“Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor And Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona: Summary and Critique

“Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor and Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona first appeared in 2000 as the introductory chapter to the edited volume Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A Cognitive Perspective, published by Mouton de Gruyter in the Topics in English Linguistics series.

"Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor And Metonymy" by Antonio Barcelona: Summary and Critique
Introduction: “Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor And Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona

“Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor and Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona first appeared in 2000 as the introductory chapter to the edited volume Metaphor and Metonymy at the Crossroads: A Cognitive Perspective, published by Mouton de Gruyter in the Topics in English Linguistics series. The chapter synthesizes developments in cognitive linguistics concerning metaphor and metonymy, presenting them as central cognitive mechanisms that structure human thought and language. Drawing from conferences held in 1997, the article situates metaphor and metonymy at a theoretical and applied “crossroads”—highlighting their evolving conceptualization, their frequent interaction, and their broadening applications in fields such as grammar, discourse, and literary analysis. Barcelona advances a unified cognitive approach (CTMM) wherein both metaphor and metonymy are conceptual mappings: metaphors involve mappings across distinct experiential domains (e.g., LOVE IS A JOURNEY), while metonymies operate within the same domain (e.g., FACE FOR PERSON). Significantly, the article argues that metonymy may often motivate metaphor—a claim that deepens our understanding of the cognitive roots of figurative language. Moreover, Barcelona emphasizes that these mappings are often unconscious, culturally grounded, and systematically embedded in complex conceptual hierarchies. The introduction also explores the innovative “blending theory” of Fauconnier and Turner, which extends metaphor theory to account for emergent meaning in discourse, literature, and mental modeling. In literary theory, this work is especially valuable for highlighting how everyday conceptual structures underlie poetic and narrative devices. Barcelona’s model shifts focus from isolated rhetorical figures to entrenched cognitive models, offering tools for interpreting texts as dynamic interactions of conceptual domains. The introduction thus serves as both a theoretical overview and a critical point of departure for cognitive literary studies.

Summary of “Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor And Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona

🔵 1. Context and Evolution of CTMM

  • CTMM is evolving through integration of new ideas like blending theory, simple metaphors, and deeper attention to metonymy
    ➤ “CTMM is at present at a turning-point in its evolution as a theory” (Barcelona, p. 1)
    ➤ “Metaphor and metonymy often ‘meet’ at conceptual and linguistic crossroads” (Barcelona, p. 1)

🟢 2. Cognitive Linguistics Framework

  • Language reflects general-purpose cognitive abilities, not an isolated “language module”
    ➤ “The so-called ‘language faculty’ is… a specialization of general-purpose cognitive abilities” (Barcelona, p. 2)
    ➤ Supported by research in neurology and cognitive psychology (e.g., Rosch, Edelman)

🟡 3. Definition of Metaphor in CTMM

  • Metaphor is a partial mapping from a source domain to a target domain
    ➤ “The domain that is mapped is called the source… the domain onto which… is called the target” (Barcelona, p. 3)
    ➤ Example: LOVE IS A JOURNEY
    • “Our relationship is off the track” → travel obstacle maps to relationship problem (Barcelona, p. 3)

🔴 4. Definition of Metonymy in CTMM

  • Metonymy is a conceptual projection within one domain, often activating one part to represent the whole
    ➤ “Metonymy… is a conceptual projection… within the same common experiential domain” (Barcelona, p. 4)
    ➤ Examples:
    • “She’s just a pretty face” → FACE FOR PERSON
    • “The ham sandwich is waiting for his check” → CONSUMED GOODS FOR CUSTOMER (Barcelona, pp. 4–5)

🟣 5. Shared Traits of Metaphor and Metonymy

  • Both are:
    • Conventional, unconscious, and systematic in cognition
    • Expressed beyond language – in gesture, behavior, reasoning
      ➤ “They are often not verbalized… and simply motivate our behavior” (Barcelona, p. 5)
      ➤ “Conceptual metaphors and metonymies are… stable elements of our system of categories” (Barcelona, p. 6)

🟠 6. Cultural and Bodily Basis

  • Despite cultural variations, universal image schemas like UP–DOWN, CONTAINER, PATH, underlie many metaphors
    ➤ “Input or ‘source’ domains [are] universal physical notions… acquired… from bodily experiences” (Barcelona, p. 6)

🟤 7. Clarifying Metaphor vs. Metonymy

  • Metaphor: mapping across consciously separated domains
  • Metonymy: mapping within a single superordinate domain
    ➤ “Metaphor is… between domains… consciously classified as separate” (Barcelona, p. 9)

🔷 8. Interaction Between Metaphor and Metonymy

a) 🧩 Metonymy motivates metaphor

  • e.g., SADNESS IS DOWN is motivated by body posture (drooping) → EFFECT FOR CAUSE
    ➤ “The metaphor SADNESS IS DOWN… is conceptually motivated by the metonymy” (Barcelona, p. 10)

b) 🔁 Metaphor motivates metonymy

  • e.g., Caught the minister’s ear = ATTENTION IS A MOVING ENTITY + EAR FOR ATTENTION
    ➤ “This metonymy only takes place within metaphorical mappings involving attention” (Barcelona, p. 11)

9. Blending Theory (Conceptual Integration)

  • Blends combine elements from multiple spaces with emergent meaning
    ➤ “Mapped onto a ‘blended space’… whose conceptual structure is not wholly derivable” (Barcelona, p. 8)
    Unidirectionality remains—main inferences flow from blend → target (Barcelona, p. 8)

🔶 10. Conceptual Problems with Metonymy

  • Ongoing debates:
    • Is metonymy a mapping or activation?
    • Does it need to be referential? ➤ “Metonymy… causes the mental activation of the target” (Barcelona, p. 4)
      ➤ “Metonymy need not be referential… John is a Picasso… not referential” (Barcelona, p. 13)

🌈 11. Typology and Conventionalization of Metonymy

  • Conventional metonymy requires:
    1. Natural pattern (e.g., PART FOR WHOLE)
    2. Social sanctioning
      ➤ “A metonymy becomes conventional if it… follows natural patterns… and is socially sanctioned” (Barcelona, pp. 14–15)

💠 12. Continuum Perspective

  • The boundary between metaphor and metonymy is scalar, not absolute
    ➤ “The distinction… should be regarded as scalar, rather than as absolute” (Barcelona, p. 10)

📘 13. Contributions in the Volume

  • Grouped into:
    • Theoretical explorations (e.g., Kövecses, Fauconnier, Radden)
    • Applications in discourse, grammar, polysemy (e.g., Niemeier, Goossens, Freeman)
      ➤ “The contributions… are a fair reflection of the current state of the cognitive theory…” (Barcelona, p. 25)
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor And Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona
💡 Term🧠 Explanation📘 Usage in the Article (In-text Citation)
🔵 Cognitive Theory of Metaphor and Metonymy (CTMM)A theoretical approach in cognitive linguistics that sees metaphor and metonymy as conceptual, systematic, and bodily grounded mappings.CTMM is presented as being at a theoretical crossroads due to new developments like blending and deeper metonymy analysis (Barcelona, p. 1).
🟢 Experiential DomainAn area of lived human experience (e.g., love, travel) used as a conceptual space in metaphor/metonymy.Metaphor involves mapping one experiential domain onto another (Barcelona, p. 3).
🔴 Source Domain / Target DomainIn metaphor, the source is the conceptual origin (e.g., journey), and the target is the concept being understood (e.g., love).In LOVE IS A JOURNEY: “journeys” = source; “love” = target (Barcelona, p. 3).
🟡 Ontological / Epistemic SubmappingsOntological = mappings of entities and roles; Epistemic = mappings of knowledge or reasoning structures.Submappings like “lovers = travelers” and “vehicle = relationship” are ontological (Barcelona, p. 3–4).
🟣 Invariance HypothesisThe metaphor cannot violate the internal structure of the target domain; only compatible properties are mapped.Used to explain partial mappings like TIME IS MONEY, where not all features transfer (Barcelona, p. 4).
🟠 MetonymyA mapping within the same domain where one element activates another, such as part-for-whole.Examples include “pretty face” (FACE FOR PERSON) and “ham sandwich” (FOOD FOR CUSTOMER) (Barcelona, p. 4–5).
Image SchemaBasic recurring patterns in bodily experience (e.g., container, path, up-down) that underpin conceptual metaphors.These universal physical schemas ground metaphors across cultures (Barcelona, p. 6).
🔷 Blending / Conceptual IntegrationA mental operation where two input spaces are merged into a blended space with emergent structure.Proposed as an extension of CTMM, enriching understanding of metaphor in discourse (Barcelona, p. 8).
🟤 Unidirectionality of MetaphorMetaphors project only from source → target, not vice versa.The claim distinguishes CTMM from interaction theories like Black’s (Barcelona, p. 7).
🔶 Conceptual ActivationA mental triggering of a concept or domain, often without full mapping (debated in metonymy discussions).Questioned whether metonymy is mapping or just activation (Barcelona, p. 13).
🧡 Metaphor-Metonymy InteractionConceptual or textual interplay between metaphor and metonymy.Types include metonymy motivating metaphor (e.g., SADNESS IS DOWN), and co-instantiation (Barcelona, pp. 10–12).
💠 Conceptual Model / ICMIdealized Cognitive Model: structured knowledge representations underlying our understanding of domains.Metonymy occurs within a shared ICM, like “restaurant” or “emotion” (Barcelona, p. 4–5, 13).
💙 Cultural ModelSocially shared conceptualizations that influence metaphor and metonymy.Concepts like AUTHOR FOR WORK are conventional due to cultural salience (Barcelona, p. 15).
🩵 Scalar Continuum of Metaphor-MetonymyThe view that metaphor and metonymy are not binary but exist along a conceptual scale.Supported by Radden, Goossens, and others in this volume (Barcelona, p. 10).
🧊 Typology of MetonymyClassifying metonymies by pattern (e.g., PART FOR WHOLE, EFFECT FOR CAUSE).Used to identify “natural” types of metonymy and explain conventionalization (Barcelona, pp. 14–15).
Contribution of “Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor And Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona to Literary Theory/Theories

1. 🔍 Cognitive Literary Theory / Cognitive Poetics

  • 💡 Contribution: Positions metaphor and metonymy as core conceptual mechanisms underlying literary language and interpretation.
  • 📘 “Literary metaphors and metonymies are normally just creative extensions and elaborations of these conventional mappings.” (Barcelona, p. 6)
  • 🌐 Supports the idea that literary texts are processed using the same mental tools as everyday language, grounding cognitive poetics.
  • 🧠 Emphasizes systematic, unconscious mappings as foundational for literary meaning.

2. 🧩 Reader-Response Theory

  • 💬 Contribution: Highlights how metaphor/metonymy rely on entrenched cognitive models shaped by culture and individual experience.
  • 📘 “The domains of experience are not necessarily the same in all cultures” (Barcelona, p. 6)
  • 🎨 Readers interpret texts through their own cultural and bodily-based metaphoric networks, echoing reader-response emphasis on subjectivity.

3. 🧠 Embodied Cognition & Phenomenological Literary Theory

  • 🦶 Contribution: Asserts that meaning arises from bodily interaction with the world; metaphors emerge from body-based experiences.
  • 📘 “One of the major general cognitive abilities is imagination…to project concepts onto other concepts.” (Barcelona, p. 2)
  • 🔄 Connects with phenomenological theories (e.g., Merleau-Ponty), which focus on the lived, bodily experience of reading and writing.

4. 🧬 Structuralism and Post-Structuralism (as a contrast)

  • 🧨 Contribution: Critiques formalist focus on language structure by stressing meaning as culturally and experientially grounded.
  • 📘 “Metaphors consist of fixed multiple simultaneous projections… metaphorical meaning is irreducible to literal meaning.” (Barcelona, p. 7)
  • 🛑 Challenges rigid dichotomies like literal vs. figurative, opposing classical structuralist treatments of metaphor (e.g., Saussure).

5. 🧷 Semiotics

  • 🔁 Contribution: Extends the semiotic range of signs to include non-verbal and behavioral metaphor/metonymy.
  • 📘 “They are often not verbalized, but can be expressed through gestures or other non-verbal communicative devices.” (Barcelona, p. 6)
  • 🪞 Encourages analysis of gestures, images, and performativity in literature as semiotic carriers of metaphor/metonymy.

6. 🎨 Stylistics and Literary Discourse Analysis

  • 🧰 Contribution: Provides tools for analyzing polysemy, figurative language, and genre-specific expression in literary texts.
  • 📘 “Literary metaphors are just creative extensions… of entrenched metaphoric networks” (Barcelona, p. 6)
  • 🧱 Encourages layered textual analysis through conceptual blending and metaphor-mapping hierarchies.

7. 🔗 Critical Discourse Theory

  • 🧭 Contribution: Metaphors/metonymies shape ideological positions, especially in journalistic, poetic, and political texts.
  • 📘 “The book… includes the analysis of literary and journalistic discourse” (Barcelona, p. 2)
  • 🔍 Enables a power-conscious reading of metaphorical constructions in texts, aligning with critical literary theory.

8. 🔄 Intertextuality / Conceptual Networks

  • 🕸️ Contribution: Demonstrates how metaphors are connected through conceptual hierarchies and networks across texts.
  • 📘 “LOVE IS A JOURNEY can be shown to be a specification of LIFE IS A JOURNEY… of the EVENT STRUCTURE metaphor” (Barcelona, p. 6)
  • 🧠 Supports intertextual analysis through cognitive inheritance—metaphors in one text link to broader cultural metaphors.

9. 📜 Genre Theory

  • 🧾 Contribution: Cognitive theory explains how genre conventions rely on stable metaphorical and metonymic expectations.
  • 📘 “Blending… accounts not only for metaphor and metonymy, but also irony, counterfactuals, and grammar” (Barcelona, p. 8)
  • 💡 Reveals how genres like satire or tragedy function through systematic metaphorical framing.

🎁 Summary: Antonio Barcelona’s article…

…transforms metaphor/metonymy from decorative literary tropes into core mental operations. It bridges cognitive science and literary theory, giving scholars tools to decode deep structure, stylistic nuance, and cultural meaning in literary texts.

Examples of Critiques Through “Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor And Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona
🌟 Literary Work🧠 CTMM-Based Critique🧩 Relevant CTMM Concept📘 Key Insight or Analysis
1. William Shakespeare’s MacbethThe imagery of “sleep” and “blood” reflects metonymic activation—blood stands for guilt, sleep for innocence.🔴 Metonymy as activation within a domain (Barcelona, p. 4–5)“Sleep no more!” links SLEEP = INNOCENCE; when lost, it represents guilt. BLOOD = CONSEQUENCE OF MURDER = GUILT. This part-for-whole metonymy supports the tragedy’s moral decay.
2. Sylvia Plath’s The Bell JarThe “bell jar” metaphor illustrates conceptual blending: mental illness as a suffocating glass dome over reality.🟡 Conceptual Integration / Blending (Barcelona, p. 8)The metaphor is built from domains of CONFINEMENT + CLARITY → creates a BLENDED SPACE where mental illness is both visible and suffocating.
3. Emily Dickinson’s I felt a Funeral in my BrainEmotion conceptualized through metaphors grounded in embodiment, e.g., MIND IS A ROOM, DEATH IS A JOURNEY.🟢 Image schemas & embodied metaphors (Barcelona, p. 6–7)The “treading” of mourners suggests FORCE schemas (Lakoff & Johnson), mapping physical pressure onto emotional trauma. The coffin = metaphor for cognitive breakdown.
4. Toni Morrison’s BelovedUses culturally rooted metonymy and metaphor: “milk” = motherhood, “Beloved” = memory incarnate.🔵 Cultural models & metonymic embodiment (Barcelona, p. 14–15)“Milk” metonymically stands for maternal loss and identity. The ghost as memory = conceptual metaphor: TRAUMA IS A HAUNTING ENTITY. These are rooted in Black cultural schemas.
Criticism Against “Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor And Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona

🔵 Over-Reliance on Metonymic Motivation

Barcelona proposes that every metaphor may be motivated by metonymy, a “radical hypothesis” (Barcelona, p. 17).
🟦 Critique: This overgeneralization could undermine metaphor’s distinct conceptual role, conflating two different cognitive operations.

🟣 Unstable Notion of ‘Cognitive Domains’

Cognitive domains are described as encyclopedic and variable across individuals (Barcelona, p. 9).
🟪 Critique: If domains lack clear boundaries, distinguishing between metaphor and metonymy becomes fuzzy and subjective, weakening analytical clarity.

🔴 Neglect of Linguistic Surface Realization

CTMM emphasizes conceptual projection over linguistic form (Barcelona, p. 6).
🟥 Critique: Critics argue this underplays syntax, pragmatics, and stylistic nuances, which are vital in literary and poetic texts.

🟢 Minimal Engagement with Competing Theories

Though Barcelona mentions Searle, Davidson, and Black (p. 6), CTMM largely avoids detailed debate with these views.
🟩 Critique: The lack of systematic theoretical contrast reduces the robustness of CTMM’s claims, especially concerning metaphor’s irreducibility to literal meaning.

🟡 Overextension of Blending Theory

The integration of Fauconnier and Turner’s blending is hailed as a refinement (Barcelona, p. 8).
🟨 Critique: Some scholars argue blending complicates rather than clarifies metaphor-metonymy relations by adding layers of abstraction not always empirically testable.

🟠 Cultural Generalizations

CTMM asserts image schemas like CONTAINER or VERTICALITY are universal (Barcelona, p. 7).
🟧 Critique: This may neglect culture-specific conceptualizations, especially in non-Western or oral traditions where metaphor systems may differ.

