative studies, emphasizing concrete, specific starting points to compare texts without universalizing norms (Culler, 2006, p. 93).
Comparability and Ansatzpunkt
Gabriel García Márquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude
Márquez’s novel highlights how world literature courses often universalize Latin American magical realism, potentially overlooking its cultural specificity (p. 92).
World Literature and Hegemony
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart
Achebe’s text, often compared in world literature courses, risks becoming a tokenized example of African literature when taught without cultural specificity (p. 92).
Hegemony and World Literature
J. M. Coetzee’s Disgrace
Coetzee’s work represents a hypercanon of Anglophone writers studied symptomatically in comparative literature, reflecting global concerns and ethical conflicts (p. 90).
Hypercanon and Symptomatic Reading
Criticism Against “Whither Comparative Literature” by Jonathan Culler
1. Ambiguity in Defining Comparative Literature’s Future
While Culler critiques the discipline’s “crisis of identity,” he does not provide a clear solution for comparative literature’s future direction. His suggestions, like a focus on “literature as a transnational phenomenon,” remain abstract and open-ended.
2. Overemphasis on Institutional Struggles
Critics argue that Culler’s focus on the institutional limitations (such as job scarcity and departmental struggles) overshadows more pressing theoretical and methodological challenges within the discipline.
3. Limited Engagement with Non-Western Theories
Culler critiques Eurocentrism but does not deeply engage with non-Western theoretical frameworks or methods, which undermines his call for a global comparative literature.
4. Neglect of New Media and Digital Literature
The article primarily focuses on traditional literary texts, ignoring how comparative literature might adapt to digital texts, new media, and emerging forms of global storytelling in the 21st century.
5. Insufficient Practical Solutions for World Literature
While Culler raises valid concerns about the construction of world literature, he does not propose practical strategies for avoiding the homogenization and tokenization of diverse literatures.
6. Critique of Cultural Studies Lacks Nuance
Culler’s argument that cultural studies diluted the centrality of literature in comparative literature is seen as too reductive, as cultural studies has enriched literary analysis with interdisciplinary approaches.
7. Ambivalence Toward the Global Turn
Critics suggest that Culler’s stance on the global turn is contradictory. While he acknowledges its necessity, he simultaneously critiques it for diluting the discipline, failing to offer a balanced perspective.
8. Overgeneralization of Hypercanon Formation
Culler’s observation of a “new hypercanon” of Anglophone writers (Achebe, Coetzee, Walcott) overlooks regional literary diversity and the continued marginalization of lesser-known global authors.
9. Lack of Concrete Methodological Innovation
Culler’s focus on comparative literature as a site of theoretical debate fails to propose new methodologies or tools for comparative analysis, leaving the field without a concrete path forward.
Representative Quotations from “Whither Comparative Literature” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation
“Once upon a time, the story goes, comparative literature focused on the study of sources and influence…”
Culler introduces the evolution of comparative literature, emphasizing its liberation from direct textual transmission to broader intertextual studies.
p. 85
“Comparative literature frequently became the site of literary theory…”
This highlights comparative literature’s central role in developing and housing literary theory, unlike national literature departments.
p. 85-86
“Comparative literature has triumphed. But of course, institutionally, comparatists do not feel at all triumphant.”
Culler underscores the paradox: while comparative literature’s ideas have spread, its institutional status remains fragile.
p. 86
“The result of both moves together, going global and going cultural, is a discipline of such overwhelming scope…”
Culler critiques the expansive scope of comparative literature, arguing it risks losing coherence as an academic discipline.
p. 88
“Theory has triumphed, in that it is everywhere these days…”
He compares the success of literary theory to feminism and comparative literature, noting how mainstream success leads to a sense of crisis.
p. 86
“What, in this newly globalized space, justifies bringing texts together?”
Culler questions the validity of comparisons in “world literature,” addressing the problem of comparability and cultural homogenization.
p. 91
“The idea of excellence enables us to make comparable various entities that have little in common…”
Referencing Bill Readings’ “University of Excellence,” Culler critiques the vacuity of institutional standards like “excellence.”
p. 91-92
“The virtue of a comparability based on specific intellectual norms or models… is that they are subject to investigation and argument.”
Culler advocates for concrete criteria, such as Auerbach’s Ansatzpunkt, as a solution to the problems of comparability.
p. 93-94
“Comparative literature should also be defined by those features that draw people to the field.”
He emphasizes that the appeal of comparative literature lies in its cosmopolitanism, multilingualism, and theoretical openness.
p. 96
“Comparative literature, as Haun Saussy puts it, is the ‘test bed for the reconceiving of the order of knowledge.'”
Culler highlights comparative literature’s unique role as a space for experimentation, theoretical innovation, and interdisciplinary study.
p. 96
Suggested Readings: “Whither Comparative Literature” by Jonathan Culler
Hutcheon, Linda. “Productive Comparative Angst: Comparative Literature in the Age of Multiculturalism.” World Literature Today, vol. 69, no. 2, 1995, pp. 299–303. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/40151140. Accessed 17 Dec. 2024.
Yu, Pauline. “Comparative Literature in Question.” Daedalus, vol. 135, no. 2, 2006, pp. 38–53. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20028031. Accessed 17 Dec. 2024.
Strickland, Geoffrey R. “‘The Literary Competence’ of Jonathan Culler.” The Cambridge Quarterly, vol. 13, no. 2, 1984, pp. 164–77. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42966546. Accessed 17 Dec. 2024.
CULLER, JONATHAN, and Péter Csató. “AN INTERVIEW WITH JONATHAN CULLER.” Hungarian Journal of English and American Studies (HJEAS), vol. 8, no. 2, 2002, pp. 58–71. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41274187. Accessed 17 Dec. 2024.