Limited Empirical Testing

While richly illustrated, the theory relies heavily on introspective linguistic examples (e.g., p. 3–5).
Critique: Critics from experimental linguistics and cognitive science demand more quantitative and neurocognitive evidence to support CTMM’s claims.


Balanced View

While Antonio Barcelona’s introduction is seminal in mapping metaphor-metonymy interaction and integrating blending theory, its theoretical overreach and empirical fuzziness invite legitimate scholarly critique. Despite these, it remains foundational in cognitive stylistics and metaphor studies.

Representative Quotations from “Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor And Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona with Explanation
🌟QuotationExplanation
🔁“Metaphor is the cognitive mechanism whereby one experiential domain is partially ‘mapped’ onto a different experiential domain.” (p. 3)This defines metaphor as a cross-domain mapping where understanding of one concept (target) is achieved via another (source).
🧠“Metonymy is a conceptual projection whereby one experiential domain… is understood in terms of another… within the same common experiential domain.” (p. 4)Barcelona distinguishes metonymy as intra-domain mapping, often based on contiguity, unlike metaphor.
🔍“Both metaphor and metonymy are regarded… as conventional mental mechanisms, not to be confused with their expression.” (p. 5)Emphasizes the conceptual, cognitive nature of metaphor/metonymy as mental phenomena, not just linguistic expressions.
🔄“Metaphor and metonymy often interact… the metonymic basis of metaphor receives particular attention.” (p. 2)Barcelona notes how metonymy can motivate metaphor, suggesting interdependent relationships between the two.
🧱“LOVE IS A JOURNEY… The lovers correspond to the travelers; the love relationship corresponds to the vehicle.” (p. 3)This is a classic conceptual metaphor, showing how metaphor structures our understanding of abstract experiences through image schemas.
⚖️“The main constraint on metaphorical mappings seems to be the so-called Invariance Hypothesis.” (p. 4)The Invariance Hypothesis restricts metaphors from violating the structure of the target domain—essential in maintaining cognitive coherence.
💡“An important distinction exists… between metaphorical and metonymic conceptual projections and… expressions.” (p. 5)Highlights the distinction between mental mappings and their linguistic instantiations—a key cognitive linguistics insight.
🔬“Metonymy has received much less attention… although it is probably even more basic to language and cognition.” (p. 4)A critical remark on scholarly neglect of metonymy, arguing for its primacy in cognitive processes.
⚙️“Metaphors and metonymies are usually automatic, unconscious mappings, pervasive in everyday language.” (p. 6)Suggests that both are deeply embedded in cognitive behavior, operating largely below conscious awareness.
🌐“Metaphors and metonymies are to a large extent culture-specific… but overarching ones seem to have universal physical notions.” (p. 6)Explains how universal schemas like container or verticality underpin metaphor across cultures, despite linguistic variation.
Suggested Readings: “Introduction: The Cognitive Theory of Metaphor And Metonymy” by Antonio Barcelona
  1. Steen, Gerard. “Metonymy Goes Cognitive-Linguistic.” Style, vol. 39, no. 1, 2005, pp. 1–11. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/style.39.1.1. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.
  2. Strack, Daniel C. “Who Are the Bridge-Builders? Metaphor, Metonymy, and the Architecture of Empire.” Style, vol. 39, no. 1, 2005, pp. 37–53. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/style.39.1.37. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.
  3. Hetherington, Paul, and Cassandra Atherton. “Metaphor, Metonymy, and the Prose Poem.” Prose Poetry: An Introduction, Princeton University Press, 2020, pp. 177–98. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv10crd4v.11. Accessed 21 Apr. 2025.

“Love (III)” by George Herbert: A Critical Analysis

“Love (III)” by George Herbert first appeared in 1633 as part of his posthumously published collection The Temple, a seminal work of English religious poetry.

"Love (III)" by George Herbert: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Love (III)” by George Herbert

“Love (III)” by George Herbert first appeared in 1633 as part of his posthumously published collection The Temple, a seminal work of English religious poetry. This deeply intimate and theological poem reflects Herbert’s central themes of divine grace, spiritual humility, and the transformative power of God’s love. Its popularity stems from the tender yet profound dialogue between the speaker and the personified figure of Love, symbolizing God. The speaker, weighed down by guilt—“Guilty of dust and sin”—initially resists Love’s welcome, but is gradually drawn into acceptance through Love’s gentle insistence and grace. The line “Who made the eyes but I?” epitomizes Love’s forgiving nature, emphasizing that human flaws are not barriers to divine communion. Ultimately, the poem’s enduring resonance lies in its universal portrayal of unworthiness met with unconditional love, culminating in the symbolic act of communion: “So I did sit and eat.” This moment of spiritual surrender and divine hospitality encapsulates the poem’s power, making it a cornerstone of metaphysical poetry and devotional literature.

Text: “Love (III)” by George Herbert

Love bade me welcome. Yet my soul drew back

                              Guilty of dust and sin.

But quick-eyed Love, observing me grow slack

                             From my first entrance in,

Drew nearer to me, sweetly questioning,

                             If I lacked any thing.

A guest, I answered, worthy to be here:

                             Love said, You shall be he.

I the unkind, ungrateful? Ah my dear,

                             I cannot look on thee.

Love took my hand, and smiling did reply,

                             Who made the eyes but I?

Truth Lord, but I have marred them: let my shame

                             Go where it doth deserve.

And know you not, says Love, who bore the blame?

                             My dear, then I will serve.

You must sit down, says Love, and taste my meat:

                             So I did sit and eat.

Annotations: “Love (III)” by George Herbert

Line from the PoemAnnotation / MeaningLiterary Devices
Love bade me welcome.Divine Love (God) invites the speaker in with warmth.🧑‍🎤 Personification (Love as a being) 💒 Allegory (Love = God) 🤝 Hospitality Symbol
Yet my soul drew back / Guilty of dust and sin.The speaker feels unworthy due to his sinful, mortal nature.🌫️ Symbolism (dust = human frailty) ✝️ Biblical Allusion (Genesis) 😔 Tone: Shameful
But quick-eyed Love, observing me grow slack / From my first entrance in,Love notices the speaker’s reluctance to approach.👀 Visual Imagery 🧑‍🎤 Personification ↩️ Enjambment
Drew nearer to me, sweetly questioning, / If I lacked any thing.God gently draws closer, asking with kindness.🍬 Tone: Sweet & Gentle 🗣️ Dialogue 🎁 Symbolism (grace)
A guest, I answered, worthy to be here:The speaker believes he is an unworthy guest in God’s presence.🏠 Metaphor (guest = soul before God) 🙇 Humility
Love said, You shall be he.God affirms the speaker’s worth, despite his doubts.🗣️ Dialogue 💖 Grace ✔️ Divine Affirmation
I the unkind, ungrateful? Ah my dear, / I cannot look on thee.The speaker’s guilt prevents him from meeting Love’s gaze.Rhetorical Question 😢 Tone: Contrite 🚫 Shame Symbol
Love took my hand, and smiling did reply, / Who made the eyes but I?Love comforts the speaker, reminding him God made even the flawed.🧑‍🎤 Personification 🙌 Symbolism (eyes = moral vision) 🗣️ Dialogue
Truth Lord, but I have marred them: let my shame / Go where it doth deserve.The speaker admits he has misused his gifts and deserves shame.🧎 Confession ⚖️ Justice vs. Mercy 😞 Tone: Submissive
And know you not, says Love, who bore the blame?Love reminds the speaker that Christ bore the punishment for sin.✝️ Biblical Allusion 🤝 Redemption Theme 🗣️ Dialogue
My dear, then I will serve.The speaker accepts grace and offers his service to Love.💫 Transformation 🙇 Spiritual Surrender 🤲 Tone: Devotional
You must sit down, says Love, and taste my meat:God invites the speaker to partake in communion, symbolizing acceptance.🍞 Eucharistic Symbolism 🛐 Divine Invitation 🗣️ Dialogue
So I did sit and eat.The speaker accepts divine love fully—symbol of unity and peace.🕊️ Resolution 🤝 Union with God 🍽️ Spiritual Nourishment
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Love (III)” by George Herbert
🔣 Device🧾 Definition✍️ Example from Poem🔍 Explanation
💒 AllegoryA story or poem where characters and events represent abstract ideas.Love bade me welcome.Love personifies God, symbolizing divine invitation and grace.
✝️ Allusion (Biblical)A reference to the Bible or religious texts.Guilty of dust and sinRefers to Genesis and the concept of original sin, highlighting human mortality.
⚖️ AntithesisContrasting ideas placed side by side.Truth, Lord; but I have marred themContrasts divine truth with human failure, emphasizing guilt.
📢 ApostropheDirect address to someone absent, dead, or personified.Ah my dear,The speaker addresses Love (God) directly, showing intimacy.
🎵 AssonanceRepetition of vowel sounds in nearby words.My dear, then I will serve.The “ee”/”i” sounds create softness and enhance rhythm.
🧠 Conceit (Metaphysical)An extended, complex metaphor used in metaphysical poetry.Taste my meatHospitality metaphor symbolizes Communion, blending sacred with ordinary.
🗣️ DialogueExchange between two voices or characters.Love said, You shall be he.The soul’s conversation with Love unfolds the spiritual journey.
↩️ EnjambmentSentence or phrase continues beyond the line break.Grow slack / From my first entrance in,Adds flow and reflects hesitation or emotional pacing.
🍞 Eucharistic SymbolismSymbolism referring to Holy Communion.Taste my meatRepresents Christ’s body and spiritual nourishment.
🙇 Humility ThemeEmphasis on modesty and low self-worth.A guest…worthy to be hereThe speaker feels unworthy in the divine presence.
👀 Imagery (Visual)Language that creates visual pictures.Quick-eyed Love…took my handVivid image of Love reaching out creates a humanized divine.
🌉 MetaphorComparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”A guest…worthy to be hereThe soul as guest highlights the hospitality of grace.
❗ ParadoxA seemingly contradictory statement that reveals truth.Who made the eyes but I?Paradox that God made human flaws, yet still forgives them.
🧑‍🎤 PersonificationGiving human qualities to non-human things or ideas.Love bade me welcomeLove acts and speaks as a person, representing God’s grace.
❓ Rhetorical QuestionA question asked for effect, not an actual answer.I the unkind, ungrateful?Expresses guilt and self-reproach, not seeking an answer.
🩸 Sacrifice MotifReference to Christ’s redemptive suffering.Who bore the blame?Echoes Christ’s sacrifice, relieving the speaker of guilt.
🔍 Self-examinationReflecting on personal guilt, morality, or flaws.But I have marred themSpeaker confronts his own spiritual shortcomings.
🧿 SymbolismUse of concrete elements to represent abstract ideas.Eyes, meat, guest, handEach object stands for spiritual truths like grace and communion.
🔄 Tone (Transformational)The emotional shift or development in a poem.From guilt → grace → peaceEmotional arc reflects the speaker’s spiritual transformation.
🔁 Volta (Turn)A rhetorical or emotional shift in a poem.Who bore the blame?Marks a turning point from shame to acceptance.
Themes: “Love (III)” by George Herbert

1. 💒 Divine Grace and Acceptance: “Love (III)” by George Herbert centers around the profound theme of divine grace, where unconditional love from God overcomes the speaker’s deep sense of guilt. The poem opens with: “Love bade me welcome,” portraying Love (💒 symbolic of God) as a gracious host. Though the speaker draws back “Guilty of dust and sin” (✝️ Biblical Allusion), Love gently insists on his presence. The turning point comes with “And know you not…who bore the blame?”, referencing Christ’s atonement (🩸 Sacrifice Motif), reminding the speaker that his sin has already been redeemed. Grace replaces judgment, culminating in “So I did sit and eat,” a symbolic moment of Eucharistic acceptance (🍞). This theme highlights that God’s love is not based on merit but on mercy, making the poem a timeless expression of spiritual comfort.


2. 🙇 Humility and Unworthiness: “Love (III)” by George Herbert powerfully explores the theme of human humility in the face of divine holiness. From the outset, the speaker confesses his unworthiness: “A guest…worthy to be here.” His feelings of spiritual inferiority are captured in “I the unkind, ungrateful? Ah my dear, I cannot look on thee.” These lines emphasize an inner conflict of guilt and inadequacy, as he admits he has “marred” the gifts given by God (🔍 Self-examination). Despite this, Love persists in kindness, a contrast that underscores the speaker’s sincere humility (🙇). His reluctance is not rooted in rebellion but in reverence, and it is precisely this humble posture that prepares him to receive grace. In the end, humility is not an obstacle, but a gateway to transformation and communion with the divine.


3. 🧑‍🤝‍🧑 Hospitality and Communion: “Love (III)” by George Herbert employs the metaphor of hospitality to portray the act of divine welcome and spiritual nourishment. The poem draws on the imagery of a guest being invited to a feast: “You must sit down…and taste my meat.” This reflects the sacred Christian rite of Communion (🍞 Eucharistic Symbolism), where God hosts the soul at a spiritual table. The language of food and invitation carries deep theological weight, emphasizing intimacy, belonging, and unconditional acceptance. Though the speaker initially declines, his eventual response — “So I did sit and eat” — marks his participation in divine fellowship. In this scene, Love is not only forgiving but nurturing, offering sustenance that represents peace, unity, and salvation. 🧑‍🤝‍🧑


4. 🔄 Spiritual Transformation: “Love (III)” by George Herbert masterfully captures a journey of spiritual transformation, as the speaker moves from shame and hesitation to peace and acceptance. The tone (🔄) transitions from “my soul drew back” to “So I did sit and eat,” charting an inward evolution. The poem’s volta (🔁) is found in the question: “And know you not…who bore the blame?”—a reference to Christ’s redemptive sacrifice, which allows the speaker to let go of guilt. This moment reframes his relationship with God, allowing him to say: “Then I will serve.” The transformation is both spiritual and emotional — from self-loathing to trust, from fear to grace. Ultimately, the poem concludes not with resistance but with rest, symbolizing the peace that follows reconciliation. 🍽️

Literary Theories and “Love (III)” by George Herbert
📘 Literary Theory🧠 Definition✍️ Application to the Poem📖 Example from the Poem
✝️ Theological CriticismExamines religious themes, symbols, and spiritual messages, especially within Christian contexts.The entire poem functions as a theological allegory where Love = God. It illustrates divine grace, forgiveness, and sacramental imagery, especially the Eucharist.“And know you not…who bore the blame?” → reference to Christ’s atonement. 🍞 “Taste my meat” → Holy Communion symbolism.
🧠 Psychological CriticismExplores internal conflicts, guilt, repression, and transformation of the psyche.The speaker experiences a profound inner struggle between guilt and acceptance. The conversation with Love reveals a journey of spiritual healing and self-reconciliation.“I the unkind, ungrateful?… I cannot look on thee.” → Indicates shame and inner conflict. ❤️ “So I did sit and eat.” → Acceptance of forgiveness and self-worth.
📜 Formalism / New CriticismFocuses on the structure, language, tone, and imagery of the text itself, without outside context.Emphasis on dialogue, paradox, symbolism, and structure. The shift in tone and tightly constructed form highlight the spiritual journey purely through poetic elements.“Love bade me welcome… Yet my soul drew back” → Contrasting images of grace and guilt. 🌀 Use of metaphor, personification, and rhetorical question to convey meaning.
👥 Reader-Response TheoryConsiders the reader’s role in creating meaning; how one’s personal beliefs and experiences shape interpretation.Readers may relate differently: some see it as comforting, others may focus on the weight of sin or the beauty of grace. The poem invites emotional and spiritual introspection.“You must sit down…and taste my meat.” → Readers may see this as gentle invitation or spiritual command, depending on their own beliefs.
Critical Questions about “Love (III)” by George Herbert

1. How does “Love (III)” by George Herbert represent the tension between divine grace and human guilt?

“Love (III)” by George Herbert captures the profound tension between a soul’s sense of unworthiness and the overwhelming generosity of divine grace. The speaker begins with “Love bade me welcome. Yet my soul drew back, / Guilty of dust and sin,” immediately establishing his reluctance to accept divine hospitality due to a deep awareness of personal sin. This internal struggle continues throughout the poem, as the speaker repeatedly questions his own worthiness: “A guest…worthy to be here?” and “I the unkind, ungrateful?” However, Love—representing God—responds with compassion and reassurance, culminating in the pivotal line: “And know you not…who bore the blame?” This moment, referencing Christ’s atonement, shifts the focus from guilt to grace. The final line, “So I did sit and eat,” signifies the soul’s surrender to divine love, illustrating that grace overcomes guilt not through merit, but through mercy.


2. In what ways does “Love (III)” by George Herbert use personification to deepen its spiritual message?

“Love (III)” by George Herbert employs personification as its central literary strategy, giving human characteristics to the abstract concept of divine love. From the first line—“Love bade me welcome”—Love is not simply a feeling or an idea but a living, speaking being, engaging in dialogue with the speaker. Love watches attentively (“quick-eyed Love”), speaks gently, smiles, takes the speaker’s hand, and finally offers him food. These human actions reflect God’s active, intimate involvement in the life of the believer. By embodying Love in such a tangible way, Herbert brings the spiritual reality of grace and forgiveness into an emotionally relatable context. This technique bridges the gap between abstract theology and personal experience, making divine love feel accessible, compassionate, and deeply human.


3. How does the structure of “Love (III)” by George Herbert support its spiritual themes?

“Love (III)” by George Herbert is carefully structured as a dialogue, alternating between the speaker and Love (God), which supports the poem’s spiritual themes of confession, grace, and reconciliation. The use of iambic pentameter and a regular rhyme scheme (ABABCC) lends a sense of harmony and order to the emotional turbulence expressed within. The structure also allows a progressive development in tone—from resistance and guilt to surrender and acceptance. For instance, the shift from “I cannot look on thee” to “So I did sit and eat” marks a clear emotional and spiritual journey. The symmetry of the stanzas mirrors the internal resolution of conflict, as the soul moves from isolation to union with the divine. Thus, the poem’s orderly form enhances its message: that grace brings spiritual clarity, balance, and peace.


4. What is the significance of the final line in “Love (III)” by George Herbert: “So I did sit and eat”?

“Love (III)” by George Herbert concludes with the profoundly simple yet symbolically rich line: “So I did sit and eat.” This statement marks the end of the speaker’s spiritual resistance and the beginning of acceptance and communion. It reflects the culmination of the poem’s emotional arc—from guilt and doubt to faith and trust. The act of sitting and eating echoes the Christian Eucharist (Holy Communion), symbolizing union with Christ and participation in divine life. What makes this final line so powerful is its understated tone; after such intense inner turmoil, the acceptance of grace is presented not as a grand revelation but as a quiet, peaceful act of trust. It affirms that God’s love requires only openness, not perfection, and that divine hospitality is always waiting to be received.


Literary Works Similar to “Love (III)” by George Herbert

  • ✝️ “The Collar” by George Herbert
    📌 Similarity: This poem also explores the tension between spiritual rebellion and divine calling. Like “Love (III)”, it ends in a moment of submission and grace, with God calling the speaker “Child” and the soul replying “My Lord.”
    🔄 Theme: Spiritual struggle → surrender
    🗣️ Style: Internal dialogue with a divine voice

  • 🍞 “The Agony” by George Herbert
    📌 Similarity: Focuses on Christ’s suffering and sacrificial love, echoing “Love (III)”’s reference to the Eucharist in “taste my meat.” Both poems emphasize atonement and spiritual communion.
    🩸 Theme: Redemption through Christ’s pain
    ✝️ Symbolism: Eucharistic and Passion imagery

  • 🙇 “Hymn to God, My God, in My Sickness” by John Donne
    📌 Similarity: Reflects on mortality, divine will, and eternal peace. Like “Love (III)”, it ends with acceptance and calm, showing a soul at peace with God’s plan.
    🕊️ Theme: Mortality, submission, trust in God
    ⚖️ Tone: Reflective and humble

  • 💫 “A Dialogue of Self and Soul” by W.B. Yeats
    📌 Similarity: Though more philosophical than devotional, this poem mirrors “Love (III)” in its dialogue form and exploration of inner conflict. The speaker wrestles with desire and eternal purpose, like Herbert’s soul confronting divine love.
    🧩 Structure: Dual-voice introspection
    ⚔️ Theme: Conflict between earthly and eternal selves
Representative Quotations of “Love (III)” by George Herbert
📜 Quotation🔍 Context🧠 Theoretical Perspective🔣 Idea
“Love bade me welcome.”Opens the poem with personified Love (God) inviting the speaker.Theological Criticism – God’s initiating grace.💒 Divine Invitation
“Yet my soul drew back, / Guilty of dust and sin.”Speaker instinctively withdraws due to shame.Psychological Criticism – Internalized guilt and unworthiness.🙇 Human Frailty
“Quick-eyed Love, observing me grow slack…”Love notices the speaker’s reluctance.Reader-Response – Readers may relate to divine attentiveness.👀 Divine Awareness
“A guest, I answered, worthy to be here:”Speaker confesses he doesn’t feel worthy to be in Love’s presence.Formalism – Reveals theme through metaphor of hospitality.🏠 Spiritual Hospitality
“Love said, You shall be he.”Love (God) affirms the speaker’s worth despite his guilt.Theological Criticism – Emphasizes unconditional grace.✔️ Affirmation
“I the unkind, ungrateful?”Rhetorical question expressing the speaker’s remorse.Psychological Criticism – Self-reproach and spiritual anxiety.❓ Guilt & Shame
“Who made the eyes but I?”Love challenges the speaker’s shame by reminding him of divine creation.Theological Criticism – God accepts and understands human imperfection.👁️ Creator Logic
“And know you not…who bore the blame?”Refers to Christ’s atonement for sin.Theological Criticism – Central Christian doctrine of substitutionary sacrifice.✝️ Redemption
“Then I will serve.”The speaker shifts from shame to readiness to serve Love.Reader-Response – The moment of personal transformation.🔄 Submission
“So I did sit and eat.”Final acceptance of Love’s invitation, symbolic of communion.Eucharistic Theology / Formalism – Physical action as spiritual union.🍞 Communion

🧠 Theoretical Lenses Used:
  • Theological Criticism ✝️: Focuses on grace, redemption, divine themes.
  • Psychological Criticism 🧠: Explores guilt, shame, and internal conflict.
  • Reader-Response Theory 👥: Emphasizes the reader’s experience and reflection.
  • Formalism 📜: Analyzes structure, tone, and literary techniques.
Suggested Readings: “Love (III)” by George Herbert
  1. Herbert, George. “Love (III).” The English Poems of George Herbert. Cambridge: Rivingtons 199 (1871).
  2. Williams, Anne. “Gracious Accommodations: Herbert’s ‘Love III.’” Modern Philology, vol. 82, no. 1, 1984, pp. 13–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/437671. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  3. Vendler, Helen. “George Herbert and God.” Invisible Listeners: Lyric Intimacy in Herbert, Whitman, and Ashbery, Princeton University Press, 2005, pp. 9–30. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7sbbp.5. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  4. BLOCH, CHANA. “George Herbert and the Bible: A Reading of ‘Love (III).’” English Literary Renaissance, vol. 8, no. 3, 1978, pp. 329–40. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43446928. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.

“Metaphor And Literary Comprehension” By Gerard Steen: Summary and Critique

“Metaphor and Literary Comprehension” by Gerard Steen first appeared in Poetics, Volume 18, in 1989 (pp. 113–141, North-Holland).

"Metaphor And Literary Comprehension" By Gerard Steen: Summary and Critique
Introduction: “Metaphor And Literary Comprehension” By Gerard Steen

“Metaphor and Literary Comprehension” by Gerard Steen first appeared in Poetics, Volume 18, in 1989 (pp. 113–141, North-Holland). Steen proposes a comprehensive discourse-theoretical framework for understanding metaphor in literary texts. He distinguishes three major functions of metaphor—expressive, transactional, and interactional—which align with the three dimensions of discourse: linguistic, cognitive, and communicative. A central concern of the essay is how the literary status of discourse alters the cognitive processing of metaphor. Steen contends that the reader’s literary attitude, shaped by socio-cultural conventions like the Esthetic (E) and Polyvalence (P) conventions, fundamentally transforms the way metaphors are identified, comprehended, and appreciated. He builds on models from cognitive psychology and literary theory (notably the Empirical Study of Literature, or ESL) to argue that metaphor understanding in literature is not merely a linguistic or stylistic feature but a dynamic cognitive event shaped by reading context and reader behavior. Importantly, Steen proposes testable hypotheses distinguishing implicit and explicit metaphor processing in readers, contributing to empirical literary research and bridging a gap between cognitive science and literary theory. His essay remains vital for scholars interested in metaphor, literary pragmatics, and discourse processing, asserting that metaphor in literature is both a site of cognitive richness and a reflection of deeper socio-cultural reading practices.

Summary of “Metaphor And Literary Comprehension” By Gerard Steen

🔍 Discourse-Theoretical Approach to Metaphor

  • 🧩 Metaphor must be understood within the broader framework of discourse, which encompasses language (text), cognition (comprehension), and communication (social interaction).

“Discourse can be treated as a congeries of three kinds of structures… language, cognition, and communication” (p. 115).
✳️


🎭 Three Functions of Metaphor

  • 💬 Expressive function (linguistic): Metaphor serves as a formal device to concisely express what would otherwise be lengthy or indirect.

“‘Julia is the sun’ is formally much more pointed than the lengthy alternatives” (p. 119).
✍️

  • 🧠 Transactional function (cognitive): Metaphor helps us relate and understand conceptual domains that are typically unrelated.

“Lovers are not often seen in terms of heavenly bodies, excusez le mot, but Shakespeare manages…” (p. 119).
🧠

  • 🤝 Interactional function (communicative): Metaphors influence the flow and interpretation of communication, shaped by genre and social context.

“This force may be vivid or flat, surprising or banal… esthetically pleasing or displeasing” (p. 119).
📡


📖 Literary vs. Non-Literary Reading

  • 🧾 Understanding metaphors is shaped by the type of discourse—literary or non-literary—and the attitude of reading the reader adopts.

“Understanding metaphor in a literary way may be highly influenced by the adoption of a literary attitude of reading” (p. 114).
🎭

  • 🧠 A literary attitude activates Esthetic (E) and Polyvalence (P) conventions, focusing on multiple meanings and aesthetic value rather than factual clarity.

“The Esthetic convention… implies the suspension of criteria such as true/false… The Polyvalence convention induces subjectively satisfactory comprehension processes…” (p. 123).
🌀


🔁 Role of Analogical Processing

  • 🔗 Analogy is central to metaphor comprehension in literature, where it is not just a problem-solving tool but a method of layered interpretation.

“The principle of analogy… is explosively exploited rather than restricted [in literature]” (p. 125).
🧪

  • 🧙 Allegory is seen as extended metaphorical analogy, but not all literary metaphors are allegorical.

“Allegory… has two separate meanings rather than one… metaphor also may have more clearly or vaguely distinct meanings than one” (p. 130).
🔍


🧩 Polyvalence of Literary Metaphor

  • 🎨 Literary metaphors tend to be polyvalent—open to multiple interpretations—due to vehicle elaboration and contextual layering.

“Polyvalence in literary metaphor may be due to… a series of vehicle interpretations” (p. 128).
🧷

  • 🧠 This results in a richer, multidimensional understanding as readers extract overlapping or even conflicting meanings.

“Metaphors may be refunctionalized as literary signs… producing symbolism and other effects” (p. 130).
🔮


🧭 Identification, Comprehension, and Appreciation

  • 📌 Steen proposes a three-part model of how metaphors are processed:
    1. Identification – Recognizing the presence of a metaphor
    2. Comprehension – Constructing meaning
    3. Appreciation – Valuing or evaluating the metaphor

“Identification of metaphor may be… metatextual elaboration… comprehension may lead to… alternative frames… appreciation may be part of polyvalent elaborations” (p. 134).
🔍🧠💖


🔄 Explicit vs. Implicit Processing

  • 👀 Steen distinguishes between explicit and implicit versions of all three processes, arguing that literary reading fosters explicit awareness of metaphor.

“Explicit identification… a meta-statement concerning the perceived metaphorical nature…” (p. 136).
⚖️

  • 📢 For example, explicit vehicle interpretation (recognizing and analyzing the metaphor’s source domain) is more likely in literary contexts.

“Experienced readers… emphasize vehicle interpretation… inexperienced readers tend to overlook this aspect” (p. 137).
🧭


🧪 Empirical and Cognitive Approach

  • 🧬 Steen emphasizes the need for empirical testing of his hypotheses via cognitive psychology (e.g., think-aloud protocols) and interdisciplinary work.

“Such obstacles need not prevent us… from both formulating tentative programs of research…” (p. 139).
📊

  • 🧑‍🔬 He encourages bridging gaps between psychological models of language comprehension and literary theory, advocating for discourse-based analysis.

“Many metaphors in literary texts need not be understood in a literary way… hence a general discourse theory is required…” (p. 139).
🧠🔗📚

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Metaphor And Literary Comprehension” By Gerard Steen
📘 Theoretical Term 📖 Explanation📎 Reference from Article
Discourse Theory 🔀A multi-dimensional approach to language involving linguistic (textual), cognitive, and communicative structures.“All discourse can be treated as a congeries of three kinds of structures… language, cognition, and communication” (p. 115).
Expressive Function 🗣The linguistic function of metaphor as a compact and evocative form of formal expression.“Language as a formal entity has only one function in discourse, i.e. an expressive one” (p. 117).
Transactional Function 🧠The cognitive role of metaphor in creating conceptual links between unrelated domains.“The direct connection… between two conceptual entities or domains…” (p. 119).
Interactional Function 🤝The social/communicative impact of metaphor—how it shapes relationships and discourse tone.“Its role in the domain of literary or non-literary communication” (p. 119).
E and P Conventions 🎨📚Esthetic (E) and Polyvalence (P) reading conventions that frame literary interpretation.“The Esthetic convention… The Polyvalence convention…” (p. 123).
Literary Attitude of Reading 🎭A cognitive mode of reading marked by openness to metaphor, ambiguity, and deeper engagement.“Understanding metaphor in a literary way… influenced by the adoption of a literary attitude of reading” (p. 114).
Analogical Processing 🔗Reasoning strategy that draws comparisons between domains; essential for metaphor interpretation.“The principle of analogy… is explosively exploited rather than restricted [in literature]” (p. 125).
Metaphorical Analogy 🔍Analogical comparison between dissimilar domains that underpins metaphor formation.“Metaphorical analogies do not involve terms from similar domains” (p. 126).
Allegory 🏛️An extended metaphor or analogy with two structurally distinct yet connected layers of meaning.“Allegory… has two separate meanings rather than one…” (p. 130).
Polyvalence 🌀The literary feature where multiple interpretations of a metaphor (or text) coexist.“Polyvalence in literary metaphor may be due to… a series of vehicle interpretations” (p. 128).
Vehicle Interpretation 🚗Cognitive processing of the metaphor’s source domain to evoke layered or image-rich meanings.“Vehicle interpretation… necessary to invoke the image aspect of the metaphor” (p. 127).
Focus Interpretation 🎯Interpretation focused on the metaphor’s topic without extending to the vehicle/source domain.“Metaphor in literature is characterized by explicit vehicle-interpretation…” (p. 127).
Explicit vs. Implicit Processing 👀🤔Differentiates between conscious (explicit) and subconscious (implicit) identification, understanding, and judgment.“Two cognitive types of identification… explicit and implicit…” (p. 136).
Identification, Comprehension, Appreciation 🔎🧩❤The three core cognitive steps in processing metaphor: recognizing, interpreting, and evaluating it.“The three related processes… composing the cognitive function of metaphor” (p. 120, also p. 133).
Textual Surface Strategy 📜A literary reading tactic focusing on formal features like style, diction, and metaphor for deeper meaning.“Point of view, tone, diction, and style… metaphor should be included in this list” (p. 124).
Figurative Event A fictional realization of metaphor within the text’s world, blending literal and figurative meaning.“Turns a clock metaphor for God into a giant clock that is a real danger…” (p. 130).
Double Vision 👓Simultaneous awareness of both literal and metaphorical meanings in a single expression.“Double perception of floating on the waves and riding a horse” (p. 127).
Contribution of “Metaphor And Literary Comprehension” By Gerard Steen to Literary Theory/Theories

🔀 📚 Discourse Theory Expansion

  • Contribution: Steen integrates metaphor into a three-dimensional discourse model (language, cognition, communication), broadening literary theory beyond structuralist/textual confines.
  • Reference: “All discourse can be treated as a congeries of three kinds of structures… language, cognition, and communication” (p. 115).
  • Theory Link: Enriches Discourse Analysis and Text Linguistics in literature by aligning with Prague Structuralism and socio-cognitive frameworks.

🎭 🧠 Reader-Response Theory Enrichment

  • Contribution: Emphasizes reader’s active construction of meaning in metaphor interpretation, especially through the E and P conventions.
  • Reference: “Understanding metaphor in a literary way may be highly influenced by the adoption of a literary attitude of reading” (p. 114).
  • Theory Link: Deepens Reader-Response Criticism by introducing attitudinal variation in metaphor recognition and appreciation.

🌀 📖 Empirical Literary Studies (ESL) Advancement

  • Contribution: Positions metaphor within the Empirical Study of Literature (ESL), promoting testable hypotheses and reader-based research.
  • Reference: “The ESL theory of understanding literary texts… offers some opportunities… for locating metaphor in literary discourse” (p. 114).
  • Theory Link: Aligns with Siegfried Schmidt’s ESL framework and supports experimental psychology in literary studies.

🔗 💬 Cognitive Poetics and Stylistics

  • Contribution: Introduces analogical processing as central to literary metaphor interpretation, bridging psychology and poetics.
  • Reference: “Analogical processing… is responsible for the specifically literary comprehension of metaphor” (p. 114).
  • Theory Link: Builds on Cognitive Poetics, reinforcing metaphor as a tool for mental model construction and not just rhetorical flourish.

🔍 🎯 Structuralist vs. Post-Structuralist Dialogue

  • Contribution: While grounded in form (structure), Steen critiques pure formalism by emphasizing reader agency, function, and polyvalence.
  • Reference: “Not all metaphors in literature are understood in a literary way by definition…” (p. 139).
  • Theory Link: Offers a bridge between Structuralist poetics (e.g., Jakobson) and Post-Structuralist variability.

🤝 📜 Literary Pragmatics Integration

  • Contribution: Reframes metaphor as a pragmatic device influenced by social context, genre expectations, and communicative conventions.
  • Reference: “The social function of metaphor… is achieved by the adherence to general literary discourse conventions” (p. 132).
  • Theory Link: Strengthens Literary Pragmatics, connecting with work by Jonathan Culler and Van Peer.

👀 🧩 Reception Theory: Micro-Processes Focus

  • Contribution: Introduces granular distinctions—explicit vs. implicit identification, comprehension, and appreciation—in metaphor reception.
  • Reference: “We need to distinguish between the implicit and explicit identification… comprehension… appreciation” (p. 138).
  • Theory Link: Adds psychological nuance to Reception Theory by tracking real-time cognitive behavior during reading.

⚙️ 🔄 Methodological Contribution to Literary Theories

  • Contribution: Proposes a methodologically rigorous, interdisciplinary approach combining psycholinguistics, discourse theory, and empirical testing.
  • Reference: “Such obstacles need not prevent us… from formulating tentative programs of research” (p. 139).
  • Theory Link: Catalyzes a research-based turn in literary theory, moving beyond speculative criticism.
Examples of Critiques Through “Metaphor And Literary Comprehension” By Gerard Steen
📘 Literary Work🧠 Steenian Critique Focus
🧝‍♂️ The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. TolkienMetaphors like “the Ring” function as polyvalent literary signs. Through Steen’s E and P conventions, readers engage in analogical interpretation that uncovers layered moral, political, and existential meanings.
🐋 Moby-Dick by Herman MelvilleThe whale acts as a metaphorical domain inviting analogical reasoning. A literary attitude foregrounds its cognitive tension as both a natural being and metaphysical symbol, embodying Steen’s expressive and transactional discourse functions.
📜 The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T.S. EliotSteen’s concept of vehicle interpretation explains the metaphor “I have measured out my life with coffee spoons” as a double-vision moment, fusing mundane imagery with existential despair.
🐎 The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest HemingwayThe metaphor of the marlin and sea becomes allegorical under a literary attitude, aligning with Steen’s discourse theory. Holyoak’s analogical reading expands the struggle into metaphors of artistry, dignity, and mortality.
Criticism Against “Metaphor And Literary Comprehension” By Gerard Steen

🔍 Over-Theorization Without Empirical Evidence
While Steen emphasizes empirical methodology, the paper remains largely theoretical. Critics may argue that Steen falls short of offering actual data to validate his discourse-functional claims (Steen, 1989).

🧩 Ambiguity in Discourse Typology
The tripartite model of expressive, transactional, and interactional discourse functions may be seen as overlapping or too loosely defined, especially when applied across diverse literary genres.

⚖️ Lack of Engagement with Post-Structuralism
Steen’s cognitive approach is rooted in formalist and psychological models, which can appear reductive or incompatible with post-structuralist or deconstructive theories that resist fixed interpretation or “functions” of language.

🎭 Neglect of Cultural and Historical Context
Critics might argue that the model downplays the role of socio-historical context in shaping metaphorical meaning, focusing instead on cognitive processing as if it were universal and ahistorical.

🧠 Cognitive Bias and Reader Homogenization
The psychological framing assumes a somewhat uniform cognitive process across readers, which may ignore diverse interpretive communities or the variability of reader responses rooted in identity and context.

📚 Insufficient Focus on Non-Metaphorical Literary Devices
By centering metaphor, the paper potentially marginalizes other poetic and rhetorical strategies equally central to literary comprehension, such as irony, metonymy, or ambiguity.

🌀 Conflation of Literary Attitude and Literary Value
Steen’s reliance on the E and P conventions implies that readers can “switch on” a literary mode of reading. Critics may question whether such a clean switch exists, or whether this oversimplifies how texts are actually read and valued.


 Representative Quotations from “Metaphor And Literary Comprehension” By Gerard Steen with Explanation
🔖 Quotation📘 Explanation
🌟 “Three important functions of metaphor are distinguished: the expressive, the transactional and the interactional…” (p. 113)This foundational classification anchors metaphor in discourse theory. Expressive refers to formal expression, transactional to cognition, and interactional to communicative impact.
💬 “The assumption of a difference between a linguistic and a cognitive side to metaphor is precisely why it is necessary to distinguish between three functions…” (p. 117)Steen stresses the importance of separating metaphor’s linguistic form from its cognitive and social effects, allowing a multidimensional approach to metaphor analysis.
🔍 “Metaphor is a formal entity belonging to the domain of text… a potential formal stimulus on the behaviour of readers.” (p. 117)This defines metaphor not only as a textual feature but as a stimulus for reader engagement, paving the way for empirical study.
🎭 “Literary comprehension is approached as a special and specific subtype of understanding metaphor in general…” (p. 118)Steen positions literary reading as a specialized discourse behavior, shaped by cultural conventions like the Esthetic (E) and Polyvalence (P) conventions.
🧠 “Understanding metaphor in literature may be highly influenced by the adoption of a literary attitude of reading…” (p. 118)This quotation highlights how reader attitude, shaped by context and genre, plays a critical role in how metaphors are processed in literary texts.
🧭 “We assume that the understanding of metaphor in literary texts is influenced by the adoption of a literary attitude of reading.” (p. 123)The cognitive response to metaphor is not fixed but depends on whether readers approach the text literarily or non-literarily.
⚖️ “Explicit identification will be investigated as the attribution of a meta-statement concerning the perceived metaphorical nature…” (p. 136)Steen emphasizes the difference between implicit and explicit recognition of metaphor, which helps empirically analyze how metaphors are processed.
🌀 “Polyvalence in literary metaphor may be due to a literary exploitation of the implications arising from a single metaphorical statement.” (p. 128)Steen explains how multiple interpretations from one metaphor are a hallmark of literary reading, driven by the polyvalence convention.
🎨 “The polyvalent nature of literary meaning… is what makes literary allegory such a rich store of meaning…” (p. 127)Allegory is shown to function like metaphor on a broader scale, allowing for multiple simultaneous interpretations in literary discourse.
🔬 “Empirical research in understanding metaphor in literary texts needs to be grounded in a discourse theory of metaphor.” (p. 139)The closing argument affirms the essay’s goal: to bridge empirical study and literary theory via a systematic discourse-based framework.
Suggested Readings: “Metaphor And Literary Comprehension” By Gerard Steen
  1. Steen, Gerard. “Literary and Nonliterary Aspects of Metaphor.” Poetics Today, vol. 13, no. 4, 1992, pp. 687–704. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1773294. Accessed 16 Apr. 2025.
  2. Steen, Gerard. “Metaphor and literary comprehension: Towards a discourse theory of metaphor in literature.” Poetics 18.1-2 (1989): 113-141.

“Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne: A Critical Analysis

“Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne first appeared in manuscript form around the year 1613 and was later published posthumously in the 1633 collection Poems by J.D. with Elegies on the Author’s Death۔

"Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward" by John Donne: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne

“Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne first appeared in manuscript form around the year 1613 and was later published posthumously in the 1633 collection Poems by J.D. with Elegies on the Author’s Death. This meditative poem reflects Donne’s deeply metaphysical style and Christian introspection, interweaving themes of divine suffering, personal guilt, spiritual disorientation, and the longing for redemption. Central to the poem is the metaphor of the soul as a celestial sphere moved by “devotion,” yet often “whirled” off-course by worldly distractions like “pleasure or businesse.” Donne contrasts his physical movement westward with the spiritual call toward the East, symbolizing Christ’s crucifixion and resurrection. The poem becomes a dramatic interior monologue, where the speaker acknowledges his spiritual estrangement from the divine event of Good Friday, confessing that the full weight of witnessing God’s death would be overwhelming: “Who sees Gods face, that is selfe life, must dye; / What a death were it then to see God dye?” Theologically profound and emotionally raw, the poem explores paradoxes of presence and absence, grace and punishment, sight and blindness, ultimately culminating in a plea for transformation: “Restore thine Image…that thou may’st know mee, and I’ll turne my face.” This piece holds lasting significance in literary theory for its fusion of metaphysical conceit, spiritual introspection, and the Baroque tension between body and soul, marking Donne as a pivotal figure in early modern devotional poetry.

Text: “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne

Let mans Soule be a Spheare, and then, in this,

The intelligence that moves, devotion is,

And as the other Spheares, by being growne

Subject to forraigne motion, lose their owne,

And being by others hurried every day,

Scarce in a yeare their naturall forme obey:

Pleasure or businesse, so, our Soules admit

For their first mover, and are whirld by it.

Hence is’t, that I am carryed towards the West

This day, when my Soules forme bends toward the East.

There I should see a Sunne, by rising set,

And by that setting endlesse day beget;

But that Christ on this Crosse, did rise and fall,

Sinne had eternally benighted all.

Yet dare I’almost be glad, I do not see

That spectacle of too much weight for mee.

Who sees Gods face, that is selfe life, must dye;

What a death were it then to see God dye?

It made his owne Lieutenant Nature shrinke,

It made his footstoole crack, and the Sunne winke.

Could I behold those hands which span the Poles,

And tune all spheares at once peirc’d with those holes?

Could I behold that endlesse height which is

Zenith to us, and our Antipodes,

Humbled below us? or that blood which is

The seat of all our Soules, if not of his,

Made durt of dust, or that flesh which was worne

By God, for his apparell, rag’d, and torne?

If on these things I durst not looke, durst I

Upon his miserable mother cast mine eye,

Who was Gods partner here, and furnish’d thus

Halfe of that Sacrifice, which ransom’d us?

Though these things, as I ride, be from mine eye,

They’are present yet unto my memory,

For that looks towards them; and thou look’st towards mee,

O Saviour, as thou hang’st upon the tree;

I turne my backe to thee, but to receive

Corrections, till thy mercies bid thee leave.

O thinke mee worth thine anger, punish mee,

Burne off my rusts, and my deformity,

Restore thine Image, so much, by thy grace,

That thou may’st know mee, and I’ll turne my face.

Annotations: “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne
Original LineSimple EnglishLiterary Device(s)
Let mans Soule be a Spheare, and then, in this,Think of a man’s soul as a perfect round sphere.🌀 Metaphor (soul as sphere)
The intelligence that moves, devotion is,What moves the soul is devotion.💫 Personification (devotion acts as force)
And as the other Spheares, by being growneLike planets, when influenced too much by others,🌍 Simile (soul compared to heavenly bodies)
Subject to forraigne motion, lose their owne,They lose their natural course.🔁 Metaphysical Conceit
And being by others hurried every day,Constantly pulled by outside influences.🌪️ Imagery (chaotic movement)
Scarce in a yeare their naturall forme obey:They hardly return to their intended path.📉 Allusion (astronomy/geocentric model)
Pleasure or businesse, so, our Soules admitLikewise, pleasure and work control our souls.🎭 Symbolism (worldly distractions)
For their first mover, and are whirld by it.We let them become our guiding forces.🌀 Allusion (Aristotelian “prime mover”)
Hence is’t, that I am carryed towards the WestThat’s why I ride west today.🧭 Symbolism (West = physical world)
This day, when my Soules forme bends toward the East.Though my soul wants to turn toward the East (Christ).🧭 Symbolism (East = resurrection)
There I should see a Sunne, by rising set,There I would see a sun rise and set.☀️ Pun/Allegory (sun/Son)
And by that setting endlesse day beget;Christ’s death brings eternal life.⛅ Paradox
But that Christ on this Crosse, did rise and fall,Christ was lifted up and died on the cross.✝️ Paradox (rise and fall at once)
Sinne had eternally benighted all.Otherwise, sin would have left us in darkness.🌑 Personification (sin as darkness)
Yet dare I’almost be glad, I do not seeI’m almost relieved I don’t witness it.😔 Apostrophe (internal conflict)
That spectacle of too much weight for mee.It would be too much to bear.⚖️ Hyperbole
Who sees Gods face, that is selfe life, must dye;Seeing God’s face is so holy, it would kill us.👁️ Paradox
What a death were it then to see God dye?Then how unbearable to see God die?💔 Irony
It made his owne Lieutenant Nature shrinke,Even Nature was shocked.🌍 Personification
It made his footstoole crack, and the Sunne winke.The earth trembled, and the sun went dark.🌞 Symbolism / Personification
Could I behold those hands which span the Poles,Could I look at hands that hold the world?👐 Hyperbole
And tune all spheares at once peirc’d with those holes?And control the cosmos—now pierced by nails?🎼 Metaphysical Conceit
Could I behold that endlesse height which isCould I see that divine height—📏 Metaphor (divinity = height)
Zenith to us, and our Antipodes,Which is above and below us.🌐 Symbolism
Humbled below us? or that blood which isYet humbled so low? Or that holy blood—🩸 Paradox
The seat of all our Soules, if not of his,Source of our souls (if not his own)?🧬 Symbolism
Made durt of dust, or that flesh which was worneNow turned to dirt? And that divine flesh—🌫️ Alliteration / Contrast
By God, for his apparell, rag’d, and torne?Which God wore like clothes—ripped and torn?👕 Metaphor (flesh as garment)
If on these things I durst not looke, durst IIf I can’t bear to look at Christ—😢 Rhetorical Question
Upon his miserable mother cast mine eye,Could I even look at his sorrowing mother?👁️ Pathos / Apostrophe
Who was Gods partner here, and furnish’d thusShe shared in God’s suffering.🤝 Metaphor
Halfe of that Sacrifice, which ransom’d us?She contributed to our redemption.💔 Allusion (co-redemptrix)
Though these things, as I ride, be from mine eye,Even if I can’t see them now—🚶 Imagery
They’are present yet unto my memory,I still remember them deeply.🧠 Symbolism (memory as vision)
For that looks towards them; and thou look’st towards mee,My mind looks to them, and You look at me.👁️‍🗨️ Chiasmus / Apostrophe
O Saviour, as thou hang’st upon the tree;While You hang on the cross—🌳 Symbolism (tree = cross)
I turne my backe to thee, but to receiveI turn away, but to accept Your punishment.🔁 Irony / Repentance
Corrections, till thy mercies bid thee leave.Punish me until Your mercy tells You to stop.⚖️ Metaphor / Paradox
O thinke mee worth thine anger, punish mee,Consider me worthy of discipline.💥 Apostrophe
Burne off my rusts, and my deformity,Burn away my sins and faults.🔥 Metaphor / Purification
Restore thine Image, so much, by thy grace,Restore Your image in me through grace.🪞 Theological Allusion
That thou may’st know mee, and I’ll turne my face.So You’ll recognize me and I’ll turn to You.🔄 Resolution / Spiritual Renewal
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne
Device 🧩Example from the PoemExplanation
Apostrophe 🗣️“O Saviour, as thou hang’st upon the tree”The speaker directly addresses Christ in a meditative moment.
Alliteration 🔤“durt of dust”Repetition of initial consonant ‘d’ creates rhythm and emphasis.
Allusion (Biblical) 📖“as thou hang’st upon the tree”Refers to Christ’s crucifixion using a biblical metaphor (“tree”).
Antithesis ⚖️“I turne my backe to thee, but to receive / Corrections”Contrasting ideas of turning away and spiritual return.
Chiasmus 🔁“For that looks towards them; and thou look’st towards mee”Reversal of structure reflects mirrored spiritual relationship.
Conceit (Metaphysical) ⛓️“Let mans Soule be a Spheare”An extended metaphor comparing the soul to a planetary sphere.
Contrast ⚔️“carryed towards the West…Soules forme bends toward the East”Opposes physical journey with spiritual inclination.
Enjambment ➡️“The seat of all our Soules, if not of his, / Made durt of dust”Thought runs over to the next line without pause.
Hyperbole 💥“Could I behold those hands which span the Poles”Exaggeration to emphasize Christ’s cosmic power.
Imagery (Visual) 🖼️“the Sunne winke”Vivid image of cosmic darkness signaling divine grief.
Irony 🎭“What a death were it then to see God dye?”It is both impossible and tragic to witness God’s death.
Metaphor 🌀“Restore thine Image”Compares spiritual identity to a divine image that needs repair.
Metonymy 🏛️“blood which is / The seat of all our Soules”“Blood” represents soul or life force.
Paradox 🔮“Christ on this Crosse, did rise and fall”Christ’s death is portrayed as both a fall and a spiritual rising.
Pathos 💧“Upon his miserable mother cast mine eye”Stirring emotional appeal to evoke compassion.
Personification 🌞“the Sunne winke”The sun is given human traits, suggesting nature’s sorrow.
Pun 😏“Sunne, by rising set”A play on words: “sun” as celestial body and “Son” of God.
Rhetorical Question ❓“What a death were it then to see God dye?”Meant to provoke deep reflection rather than answer.
Simile 🧩“as the other Spheares…lose their owne”Souls are likened to planets thrown off their path.
Symbolism 🧭“West” and “East”Represent the material world vs. spiritual salvation.

Themes: “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne

✝️ 1. Spiritual Conflict and Contradiction: In “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne, the poet explores a deep spiritual conflict between worldly duties and divine contemplation. This internal tension is most vividly captured in the lines: “Hence is’t, that I am carryed towards the West / This day, when my Soules forme bends toward the East.” While Donne physically rides westward, his soul inclines eastward—toward Jerusalem, the site of Christ’s crucifixion. This spatial metaphor reveals a soul torn between earthly engagements (symbolized by the west) and spiritual devotion (symbolized by the east). The conflict is further emphasized by the speaker’s confession that “Pleasure or businesse…our Soules admit / For their first mover, and are whirld by it,” reflecting how external pressures derail inner devotion. Donne’s struggle to reconcile his daily life with his faith illustrates a universal theme of spiritual disorientation.


🌞 2. Divine Majesty and Human Unworthiness: Throughout “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne, the contrast between divine majesty and human frailty is sharply emphasized. Donne wrestles with his unworthiness to witness Christ’s crucifixion, asking: “Who sees Gods face, that is selfe life, must dye; / What a death were it then to see God dye?” This paradox encapsulates the overwhelming holiness of Christ and the speaker’s own spiritual inadequacy. He admits he cannot bear to look upon “those hands which span the Poles…peirc’d with those holes,” underscoring the cosmic significance of Christ’s suffering. Even Nature, God’s “Lieutenant,” “shrinkes” at the crucifixion, while the “Sunne winke[s]” in mourning. These dramatic images emphasize the divine scale of Christ’s death, and the speaker’s humility before such an event, reinforcing his sense of human smallness in the face of God’s sacrifice.


🔥 3. Repentance and Spiritual Renewal: A powerful theme in “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne is the desire for repentance and spiritual transformation. The poem ends with an impassioned plea for purification and renewal: “Burne off my rusts, and my deformity, / Restore thine Image, so much, by thy grace.” Donne uses the imagery of corrosion and divine restoration to suggest that the soul, though tarnished by sin, can be reformed through divine mercy. The act of turning back to God is physically and spiritually symbolized in the final line: “That thou may’st know mee, and I’ll turne my face.” Here, the speaker resolves to realign his soul with Christ, asking to be recognized once again as bearing God’s image. This act of repentance is not simply sorrow for sin, but a dynamic return to the divine presence, made possible only through grace.


🧭 4. Directionality as Spiritual Allegory: In “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne, spatial direction becomes a profound spiritual allegory. The poet’s physical journey westward ironically contrasts with his spiritual yearning to face eastward, toward Christ. The directional metaphor—“I am carryed towards the West / This day, when my Soules forme bends toward the East”—acts as a metaphor for the tension between temporal existence and eternal truth. The East, traditionally associated with resurrection and spiritual light, represents the path of salvation. In contrast, the West becomes a symbol of distraction, delay, and disconnection from the divine. Donne cleverly uses cosmic and earthly geography to mirror the state of his soul, suggesting that to find redemption, one must consciously reorient not only their body but their inner being toward God. The poem’s very structure echoes this inward journey.

Literary Theories and “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne
Theory 🧠ExplanationTextual Reference
📖 New CriticismFocuses on close reading of the text itself—its imagery, paradoxes, and formal qualities. Donne’s use of paradox (“What a death were it then to see God dye?”), conceit (“Let mans Soule be a Spheare”), and structure all lend themselves to this method. The self-contained poem displays tension between spiritual devotion and physical action.“Hence is’t, that I am carryed towards the West / This day, when my Soules forme bends toward the East.”
🪞 Psychoanalytic CriticismExplores the speaker’s inner psychological tension, guilt, and desire for purification. The fear of witnessing divine suffering (“That spectacle of too much weight for mee”) and the longing for restoration (“Burne off my rusts…Restore thine Image”) mirror repressed guilt and the search for wholeness (ego-ideal vs. superego conflict).“I turne my backe to thee, but to receive / Corrections, till thy mercies bid thee leave.”
✝️ Theological CriticismInterprets the poem within Christian doctrine and spiritual tradition. The entire meditation revolves around Good Friday, the crucifixion, redemption, and repentance. The symbolic East-West direction, Christ as “Sunne,” and the plea for grace all reflect Christian soteriology.“Christ on this Crosse, did rise and fall, / Sinne had eternally benighted all.”
🌍 Historical-Biographical CriticismConsiders Donne’s own life—his transition from courtier to cleric—and historical religious context. The tension between worldly duty and spiritual calling is autobiographical, reflecting Donne’s inner conflict as he was undergoing a personal and theological transformation in 1613.Donne’s real westward journey on Good Friday while contemplating the East (Christ) mirrors his own spiritual direction.
Critical Questions about “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne

1. How does the tension between physical movement and spiritual longing shape the poem’s structure and meaning?

In “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne, the speaker’s literal westward journey stands in symbolic conflict with his soul’s longing to turn east—toward Christ and spiritual reflection. This central tension is expressed in the lines: “Hence is’t, that I am carryed towards the West / This day, when my Soules forme bends toward the East.” The juxtaposition of bodily action and inner desire introduces a paradox that governs the entire poem. This dissonance not only structures the poem’s physical vs. spiritual duality but also mirrors Donne’s broader metaphysical style, where inner truths clash with external realities. The physical act of riding becomes a metaphor for distraction and disconnection from faith, while the desire to face east signifies repentance and renewal. This thematic structure deepens the poem’s emotional and philosophical depth.


🩸 2. In what ways does Donne portray the crucifixion as a cosmic and psychological event?

“Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne presents Christ’s crucifixion not just as a historical or theological moment, but as an event of cosmic magnitude and psychological weight. The speaker reflects: “It made his owne Lieutenant Nature shrinke, / It made his footstoole crack, and the Sunne winke.” These lines suggest that nature itself—the very universe—responded to Christ’s death with trembling and darkness. This cosmic reaction is paralleled by the speaker’s personal inability to fully face the event: “Yet dare I almost be glad, I do not see / That spectacle of too much weight for mee.” Donne thus merges metaphysical grandeur with inner psychological struggle. The crucifixion becomes both a disruption in the heavens and a confrontation too overwhelming for a mortal soul, illustrating the gravity of divine sacrifice through both celestial and emotional responses.


🔥 3. What role does the language of purification and transformation play in the poem’s conclusion?

In the final stanzas of “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne, the speaker turns from contemplation to active plea, invoking the imagery of fire and cleansing. The lines “Burne off my rusts, and my deformity, / Restore thine Image, so much, by thy grace” express the soul’s yearning for purification and restoration to divine likeness. “Rusts” metaphorically represent spiritual decay, and “deformity” evokes a fall from grace. Through the process of suffering and divine correction—“I turne my backe to thee, but to receive / Corrections”—the speaker seeks a renewed identity, one that reflects God’s image. This redemptive theme echoes the broader Christian concept of sanctification. Donne positions spiritual renewal not as a passive hope but as an active, grace-driven transformation, underscoring the poem’s penitential tone and the redemptive potential of Good Friday.


🌍 4. How does Donne’s historical and personal context inform the speaker’s sense of disorientation and guilt?

The biographical and historical context of John Donne deeply informs “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward”, particularly in the speaker’s sense of spiritual guilt and dislocation. Written during Donne’s transition from a secular courtier to a deeply committed Anglican priest, the poem reflects his personal conflict between worldly obligations and religious calling. His westward ride, likely toward secular responsibilities, becomes a metaphor for spiritual misdirection: “Pleasure or businesse…whirld” the soul away from its true center. At the time, Donne was grappling with the expectations of court life and his own religious vocation—tensions that permeate the poem. The spiritual weight of Good Friday serves as a moment of reckoning, compelling him to confront his guilt and seek reorientation: “That thou may’st know mee, and I’ll turne my face.” This context enriches the poem’s emotional and moral complexity, revealing it as both a public meditation and a private confession.

Literary Works Similar to “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne
  • 🛐 “The Collar” by George Herbert
    ↪ Explores the speaker’s spiritual defiance and eventual return to God, mirroring Donne’s inner tension between worldly life and divine calling.
  • ☀️ “The World” by Henry Vaughan
    ↪ Uses cosmic and spiritual imagery to contrast fleeting earthly concerns with eternal truth—similar to Donne’s East-West metaphor.
  • ⚖️ “To Christ Crucified” (Anonymous, Spanish Baroque)
    ↪ Shares Donne’s reverent awe at the crucifixion, expressing unworthiness and the soul’s humble desire for divine mercy.
  • 🔥 “Easter Wings” by George Herbert
    ↪ Like Donne’s poem, it uses form and paradox to depict the soul’s fall and hope for resurrection and grace.
Representative Quotations of “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne
🔹 QuotationContext & Meaning🧠 Theoretical Lens
🧭 “Hence is’t, that I am carryed towards the West / This day, when my Soules forme bends toward the East.”The speaker travels westward physically, but spiritually desires to turn toward Christ in the East—symbolizing internal conflict.New Criticism: Focuses on spatial metaphor and paradox.
✝️ “Christ on this Crosse, did rise and fall, / Sinne had eternally benighted all.”A theological paradox: Christ’s death is both a fall and a redemptive rising, reversing eternal sin.Theological Criticism: Examines soteriological depth.
🌞 “Who sees Gods face, that is selfe life, must dye; / What a death were it then to see God dye?”A profound paradox: seeing the source of life causes death. So witnessing God die is beyond comprehension.Metaphysical Poetics: Focus on paradox and intensity.
🌍 “It made his owne Lieutenant Nature shrinke, / It made his footstoole crack, and the Sunne winke.”The crucifixion disturbs the entire cosmos. Nature reacts in horror to the death of its Creator.Eco-Criticism / Historical Criticism: Nature’s role in divine drama.
🔥 “Burne off my rusts, and my deformity, / Restore thine Image, so much, by thy grace.”A plea for purification and transformation—asking God to cleanse sin and renew divine likeness.Psychoanalytic Criticism: Purging guilt and restoring the ego-ideal.
🕊️ “Restore thine Image…that thou may’st know mee, and I’ll turne my face.”Redemption through grace allows the speaker to turn toward God again and be recognized.Theological Criticism: Reflects imago Dei and repentance.
💫 “Let mans Soule be a Spheare…devotion is.”Introduces the central conceit: the soul is a planet moved by devotion, echoing celestial harmony.Metaphysical / Formalist Criticism: Central conceit and order.
⚖️ “Pleasure or businesse…our Soules admit / For their first mover, and are whirld by it.”Worldly distractions displace devotion as the soul’s guiding force.Moral Philosophy / Christian Humanism: Warning against misdirected will.
👁️ “That spectacle of too much weight for mee.”The speaker admits his soul is too weak to witness the crucifixion’s horror.Psychoanalytic Criticism: Fear of confrontation with trauma.
🧠 “They’are present yet unto my memory, / For that looks towards them; and thou look’st towards mee.”Though physically distant, the speaker spiritually remembers Christ, creating a bond of vision and grace.Phenomenology / Memory Theory: Memory as spiritual seeing.
Suggested Readings: “Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westward” by John Donne
  1. Sherwood, Terry G. “Conversion Psychology in John Donne’s Good Friday Poem.” The Harvard Theological Review, vol. 72, no. 1/2, 1979, pp. 101–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1509678. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.
  2. Sherwood, Terry G. “Conversion Psychology in John Donne’s Good Friday Poem.” The Harvard Theological Review, vol. 72, no. 1/2, 1979, pp. 101–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1509678. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.
  3. Brown, Piers. “Donne’s Hawkings.” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 49, no. 1, 2009, pp. 67–86. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40071385. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.

“The Motive For Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue: Summary and Critique

“The Motive for Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue first appeared in 2014 in the journal Raritan, Volume 33, Issue 3.

"The Motive For Metaphor" by Denis Donoghue: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “The Motive For Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue

“The Motive for Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue first appeared in 2014 in the journal Raritan, Volume 33, Issue 3. In this landmark essay, Donoghue explores the philosophical and poetic motivations behind the use of metaphor, drawing on classical rhetoric, literary criticism, and the metaphysical musings of poets such as Wallace Stevens and William Butler Yeats. Central to Donoghue’s argument is Quintilian’s notion that metaphor is both a natural and essential gift—something that lends grace and necessity to language by ensuring that nothing remains unnamed. The essay traces metaphor’s dual nature as both a linguistic necessity and an aesthetic desire, emphasizing its ability to reshape reality through imagination. Drawing from Stevens’s poetry, especially his eponymous poem “The Motive for Metaphor,” Donoghue argues that metaphor functions as a form of resistance—shrinking from the hard, fixed “primary noon” of reality in search of mutable truths and imaginative escape. The piece is notable in literary theory for its synthesis of rhetorical history, poetic analysis, and philosophical speculation. It positions metaphor not merely as ornamentation, but as a vital cognitive and spiritual operation, underscoring its central role in both literature and the human effort to know and name the world.

Summary of “The Motive For Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue

·  🔸 Metaphor as a Natural and Noble Act of Naming:
Drawing from Quintilian, Donoghue opens by stating that metaphor is a natural human gift:

“It is both a gift which Nature herself confers on us… [ensuring] that nothing goes without a name” (p.182) ✴
This framing treats metaphor not as a mere rhetorical flourish, but a fundamental linguistic and existential impulse.

·  🔸 Metaphor and the Liberty of the Mind:
Metaphor emerges from the freedom of the imagination, striving to give things their “proper names,” though often failing.

“The source of metaphor is the liberty of the mind among such words as there are” (p.184) ✴

·  🔸 Metaphor as Both Resource and Failure:
Metaphor reflects the inadequacies of language, and thus, its use becomes a noble but doomed attempt to make sense of a deficient world.

“Rhetoric… is a glorious failure, and the cry of metaphor is doomed” (p.184) ✴
“We cry out to change the world by giving things their proper names—but often we fail” (p.184) ✴

·  🔸 Allegory and Catachresis: Extensions of Metaphor:
Metaphor gives rise to allegory and to its extremes, catachresis—abused or “forced” metaphors that reveal linguistic limits.

“Allegory is its narrative form… Catachresis is the figure of its abuse” (p.185) ✴
“Something monstrous lurks in the most innocent of catachreses” – Paul de Man (p.185) ✴

·  🔸 Metaphor as Escape from Literal Reality:
According to Wallace Stevens (via Frye), the motive for metaphor is to escape the oppressive weight of objective reality, “the weight of primary noon.”

“The motive for metaphor, shrinking from / The weight of primary noon” – Stevens (p.186) ✴
“To defeat or evade the force of the world, it must resort to the imaginative capacity of the mind” (p.188) ✴

·  🔸 Interpretive Differences: Frye vs. Ransom:
Frye sees the metaphor as a bridge between mind and world; Ransom views it as a poetic solution to inexpressible moral feelings.

Frye: “The only genuine joy… is in those rare moments when you feel that… we are also a part of what we know” (p.187) ✴
Ransom: The metaphor avoids “the dreary searching of your own mind” (p.187) ✴

·  🔸 Stevens’s Hegelian Idealism and Artistic Desire:
Stevens’s poetic vision resonates with Hegel’s aesthetics, where art “lifts the inner and outer world into his spiritual consciousness.”

“The universal need for art… is man’s rational need to lift the inner and outer world into his spiritual consciousness” – Hegel (p.189) ✴

·  🔸 Art and Metaphor as Acts of Decreation:
Donoghue invokes Simone Weil and Picasso to show how metaphor contributes to a modern aesthetic of undoing the real, transforming or annihilating it.

“Modern reality is a reality of decreation” (p.191) ✴
“A poem is a horde of destructions” – Stevens (p.191) ✴

·  🔸 The Danger of Bad Metaphors:
Metaphors have the power to undermine themselves—a bad metaphor, Donoghue notes, can “murder” a good one.

“He must defy / The metaphor that murders metaphor” (p.191) ✴

·  🔸 Repetition, Association, and Stevens’s Reluctance to End:
Stevens’s poetry exhibits an additive and associative structure—where metaphors are strung together without clear hierarchy.

“One phrase is instructed to produce another by association” (p.192) ✴
“His sentences tend not to be decisive… he always sees a further possibility” (p.193) ✴

·  🔸 Shrinking from Fixity and Embracing Change:
Stevens shrinks from fixed truths, favoring the fluid, unstable states metaphor enables.

“A poet writes of twilight because he shrinks from noon-day” – Stevens (p.196) ✴

·  🔸 Resemblance as a Core Principle of Metaphor:
Stevens’s metaphors rely heavily on resemblance, which Donoghue critiques as too general to be philosophically sound.

“In some sense, all things resemble each other” – Stevens (p.198) ✴
“Similarity… is relative, variable and culture-dependent” – Nelson Goodman (p.199) ✴

·  🔸 Metaphor Intensifies Reality:
When it works, metaphor heightens our sense of reality, transforming the mundane into the sublime.

“It enhances the sense of reality, heightens it, intensifies it” (p.200) ✴
Example from Ecclesiastes: “The silver cord… the golden bowl… the wheel broken at the cistern” (p.200) ✴

·  🔸 Metaphor vs. Simile:
A metaphor demands total imaginative immersion, unlike simile which allows safe distance.

“A metaphor incurs resistance… and is indifferent to shame” (p.201) ✴

·  🔸 “X” as Final Resistance and Symbol of Limit:
Stevens’s “dominant X” represents the intractable world, the final, unchangeable reality metaphor fails to penetrate.

“Nothing in the poem defeats the final ‘X'” (p.206) ✴

·  🔸 No Final Word on Metaphor:
Donoghue concludes that Stevens’s relation to metaphor is inherently unstable. Each poetic mood shifts the meaning and function of metaphor.

“We can’t expect from Stevens a definitive statement about metaphor” (p.207) ✴
“In such seemings all things are. Metaphor… will do its transforming work another day” (p.207) ✴

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “The Motive For Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue
📌 Term Explanation🔖 Reference/Quotation
🧠 MetaphorA natural, imaginative act of naming that both expands language and transforms perception.“It ensures that nothing goes without a name” (p.182)
📖 CatachresisA strained or improper metaphor that stretches or abuses meaning, yet remains rhetorically valid.“To speak of ‘forced metaphor’ is not to degrade its manifestations” (p.185)
🔍 ResemblanceStevens’s preferred foundation for metaphor, based on likeness; Donoghue critiques it as too vague to sustain theory.“In some sense, all things resemble each other” (p.198)
🌀 AllegoryAn extended metaphor that takes on narrative and moral form—what Fontanier calls “prolongée et continue.”“Allegory is its narrative form…” (p.185)
🎭 ProsopopoeiaA figure of speech in which non-human entities are personified—often emerging from overextended metaphors.“Catachresis is already turning into prosopopeia…” (p.185)
🔧 Concrete UniversalA Hegelian concept in which abstract ideas are made materially present; Ransom uses it to frame metaphor’s real-world function.“It becomes a Concrete Universal when it has been materialized…” (p.187)
🧬 ImaginationThe mental faculty that powers metaphor, allowing us to reshape reality through poetic transformation.“Metaphor creates a new reality…” (p.188)
💫 DecreationFrom Simone Weil: the spiritual undoing of created reality, which metaphor helps initiate as aesthetic escape.“Modern reality is a reality of decreation” (p.191)
🔗 SimilarityOften aligned with resemblance, but critiqued by Goodman for lacking objectivity and explanatory power in metaphor theory.“Similarity… is relative, variable and culture-dependent” (p.199)
🗣️ RhetoricA system of language arising from human insufficiency; metaphor is its central figure—both noble and doomed.“The axiom of all rhetoric is the principle of insufficient reason” (p.184)
🎇 TransformationThe creative operation by which metaphor changes how we see and name reality; tied to imagination and perception.“The object… turned freely in the hand…” (p.205)
🧩 The ‘X’Represents the unyielding, dominant force of the world or moral universals that metaphor cannot dissolve.“The vital, arrogant, fatal, dominant X” (p.186)
🖋️ Poetic AuthorityStevens often relinquishes control, letting language guide itself—challenging the notion of the poet as a final authority.“There are words / Better without an author…” (p.193)
🎨 Aesthetic EscapeMetaphor as a method of fleeing fixed, literal meaning in favor of poetic freedom and subjective truth.“Metaphor alone furnishes an escape” (p.191)
📜 IdealismA philosophical stance—prevalent in Stevens’s poetic moods—that assumes consciousness can transform external reality.“In most of his moods he was a Hegelian” (p.189)
Contribution of “The Motive For Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue to Literary Theory/Theories

  • 🧠 Metaphor as Cognitive and Ontological Tool
    Donoghue elevates metaphor beyond ornamentation, presenting it as essential to how humans name, understand, and exist within the world.

“It ensures that nothing goes without a name” – Quintilian (p.182)


  • 🌀 Poetic Language as Idealist Expression
    Stevens’s metaphoric thought aligns with Hegelian idealism, portraying metaphor as a spiritual act uniting inner consciousness and external reality.

“He woke in a metaphor: this was / A metamorphosis of paradise” (p.189)


  • 🎨 Metaphor as Aesthetic Resistance
    Metaphor becomes a form of imaginative protest against oppressive, fixed realities—”the weight of primary noon.”

“The motive for metaphor, shrinking from / The weight of primary noon” (p.186)


  • 🔧 Engagement with Classical Rhetorical Tradition
    Through references to Aristotle, Fontanier, and Quintilian, Donoghue reinterprets rhetorical devices like allegory, catachresis, and simile.

“Allegory is its narrative form… Catachresis is the figure of its abuse” (p.185)


  • 🧩 The ‘X’ as Limit of Language and Metaphor
    The “dominant X” in Stevens’s poem marks the threshold where metaphor fails—where language can no longer transform reality.

“Nothing in the poem defeats the final ‘X'” (p.206)


  • 🗣️ Rhetoric as Anthropological Necessity
    Donoghue, citing Blumenberg, reframes rhetoric not as persuasion but as an existential necessity driven by human lack and insufficiency.

“The axiom of all rhetoric is the principle of insufficient reason” (p.184)


  • 📖 Validation of Radical and ‘Abused’ Metaphors
    Defending even bizarre metaphors like “bisqued mountain,” Donoghue legitimizes catachresis as a productive, imaginative force.

“To speak of ‘forced metaphor’ is not to degrade its manifestations” (p.185)


  • 🔍 Critique of Resemblance as Metaphoric Ground
    Donoghue challenges Stevens’s assumption that resemblance is natural, invoking Nelson Goodman’s view that similarity is culturally constructed.

“Similarity… is relative, variable and culture-dependent” (p.199)


  • 🧬 Metaphor as Creative Ontology
    Metaphor does not just reflect reality—it makes it. It is a poietic act that creates new ways of seeing and being.

“Metaphor creates a new reality from which the original appears to be unreal” (p.188)


  • 📜 Interplay of Modernist Certainty and Postmodern Ambiguity
    Donoghue highlights Stevens’s shifting moods and refusal to settle on a singular metaphoric theory—an openness aligning with postmodern literary theory.

“We can’t expect from Stevens a definitive statement about metaphor” (p.207)

Examples of Critiques Through “The Motive For Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue
🔹 Symbol & Literary Work🧠 Critique via Metaphor Theory🔖 Reference from the Article
🦌 “In Memory of Eva Gore-Booth and Con Markiewicz” – W. B. YeatsDonoghue analyzes Yeats’s line “one a gazelle” to show metaphor as essence-transference, not mere comparison. It evokes a luminous unity between image and being.“The girl’s nature goes over into the nature of a gazelle as if both came from one luminous source” (p.183)
🌳 “The Motive for Metaphor” – Wallace StevensThis poem is Donoghue’s central text, used to explore how metaphor resists fixed meaning (“X”) and serves as aesthetic escape, yet ultimately fails to resolve existential or epistemological tensions.“Nothing in the poem defeats the final ‘X'” (p.206)
🥄 “Someone Puts a Pineapple Together” – Wallace StevensDonoghue critiques this poem for its bizarre metaphors, especially the “bisqued mountain,” as extreme cases of metaphor stretching meaning. They test the limits of metaphor as imaginative creation.“An Alp, a purple Southern mountain bisqued with the molten mixings of related things” (p.202)
🌞 “An Ordinary Evening in New Haven” – Wallace StevensDonoghue interprets Stevens’s metaphors (e.g., “chrysalis of all men”) as efforts to unite subjective perception and external form, though often open-ended and unresolved.“The self, the chrysalis of all men / Became divided in the leisure of blue day…” (p.203)
Criticism Against “The Motive For Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue
  • 🧩 Overreliance on Stevens’s Poetic Authority
    Donoghue hinges much of his theory on Wallace Stevens, potentially narrowing metaphor’s scope across diverse literary traditions.
    ➤ Critics might argue that using one poet’s temperament to frame a general theory of metaphor limits its broader applicability.

  • 🔄 Philosophical Inconsistency
    The essay oscillates between idealism and skepticism, invoking both Hegelian unity and postmodern ambiguity without fully reconciling the two.
    ➤ “We can’t expect from Stevens a definitive statement about metaphor” (p.207) may reflect this unresolved tension.

  • 🎨 Romanticization of Metaphor
    Donoghue tends to elevate metaphor to near-mystical status, emphasizing its aesthetic and existential powers while underplaying its structural or political dimensions.
    ➤ This limits metaphor’s role in critical discourse, including feminist, postcolonial, or ideological critiques.

  • 📏 Neglect of Formal and Linguistic Precision
    Critics may find Donoghue’s acceptance of vague terms like “resemblance” too generous, despite his citation of Nelson Goodman’s challenge to that notion.
    ➤ He critiques Stevens but doesn’t fully abandon slippery conceptual terrain, potentially undermining analytical rigor.

  • 🧠 Underuse of Contemporary Linguistic Theory
    While Donoghue engages with classical and continental thought, he gives minimal attention to modern cognitive or conceptual metaphor theory (e.g., Lakoff & Johnson).
    ➤ This makes the work more philosophically poetic than practically linguistic or interdisciplinary.

  • 🌐 Limited Cultural Range
    The examples and allusions are primarily Western, white, male, and canonical, raising concerns about inclusivity and broader relevance in global poetics.
    ➤ There’s little engagement with metaphor in non-Western traditions or contemporary marginalized voices.

Representative Quotations from “The Motive For Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue with Explanation
🔹 Quotation🧠 Explanation
“It ensures that nothing goes without a name”: a beautiful, caring motive.Metaphor satisfies a human need to name and give meaning—language becomes an act of care and completeness.
“Reality is a cliché from which we escape by metaphor.”Stevens sees metaphor as a means to liberate perception from the dullness of habitual reality.
“Metaphor creates a new reality from which the original appears to be unreal.”Metaphor doesn’t mirror the world—it transforms it, reshaping how we perceive and interact with reality.
“The motive for metaphor, shrinking from / The weight of primary noon.”Metaphor serves as a retreat from the harsh clarity of objective truth, favoring imaginative ambiguity.
“We live in a place / That is not our own and, much more, not ourselves.”This expresses existential dislocation, suggesting metaphor as a tool for self-integration and understanding.
“Metaphor alone furnishes an escape.”Ortega y Gasset’s concept, cited by Donoghue, emphasizes metaphor’s power as a vehicle of liberation from oppressive realism.
“A metaphor incurs resistance from our sense of absurdity and is indifferent to shame.”True metaphor challenges logic and comfort—it transforms language through audacity and creative force.
“The whole world is less susceptible to metaphor than a tea-cup is.”Stevens humorously points to the challenge of expressing large concepts through metaphor versus simple ones.
“Similarity does not explain metaphor or metaphorical truth.”Citing Goodman, Donoghue dismantles the naïve belief that resemblance underlies metaphor—it’s often the other way around.
“Too much as they are to be changed by metaphor, / Too actual…”Metaphor may sometimes fail—when reality is too concrete to be poetically transformed.
Suggested Readings: “The Motive For Metaphor” by Denis Donoghue
  1. DONOGHUE, DENIS. “The Motive for Metaphor.” The Hudson Review, vol. 65, no. 4, 2013, pp. 543–61. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43489263. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  2. O’Donoghue, Josie. “‘A Fling of Freedom.'” The Cambridge Quarterly, vol. 44, no. 1, 2015, pp. 69–77. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43492472. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  3. Donoghue, Denis. “The Motive for Metaphor.” Metaphor, Harvard University Press, 2014, pp. 182–208. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wps2d.9. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.

“The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto: Summary and Critique

“The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto first appeared in The Cambridge Handbook of the Philosophy of Language Sciences (2015), published by Cambridge University Press.

"The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors" by Daniel Casasanto: Summary and Critique
Introduction: “The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto

“The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto first appeared in The Cambridge Handbook of the Philosophy of Language Sciences (2015), published by Cambridge University Press. This influential chapter presents the Hierarchical Mental Metaphors Theory (HMMT), a compelling extension of conceptual metaphor theory, offering a dynamic and layered explanation for how humans use spatial structures to conceptualize abstract domains like time, pitch, and emotional valence. Casasanto challenges the previously dominant view that mental metaphors are universal and fixed, arguing instead that they emerge from both universal patterns of embodied experience and language-, culture-, and body-specific influences. By proposing that mental metaphors are organized hierarchically—beginning with broad, often innate or early-learned “superordinate” metaphor families, which are later shaped by individual experiences—Casasanto demonstrates how metaphors can be simultaneously deeply ingrained and remarkably flexible. This nuanced framework significantly impacts literature and literary theory by providing cognitive underpinnings for metaphorical thinking, influencing how we understand meaning-making, interpretation, and the variability of metaphor across cultures, languages, and individuals. HMMT also opens new pathways for analyzing literary texts, offering a scientific grounding for reader-response variability and the embodied basis of metaphorical language.

Summary of “The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto

🔍 Mental Metaphors Are Core to Abstract Thinking

“People think about abstract domains like time and goodness metaphorically. This tendency may be universal.” (Casasanto, p. 46)
🧠 Casasanto distinguishes mental metaphors (non-linguistic mappings) from linguistic metaphors, showing that humans often think metaphorically even without language (Casasanto & Bottini, 2014a) 🌐.


📚 Challenges to Universality and Fixity

“Yet the claims that basic mental metaphors are learned, universal, and fixed are all challenged by experimental data” (p. 47)
🧪 Studies show variability across languages, cultures, and individuals. For instance, newborns already show sensitivity to spatial-numerical mappings, suggesting innateness rather than learning (De Hevia et al., 2014) 👶.


🧭 Hierarchical Mental Metaphors Theory (HMMT)

“Even our most basic mental metaphors are constructed over multiple timescales, on the basis of multiple kinds of experience.” (p. 48)
🌱 HMMT proposes that metaphors exist in superordinate families—universal but flexible—shaped by ongoing cultural, linguistic, and bodily experiences. Different mappings from the same family can become dominant over time 🏗️.


🎵 Pitch as an Example of Language-Specific Variation

“Speakers of height languages…incorporate height information into pitch, whereas thickness-language speakers do the same with thickness.” (p. 51)
🎼 Dutch and Farsi speakers conceptualize pitch differently based on the metaphors common in their native language, and brief training in an unfamiliar metaphor can retrain mental mappings (Dolscheid et al., 2013) 🎧.


👶 Infants Show Both Height–Pitch and Thickness–Pitch Mappings

“Four-month-olds…are sensitive to two of the space–pitch metaphors that are found in languages like Dutch and Farsi.” (p. 53)
👶 Infants possess multiple potential mappings early in life. Language strengthens one metaphor over another, not by creating new ones, but by enhancing the activation frequency of existing ones 🔄.


🕓 Temporal Sequences Are Culturally Structured

“The direction in which events flow…varies systematically across cultures.” (p. 55)
📆 While sagittal time metaphors (past behind, future ahead) may be embodied, lateral metaphors (left–right) depend on orthographic experience. Mirror-reading even reverses mental timelines (Casasanto & Bottini, 2014b) 🔄🕰️.


👐 Emotional Valence Tied to Body Dominance

“Right-handers associate positive ideas with right space…left-handers show the opposite.” (p. 57)
💖 The spatial mapping of good vs. bad follows motor fluency. Right-handed people associate “good” with the right, while left-handed people do the opposite. This holds even against cultural conventions (Casasanto, 2009a) ↔️.


🧤 Motor Experience Can Reverse Valence Mappings

“Participants who had worn the right glove showed the opposite left-is-good bias.” (p. 58)
🧠 Temporary shifts in motor fluency, like wearing a glove on the dominant hand, can alter emotional metaphors in less than 15 minutes—proving their plasticity and dependence on physical experience 🕹️.


🔁 Mental Metaphors Are Flexible Yet Stable

“Dispreferred mappings are weakened but not lost and can be adopted quickly with new experience.” (p. 60)
🧬 Even “unused” metaphors persist in memory, enabling people to switch mappings when context shifts (e.g., new languages, scripts, tools). This dual stability and flexibility is a core insight of HMMT 🌍🧠.


🌐 Cognitive Diversity and Conceptual Plasticity

“By understanding how mental metaphors are shaped…we can better understand the origins of our thoughts.” (p. 60)
🌟 Casasanto concludes that mental metaphors are fundamental cognitive tools shaped by diverse experiences. Recognizing their variability enhances our understanding of thought, culture, and language as dynamic systems 🔄🌏.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto

🔣 TermDefinitionExplanation / Role in ArticleReference & Usage
🧠 Mental MetaphorA mapping between non-linguistic mental representations (e.g., from space to time).Central concept. Distinct from linguistic metaphors; mental metaphors shape how people think about abstract concepts like time, pitch, and emotion.“People often think in ‘mental metaphors’… even when they are not using any metaphorical language.” (p. 46)
🗣️ Linguistic MetaphorA metaphor expressed through language, such as “a long vacation.”Contrasted with mental metaphors. Linguistic metaphors can reinforce mental metaphors over time.“The term ‘mental metaphor’ is used contrastively with ‘linguistic metaphor’…” (p. 46)
🏛️ Hierarchical Mental Metaphors Theory (HMMT)A theory that conceptual metaphors exist in superordinate families, with individual mappings strengthened over time via experience.Casasanto’s main theoretical contribution. Explains both universal origins and individual flexibility in mental metaphor use.“Even our most basic mental metaphors are constructed over multiple timescales…” (p. 48)
🧩 Superordinate Family of MappingsA category of related source–target mappings that share a common structure.Under HMMT, all metaphorical mappings belong to a broader conceptual family (e.g., space–time or space–pitch).“Cross-domain mappings…are members of a superordinate family of mappings.” (p. 48)
⚖️ Competitive Associative LearningA cognitive process where activating one association strengthens it while weakening competitors.Describes how one metaphorical mapping (e.g., “pitch is height”) becomes dominant over others.“Activating a mapping strengthens…and weakens the competing source–target mappings.” (p. 48)
🔄 OverhypothesisA general conceptual rule above specific hypotheses within a metaphor family.Used to describe higher-level abstraction that governs mental metaphor patterns, such as “space maps to time.”“The overhypothesis could be: ‘Progress through time corresponds to change in position along a spatial path.’” (p. 56)
🧬 Core KnowledgeInnate, possibly evolutionarily developed understanding (e.g., of spatial and numerical relations).Explains how infants exhibit metaphorical thinking (space–pitch, space–number) prior to language exposure.“These relationships…could be part of infants’ innate ‘core knowledge’.” (p. 48)
📉 Dispreferred MappingA metaphorical mapping that exists but is not dominant due to lack of reinforcement.Important in explaining flexibility: such mappings can be reactivated later (e.g., via training or new contexts).“Dispreferred mappings…are weakened but not lost.” (p. 60)
🦾 Motor Fluency HypothesisSuggests that ease of action on a body side leads to associating that side with positive valence.Forms the basis for body-specific mental metaphors, e.g., right is good for right-handers.“Greater motor fluency leads to more positive feelings…” (p. 58)
Contribution of “The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto to Literary Theory/Theories

📘 1. Expands Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT)

🧩 “People think about abstract domains like time and goodness metaphorically. This tendency may be universal.” (p. 46)

  • 🌐 Casasanto builds on Lakoff & Johnson’s Conceptual Metaphor Theory, which underpins much cognitive literary theory.
  • He advances the theory by showing that metaphorical thinking is not static, but dynamically shaped by cultural, bodily, and linguistic experience.
  • Contribution: Helps literary theorists analyze how metaphor use in texts reflects both universal and idiosyncratic cognitive patterns across cultures and individuals.

🧠 2. Introduces HMMT: A Dynamic Model of Meaning-Making

🪜 “Mental metaphors are constructed over multiple timescales… members of a superordinate family of mappings.” (p. 48)

  • 🔄 The Hierarchical Mental Metaphors Theory (HMMT) introduces plasticity into metaphor use, challenging rigid linguistic determinism.
  • Literary theorists can apply this to interpret reader-response variation and narrative structures influenced by readers’ embodied or cultural metaphor biases.
  • Contribution: Supports reader-centered theories like Reception Theory by explaining why readers interpret metaphors differently.

✍️ 3. Reframes Embodied Literary Cognition

💡 “Mental metaphors can be fundamental to our understanding of abstract domains, yet at the same time remarkably flexible.” (p. 46)

  • Casasanto’s findings back embodied cognition theories in literature (e.g., Scarry, Gibbs).
  • They suggest that reading metaphors activates sensorimotor systems, explaining why metaphors feel viscerally meaningful in literary texts.
  • Contribution: Strengthens Embodied Poetics and Neuroaesthetics, by grounding metaphor in bodily and cultural experience.

🌏 4. Offers Tools for Cross-Cultural Literary Analysis

🧭 “Mental metaphors can be language-specific, culture-specific, or body-specific…” (p. 48)

  • Casasanto’s research on how language shapes metaphors (e.g., pitch as “high” vs. “thick”) aids Comparative Literature by providing a framework to study how metaphors operate differently in Farsi, Dutch, English, etc.
  • Contribution: Supports Postcolonial Literary Theory and Transcultural Criticism by explaining metaphorical variability across linguistic boundaries.

📚 5. Revitalizes Structuralist & Post-Structuralist Concerns

🧬 “How can they be fundamental…if they can change in a matter of minutes?” (p. 48)

  • HMMT challenges the idea of metaphors as fixed semiotic structures, offering a fluid, memory-network-based view.
  • This bridges Structuralist attention to patterns with Post-Structuralist focus on instability and play of meaning.
  • Contribution: Provides a cognitive underpinning for Derridean différance—mappings are in flux, not fully stable.

🗣️ 6. Provides Insight into Literary Language Evolution

💬 “Each time people use a linguistic metaphor, the corresponding mental metaphor is activated…” (p. 48)

  • This explains how metaphorical language in literature evolves and reshapes cognition itself over time.
  • Contribution: Offers Historical Poetics and Stylistics a model to track how metaphorical patterns in texts shape cultural cognition.

🧤 7. Validates Body-Specific Interpretive Frameworks

“Right-handers associate ‘good’ with the right…left-handers show the opposite.” (p. 57)

  • Literary scholars exploring disability studies, gendered embodiment, or queer theory gain from this perspective that bodily difference affects meaning construction.
  • Contribution: Adds nuance to embodied literary approaches by introducing body-specific metaphor biases.
Examples of Critiques Through “The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto

📘 Work🔍 Metaphorical Mapping🧠 HMMT-Based Critique💡 Theoretical Insight
🕰️ Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia WoolfTime as Space (e.g., “waves of time,” “moving forward”)Woolf’s stream of consciousness maps time as a fluid, spatial experience, resonating with Casasanto’s idea that spatial metaphors scaffold temporal thought.Reflects culture-specific time metaphors (English, left-to-right) and supports reader-response variability through dynamic timelines (p. 55–56).
🦋 The Metamorphosis by Franz KafkaSelf as Form (body as metaphor for identity)Gregor’s transformation illustrates how bodily changes reshape cognition and emotion, aligning with Casasanto’s body-specific metaphors (p. 57).Embodied experience drives conceptual change—bodily distortion = metaphorical shift in social and existential identity.
🎭 Hamlet by William ShakespeareEmotion as Space (e.g., “downcast,” “deep sorrow”)Hamlet’s vacillations between “high hopes” and “low moods” show how valence is spatialized, consistent with Casasanto’s motor fluency hypothesis (p. 58).Highlights embodied cognition in classic literature—right-hand/left-hand imagery becomes metaphorically charged.
🗺️ Things Fall Apart by Chinua AchebeCultural Time as Spatial ProgressionAchebe contrasts linear (colonial) vs. cyclical (Igbo) metaphors of history. Casasanto’s theory explains how readers from different cultures may activate different mappings (p. 56).Validates HMMT’s use in postcolonial analysis—mental metaphors shaped by linguistic and cultural practices.
🎶 Song of Myself by Walt WhitmanSelf as Expansive Space (“I contain multitudes”)Whitman’s language relies on spatial metaphors of self as infinite, layered—matching Casasanto’s idea of flexible metaphor families.Supports embodied poetics: metaphorical “sprawl” represents internal diversity and changing self-concept (p. 48–49).
📖 Beloved by Toni MorrisonMemory as Space (“rememory,” “steps back”)Characters move physically and emotionally through past trauma. The spatialization of time and emotion fits Casasanto’s flexible timeline mappings (p. 53–54).Aligns with trauma theory and HMMT: metaphorical remapping reflects disrupted but reconfigurable timelines.
🌀 To the Lighthouse by Virginia WoolfTime as Flowing Path (“The waves fell; withdrew”)Woolf’s narrative structure aligns with Casasanto’s idea that metaphors of time are nested hypotheses, varying across individuals (p. 56).Offers insight into reader-driven narrative processing, grounded in flexible mental timelines.
🌄 The Waste Land by T.S. EliotDisorientation in Space-TimeThe fragmentation and directionlessness of the poem echo HMMT’s idea of weakened or competing metaphor mappings due to conflicting cultural schemas (p. 59–60).Literary fragmentation = metaphorical instability—supports HMMT’s memory-network competition model.
Criticism Against “The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto

1. Ambiguity Between “Universal” and “Flexible”

Critics argue that the theory struggles to reconcile its claim of universal metaphor families with the radical variability observed across individuals and cultures.

  • 🌍 If metaphors are universal (as claimed), why are they so easily reversible in minutes (e.g., with mirrored orthography)?
  • ❓ The line between innate mappings and learned cultural variants is sometimes blurred in HMMT, leading to theoretical ambiguity.

🧪 2. Overreliance on Laboratory Evidence

Many of the cited experiments use artificial settings and brief interventions that may not reflect natural cognitive behavior in real-world contexts.

  • 🧫 For example, spatial interference tasks with tones and shapes may oversimplify how people process metaphor in language, art, or literature.
  • Critics suggest HMMT may not fully explain deep metaphorical reasoning in complex, real-life scenarios like literature or politics.

🧠 3. Neglects Social and Power Structures

While HMMT accounts for body, language, and culture, it underplays the role of ideology, power, and discourse in shaping metaphors.

  • ⚖️ Critics from poststructuralist and postcolonial perspectives argue that metaphors are not just cognitive, but also political and rhetorical tools.
  • HMMT lacks engagement with theories from Foucault, Butler, or Bourdieu regarding language, identity, and control.

📏 4. Limited Scope of Metaphor Domains

The theory focuses mostly on space-based metaphors (e.g., time, pitch, valence), ignoring rich metaphorical domains like morality, love, or nationhood.

  • 💘 Metaphors like “love is war” or “the nation is a body” involve emotionally and socially charged concepts that go beyond space–domain mappings.
  • HMMT’s hierarchy model might not apply cleanly to multi-domain metaphors or culturally embedded conceptual blends.

🔁 5. Circularity in Evidence and Explanation

Some scholars argue that HMMT explains metaphor flexibility by invoking metaphor flexibility, creating a tautology.

  • 🔄 If all metaphor changes can be explained by metaphor competition, the theory may be unfalsifiable without more predictive power.
  • The model risks retrospective explanation rather than offering testable forecasts of metaphor use across populations.

🔤 6. Language Bias in “Universal” Claims

Critics point out that most empirical studies cited (Dutch, English, Farsi) reflect Indo-European language systems, leaving global linguistic diversity underexplored.

  • 🌐 No substantial data from tonal languages (e.g., Chinese), sign languages, or indigenous oral traditions.
  • Claims of universality may be premature or Western-centric.

Representative Quotations from “The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto with Explanation

🔵 1.
Quotation:

“People think about abstract domains like time and goodness metaphorically. This tendency may be universal.”
Explanation:
This sets the foundation of the chapter, asserting that metaphor is not merely a linguistic device, but a cognitive universal shaping how humans understand complex, abstract domains through more tangible ones like space.


🟢 2.
Quotation:

“Mental metaphors are mappings between non-linguistic representations in a source domain and a target domain that is typically more abstract.”
Explanation:
Here, Casasanto distinguishes mental metaphors from linguistic metaphors, stressing that such mappings occur without language, in our internal thought processes.


🟣 3.
Quotation:

“The specific mappings that get used most frequently or automatically can vary across individuals and groups.”
Explanation:
This illustrates how individual experience, culture, and language can shape which mental metaphors dominate, despite their shared foundational structure.


🔴 4.
Quotation:

“Even our most basic mental metaphors are constructed over multiple timescales, on the basis of multiple kinds of experience.”
Explanation:
Casasanto argues against static universality, proposing that metaphor development is hierarchical and dynamic, adapting over time through layered experiential inputs.


🟡 5.
Quotation:

“Activating a mapping strengthens this source–target association and… weakens the competing source–target mappings in the same family.”
Explanation:
This reveals how competitive associative learning guides which metaphors become dominant, explaining both their entrenchment and malleability.


🟤 6.
Quotation:

“It may be a human universal to conceptualize these domains in terms of space… but the particulars… vary across groups.”
Explanation:
A critical point for cognitive diversity: while spatial metaphors may be universal scaffolds, their expression is culturally and bodily specific.


🔶 7.
Quotation:

“Speakers of thickness languages like Farsi come to rely on multidimensional spatial schemas more strongly than vertical spatial schemas.”
Explanation:
An empirical insight showing how language experience determines spatial representation in mental metaphors—an example of linguistic relativity at work.


🔷 8.
Quotation:

“Participants did not abandon a spatial mapping of time; rather they rapidly adopted a different mental timeline.”
Explanation:
Illustrates the flexibility of metaphorical thinking. Even entrenched metaphors can be reversed or replaced with new experience, often within minutes.


9.
Quotation:

“The fluent region of space is good.”
Explanation:
From the theory of bodily relativity, this quote links motor fluency to valence, showing that bodily asymmetries shape ethical and emotional judgments.


10.
Quotation:

“By seeking to understand common mechanisms… we can better understand the origins of our thoughts, the extent of cognitive diversity, and the dynamism of our mental lives.”
Explanation:
This concluding statement encapsulates the purpose of HMMT: to account for shared cognitive architecture while explaining its adaptive diversity.

Suggested Readings: “The Hierarchical Structure of Mental Metaphors” by Daniel Casasanto
  1. Casasanto, Daniel. “The hierarchical structure of mental metaphors.” Metaphor: Embodied cognition and discourse (2017): 46-61.
  2. Gärdenfors, Peter. “Mental Representation, Conceptual Spaces and Metaphors.” Synthese, vol. 106, no. 1, 1996, pp. 21–47. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20117475. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  3. Tilford, Nicole L. “Complex Metaphors.” Sensing World, Sensing Wisdom: The Cognitive Foundation of Biblical Metaphors, Society of Biblical Literature, 2017, pp. 173–98. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1p0vjz8.13. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  4. Fienup-Riordan, Ann. “Metaphors of Conversion, Metaphors of Change.” Arctic Anthropology, vol. 34, no. 1, 1997, pp. 102–16. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40316427. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.

“Metaphor” by Max Black: Summary and Critique

“Metaphor” by Max Black first appeared in 1954–1955 in the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series, Vol. 55, published by Wiley on behalf of the Aristotelian Society.

"Metaphor" by Max Black: Summary and Critique
Introduction: “Metaphor” by Max Black

“Metaphor” by Max Black first appeared in 1954–1955 in the Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, New Series, Vol. 55, published by Wiley on behalf of the Aristotelian Society. In this foundational article, Black challenged traditional views of metaphor as merely decorative or stylistic devices, arguing instead for a more complex, cognitive function through what he famously termed the “interaction view.” The paper critiques earlier substitution and comparison theories of metaphor—where metaphor is seen either as a stylistic replacement for literal terms or as a condensed simile—and instead proposes that metaphors create meaning by enabling a dynamic interplay between two conceptual domains: the “principal subject” and the “subsidiary subject.” According to Black, a metaphor works by importing a system of “associated commonplaces” from the subsidiary subject and projecting it onto the principal one, reshaping how the latter is perceived and understood. This process not only alters our understanding of the subject at hand but can also redefine the associations attached to the metaphor itself. Black’s work has had profound implications in literary theory, philosophy of language, and cognitive linguistics, especially influencing thinkers like I.A. Richards and later George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. His theory remains pivotal in understanding metaphor not as a mere flourish of language, but as a central mechanism in thought and meaning-making.

Summary of “Metaphor” by Max Black

🔵 1. Rejection of Metaphor as Mere Ornament

Black criticizes the belief that “addiction to metaphor is held to be illicit,” equating metaphorical expression with frivolity or unclear thinking (p. 273).
🔹 “To draw attention to a philosopher’s metaphors is to belittle him—like praising a logician for his beautiful handwriting” (p. 273).


🟡 2. The “Substitution View” of Metaphor Is Inadequate

This outdated view treats a metaphor as a coded or poetic stand-in for a literal equivalent.
🔸 “The meaning of [a metaphor], in its metaphorical occurrence, is just the literal meaning of [its replacement]” (p. 279).


🟢 3. Comparison View Also Falls Short

Metaphors are often falsely treated as elliptical similes: “Richard is a lion” becomes “Richard is like a lion (in being brave)” (p. 284).
🔹 “The metaphor creates the similarity rather than formulates a similarity antecedently existing” (p. 285).


🔴 4. Introduction of the “Interaction View”

Black’s main innovation: metaphors involve interaction between two subject systems—a “principal subject” and a “subsidiary subject.”
🔸 “A metaphorical statement has two distinct subjects—a ‘principal’ subject and a ‘subsidiary’ one” (p. 291).
🔸 “We can say that the principal subject is ‘seen through’ the metaphorical expression” (p. 288).


🟣 5. Metaphor as Conceptual Filter

Like looking through tinted glass: metaphor emphasizes, organizes, and suppresses aspects of the principal subject using the implications of the subsidiary.
🔹 “The metaphor selects, emphasizes, suppresses, and organizes features of the principal subject” (p. 292).
🔹 “The chess vocabulary filters and transforms: it not only selects, it brings forward aspects…that might not be seen at all” (p. 289).


🟤 6. “Associated Commonplaces” Are Central

Metaphors activate culturally shared assumptions or “commonplaces” about the metaphor’s vehicle.
🔸 “To call a man a ‘wolf’ is to evoke the wolf-system of related commonplaces” (p. 288).
🔸 These include ideas like “fierce,” “scavenger,” “hungry,” which shape perception of the man.


7. Cognitive Value of Metaphor Surpasses Literal Paraphrase

Metaphors carry insights that paraphrase cannot match. Literal restatements lose the richness and nuance.
🔹 “The literal paraphrase inevitably says too much—and with the wrong emphasis” (p. 293).
🔹 “It fails to give the insight that the metaphor did” (p. 293).


🟥 8. Philosophical and Epistemic Importance of Metaphor

Far from decorative, metaphor is a tool for thought. Black defends its role in serious inquiry:
🔸 “A prohibition against their use would be a wilful and harmful restriction upon our powers of inquiry” (p. 294).


📌 Summary of the Interaction Theory in 7 Points (from p. 291–292)

  1. Two distinct subjects: principal & subsidiary
  2. Subjects are systems, not just terms
  3. Meaning arises from the interaction of systems
  4. These involve associated implications (commonplaces)
  5. The metaphor organizes perception
  6. Involves semantic shifts—sometimes metaphorical
  7. No universal rule for what makes a metaphor effective
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Metaphor” by Max Black
📌 Symbol🏷️ Term🧠 Explanation
🔵 FocusThe metaphorical word or phrase used non-literally in a sentence.“Let us call the word ‘ploughed’ the focus of the metaphor” (p. 276).
🟡 FrameThe literal part of the sentence/context surrounding the metaphorical focus.“The remainder of the sentence… the frame” (p. 276).
🟢 Principal SubjectThe main topic of the metaphor—the thing really being talked about.“A metaphorical statement has two distinct subjects—a ‘principal’ subject and a ‘subsidiary’ one” (p. 291).
🔴 Subsidiary SubjectThe source domain that lends its qualities to describe the principal subject.“…the principal subject, Man… and the subsidiary subject, Wolf” (p. 287).
🟣 Interaction ViewThe core theory: metaphorical meaning arises from the interaction between principal and subsidiary subject systems.“The meaning is a resultant of their interaction” (p. 286).
🟤 Associated CommonplacesThe shared cultural assumptions or stereotypes linked to the metaphor’s source term.“To call a man a ‘wolf’ is to evoke the wolf-system of related commonplaces” (p. 288).
Filter/Screen MetaphorA metaphor acts like a lens or filter, shaping what aspects of the subject are visible or emphasized.“The metaphor selects, emphasizes, suppresses, and organizes…” (p. 292); “seen through the metaphor…” (p. 288).
🟥 CatachresisUse of a metaphor to fill a gap in vocabulary where no literal term exists (e.g. “leg of a table”).“Metaphor plugs the gaps in… vocabulary… a species of catachresis” (p. 280).
🟧 Substitution ViewA metaphor is merely a replacement for a literal expression.“…use of that expression in other than its proper or normal sense” (p. 279).
🟪 Comparison ViewA metaphor as a condensed simile, implying likeness between two things.“The metaphor is a comparison implied in the mere use of a term” (p. 284).
🔷 Extension of MeaningMetaphor causes a semantic shift, changing or broadening a word’s meaning.“The frame… imposes extension of meaning upon the focal word” (p. 286).
Semantic vs. PragmaticMetaphors involve both semantic content and contextual/pragmatic use, including intention and emotional tone.“There is… a sense of ‘metaphor’ that belongs to ‘pragmatics’, rather than to ‘semantics'” (p. 278).
🟩 Metaphor as Cognitive ToolMetaphor is not decorative; it’s a way of thinking, discovering, and organizing knowledge.“A powerful metaphor… fails to give the insight that the metaphor did” (p. 293).
Contribution of “Metaphor” by Max Black to Literary Theory/Theories

🔵 Interaction Theory of Metaphor as Cognitive Process
→ Black’s central claim is that metaphor is not just linguistic ornamentation, but a way of knowing, creating meaning by interaction between subjects.
📚 Structuralism / Cognitive Poetics
📝 “The meaning is a resultant of their interaction” (p. 286).
📝 “Metaphor… selects, emphasizes, suppresses, and organizes features…” (p. 292).
This aligns with structuralist ideas that meaning emerges from relational systems, and anticipates cognitive theories that link language and thought.


🟣 Challenge to Substitution and Comparison Views
→ Black dismantles classical views of metaphor as merely decorative or rhetorical devices (substitutes or comparisons).
📚 Formalism / Classical Rhetoric (critique)
📝 “The metaphorical use of an expression consists… in other than its proper or normal sense” (p. 279).
✅ His rejection of the ornamental view reshapes metaphor as essential to discourse—not an optional flourish, but foundational.


🟢 Introduction of “Associated Commonplaces”
→ Metaphors draw on culturally embedded “commonplaces,” showing that meaning is socially constructed.
📚 Reader-Response Theory / Cultural Criticism
📝 “To call a man a ‘wolf’ is to evoke the wolf-system of related commonplaces” (p. 288).
Meaning depends on the reader’s cultural background, positioning metaphor as interpretively flexible and subjective.


🔴 Metaphor as Semantic Innovation (Meaning Creation)
→ Metaphors don’t just reflect meaning—they create it, often producing insights unavailable in literal language.
📚 Deconstruction / Poststructuralism
📝 “It would be more illuminating… to say that the metaphor creates the similarity than to say that it formulates one” (p. 285).
Undermines stable meaning, supporting poststructuralist ideas of fluid, shifting significations.


🟡 Critique of Rigid Semantics: Emphasis on Pragmatics
→ Meaning is context-bound, tied to speaker intent, tone, occasion, and cannot be dictated solely by linguistic rules.
📚 Pragmatics / Speech Act Theory
📝 “We must not expect the ‘rules of language’ to be of much help…” (p. 278).
📝 “Recognition and interpretation… may require attention to the particular circumstances of its utterance” (p. 277).
✅ Helps literary theorists see how language performs, not just represents, meaning.


🟤 Metaphor as Epistemological Lens
→ Like a lens or screen, metaphor highlights and conceals—framing perception.
📚 Phenomenology / Hermeneutics
📝 “The metaphor acts as a screen… seen through the metaphor” (p. 288).
✅ Reinforces Heideggerian or Gadamerian notions that language discloses the world, not neutrally reflects it.


🟠 Valuation of Metaphor in Philosophy and Literature
→ Argues that metaphor is not a fallacy or simplification but a philosophically legitimate tool for inquiry and reflection.
📚 Philosophy of Language / Literary Philosophy
📝 “Metaphors are dangerous—and perhaps especially so in philosophy. But a prohibition… would be a harmful restriction…” (p. 294).
Elevates metaphor from literary fringe to central in philosophical analysis.


🟣 Bridging Literary Criticism and Analytic Philosophy
→ Black borrows from literary critics to address philosophers’ neglect of metaphor.
📚 Interdisciplinary Literary Theory
📝 “Since philosophers… have so neglected the subject, I must get what help I can from the literary critics” (p. 273).
✅ Encourages cross-disciplinary dialogue, anticipating literary philosophy and analytic aesthetics.


Summary of Key Theories Influenced
TheoryInfluence Type
StructuralismInteraction view of meaning systems
Cognitive PoeticsMetaphor as mental model
PoststructuralismDestabilization of literal meaning
Reader-Response TheoryCultural commonplaces and interpretation
Speech Act TheoryContextual meaning creation
HermeneuticsLanguage as disclosure
Analytic AestheticsLegitimization of metaphor in philosophy
Examples of Critiques Through “Metaphor” by Max Black
📘 Literary Work Key Metaphor🧠 Critique Using Max Black’s Theory🧩 Relevant Concepts
🔵 George Orwell – Animal Farm“All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others.”The metaphor of “animals” functions as the subsidiary subject that transfers a system of political oppression and hierarchy onto the principal subject—governance and ideology. It organizes meaning beyond decoration.🔁 Interaction View
🟤 Associated Commonplaces
🔴 Principal/Subsidiary Subjects
🟣 Toni Morrison – BelovedThe ghost of Sethe’s daughter as trauma personifiedThe ghost metaphor evokes haunting as a system of inherited trauma and repressed memory. It reshapes the reader’s understanding of slavery’s psychological afterlife, working as a semantic filter for the narrative.🔁 Interaction View
🟤 Associated Commonplaces
🟣 Filter/Screen
🟢 William Blake – The Tyger“Tyger Tyger, burning bright…”The metaphorical “burning” constructs the tiger as a fusion of beauty, danger, and divine creation. The metaphor transforms a natural image into a vehicle for metaphysical awe and questioning.🔵 Focus & Frame
🟠 Semantic Innovation
🔁 Interaction View
🔴 William Shakespeare – Macbeth“Life’s but a walking shadow…”Life is metaphorically filtered through the idea of a “shadow”—empty, ephemeral, and ghost-like. This metaphor highlights nihilism, shaping the audience’s perception of futility and illusion.🔁 Interaction View
🟤 Associated Commonplaces
🔴 Principal/Subsidiary Subjects
Criticism Against “Metaphor” by Max Black

🔺 Vagueness in the “System of Associated Commonplaces”
Black relies heavily on culturally shared assumptions (commonplaces), but critics argue these are not clearly defined or universally shared, making interpretation subjective and unstable.
➡️ “The metaphor works by applying to the principal subject a system of ‘associated implications’…” (Black, 1955, p. 292)

🔻 Potential for Infinite Regress
Critics note that if metaphors themselves contain metaphorical implications (as Black suggests), each metaphor could contain layers of others, leading to an endless chain of interpretation.
➡️ “The primary metaphor…has been analyzed into a set of subordinate metaphors…” (p. 290)

⚠️ Underdeveloped Cognitive Framework
Black touches on the cognitive impact of metaphors but doesn’t fully explore their psychological or neurological processing, leaving a gap that later scholars (e.g., Lakoff & Johnson) attempted to fill.

🟠 Neglect of Audience Diversity
Black assumes a reader who shares cultural knowledge. But in multicultural or global contexts, the same metaphor can evoke vastly different associations, limiting the theory’s universality.
➡️ “A metaphor that works in one society may seem preposterous in another…” (p. 287)

🔹 Ambiguity Between Focus and Frame
While innovative, the distinction between “focus” and “frame” can be blurry in complex texts, making it difficult to apply consistently, especially in layered literary metaphors.
➡️ “Let us call the word ‘ploughed’ the focus of the metaphor, and the remainder of the sentence…the frame.” (p. 276)

🚫 Dismissal of Other Metaphor Types
Some critics argue that Black’s elevation of interaction metaphors inadvertently dismisses valid uses of substitution and comparison metaphors, especially in rhetorical or poetic traditions.

🟣 Not Empirically Testable
The theory is largely philosophical and interpretive, lacking empirical methods or linguistic models that could verify or falsify its claims in practice.

Representative Quotations from “Metaphor” by Max Black with Explanation
SymbolQuotation (from the article)Explanation
🌟“When we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction.”This is the core idea of Black’s “interaction theory,” emphasizing that metaphor blends two domains to produce a unique, integrated meaning.
🔍“To call a sentence an instance of metaphor is to say something about its meaning, not about its orthography, its phonetic pattern, or its grammatical form.”Black highlights that metaphor is a matter of semantics (meaning), not surface linguistic features, challenging purely formalist approaches.
🧩“Understanding a metaphor is like deciphering a code or unravelling a riddle.”This underscores the interpretive complexity of metaphor, often requiring deep contextual understanding and creative inference.
🔁“The metaphor selects, emphasizes, suppresses, and organizes features of the principal subject by implying statements about it that normally apply to the subsidiary subject.”Black explains how metaphor shapes perception by transferring associative features from one concept to another.
🎭“We must not forget that the metaphor makes the wolf seem more human than he otherwise would.”He reminds us that metaphor not only transforms the subject but also reframes the metaphorical source in the process.
🔧“Metaphors can be supported by specially constructed systems of implications, as well as by accepted commonplaces; they can be made to measure and need not be reach-me-downs.”Black differentiates between conventional and innovative metaphors, asserting that new metaphors can be creatively built.
🎼“The implications of a metaphor are like the overtones of a musical chord; to attach too much ‘weight’ to them is like trying to make the overtones sound as loud as the main notes.”This analogy highlights the nuanced, layered nature of metaphorical implications and the importance of interpretive balance.
🧭“The rules of our language determine that some expressions must count as metaphors; and a speaker can no more change this than he can legislate that ‘cow’ shall mean the same as ‘sheep’.”Black stresses that metaphor has objective recognition within language norms, not just subjective usage.
⚖️“There is, in general, no simple ‘ground’ for the necessary shifts of meaning; no blanket reason why some metaphors work and others fail.”This calls attention to the unpredictability and contextual sensitivity of metaphorical success.
🔮“Metaphor is not a substitute for a formal comparison or any other kind of literal statement, but has its own distinctive capacities and achievements.”Black rejects the substitution theory, asserting metaphor’s unique cognitive and rhetorical power.
Suggested Readings: “Metaphor” by Max Black
  1. BLACK, Max. “More about Metaphor.” Dialectica, vol. 31, no. 3/4, 1977, pp. 431–57. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42969757. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  2. DONOGHUE, DENIS. “The Motive for Metaphor.” The Hudson Review, vol. 65, no. 4, 2013, pp. 543–61. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43489263. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  3. Sobolev, Dennis. “Metaphor Revisited.” New Literary History, vol. 39, no. 4, 2008, pp. 903–29. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20533122. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  4. Gibbs, Raymond W. “When Is Metaphor? The Idea of Understanding in Theories of Metaphor.” Poetics Today, vol. 13, no. 4, 1992, pp. 575–606. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1773290. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.

“Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory” by Beate Hampe: Summary and Critique

“Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory” by Beate Hampe first appeared in The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought (Cambridge University Press, 2017).

"Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory" by Beate Hampe: Summary and Critique
Introduction: “Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory” by Beate Hampe

“Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory” by Beate Hampe first appeared in The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought (Cambridge University Press, 2017). This foundational chapter critically maps the evolving terrain of metaphor studies, focusing on the interplay between embodiment and discourse as twin dimensions shaping contemporary metaphor theory. Hampe’s work responds to the longstanding division between cognition-centered and communication-centered perspectives in metaphor research, arguing instead for a dynamic, multidimensional socio-cognitive model. Rooted in both cognitive science and discourse analysis, the chapter explores how metaphor operates not merely as a conceptual structure in individual minds—as posited by Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT, Lakoff & Johnson, 1980)—but as a socially emergent phenomenon embedded in real-time, multimodal communication. It integrates findings from gesture studies, corpus linguistics, and social psychology to show how metaphor is embodied and discursive, formed through primary experiential correlations (e.g., “affection is warmth”) and enacted across varied socio-cultural contexts. The chapter’s importance in literary theory lies in its challenge to traditional, static conceptions of metaphor as mere rhetorical device; instead, it opens up literature and discourse to be read as living sites of metaphorical meaning-making, deeply grounded in embodied, social, and dynamic systems. By bridging disciplinary divides, Hampe positions metaphor not only as a tool of thought but also as a fluid, context-sensitive act of interaction—transforming how metaphor is understood across the humanities and cognitive sciences.

Summary of “Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory” by Beate Hampe

🔹 1. Bridging Cognition and Discourse in Metaphor Theory

  • Contemporary metaphor theory attempts to reconcile the cognitive and discursive approaches to metaphor.
  • Embodied metaphor is not just a mental construct, but also socially and communicatively emergent.
    👉 “Metaphor… as socially emergent cognition, not just as private concepts buried inside people’s heads.” (Gibbs 2014a: 34–38)

🔸 2. Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT): Foundation and Critiques

  • CMT redefined metaphor as conceptual, not just linguistic, challenging the view of metaphor as decorative.
    👉 “Metaphor as a ubiquitous conceptual figure… part of the shared tacit knowledge of speakers.”
  • Critics argue CMT is too static and fails to capture metaphor’s messy, contextual usage.
    👉 “Metaphor in language use [is] relatively more messy – or perhaps rather dramatically enriched.”

3. Role of Multimodality and Gesture

  • Gesture and multimodal research connect cognition and discourse by studying metaphor across bodily, visual, and verbal channels.
  • These findings support a view of metaphor as dynamic, embodied, and interactive.
    👉 “Communicative events are by default constituted by expressions from multiple semiotic channels.”

🌱 4. Primary vs. Complex Metaphors

  • Primary metaphors are rooted in embodied experience (e.g., importance is size, affection is warmth).
    👉 “Primary metaphors… arise from bodily experience”
  • Complex metaphors (e.g., life is a journey) are culturally shaped analogies that may be built from primary metaphors.
    👉 “Primary metaphors… motivate or constrain complex metaphors by providing deeply embodied point-wise connections.”

🧠 5. Multilevel Model of Metaphor

  • Metaphor operates across multiple levels:
    1) Neurophysiology → 2) Cognition → 3) Discourse → 4) Language systems → 5) Culture → 6) Evolution.
  • Language reflects cultural and bodily experience and distributes cognition across individuals and time.
    👉 “Culture can be seen as a potent, cumulative reservoir of resources for learning, problem solving, and reasoning.” (Theiner 2014)

🔁 6. Dynamic Systems and Distributed Cognition

  • Social interaction creates emergent metaphorical meaning—beyond individual minds.
    👉 “The synergy emerging from individuals co-acting as a group… enslaves the behavior of individual actors.”
  • Dynamic metaphor use depends on context, group interaction, and cultural embedding.

🎭 7. Metaphor in Real-Time Face-to-Face Interaction

  • Metaphors evolve dynamically in discourse and are shaped by co-participants.
    👉 “The full functionality of a metaphor emerges from repeated occurrences of token expressions.”
  • Example: Journey and bridge metaphors used during reconciliation dialogues show how deeply metaphors are tied to shared social narratives.

💬 8. Metaphor Activation: Dead or Alive?

  • Some metaphors become “dead” or inactive in comprehension unless context revives them.
  • However, primary (correlational) metaphors may remain mentally active even in conventional forms.
    👉 “Correlational metaphors never retire.” (Casasanto 2013)

🧪 9. Embodied Simulation Hypothesis

  • The strongest claim: understanding metaphors involves re-enacting sensorimotor experiences (simulation).
    👉 “Metaphorical simulations may generally be less detailed and specific than simulations of literal, non-abstract meanings.”
  • Still under debate due to mixed neurocognitive evidence.

🔍 10. Toward a Unified Theory

  • The chapter calls for an integrative socio-cognitive model that merges the strengths of both traditions.
    👉 “Understanding what metaphor is requires a thorough understanding of what it does.”
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory” by Beate Hampe
🔣 Concept🧾 Explanation📖 Reference Usage
🧠 Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT)A framework suggesting metaphors are systematic mappings between conceptual domains, deeply rooted in thought, not just language.“Metaphor as a ubiquitous conceptual figure… part of the shared tacit knowledge of speakers.” (Hampe, p. 4)
💪 EmbodimentThe grounding of cognitive processes, including metaphors, in bodily and sensory experiences; central to embodied cognition theories.“Primary metaphors… arise from bodily experience.” (Hampe, p. 7)
🌱 Primary MetaphorBasic, directly embodied metaphors arising from recurring sensorimotor correlations (e.g., affection is warmth, similarity is proximity).“Each connects a sensorimotor experience (source) with a subjective concept (target) in a ‘primary scene.'” (p. 7)
🧩 Complex MetaphorMetaphors composed of several primary metaphors; they are culturally enriched and context-dependent (e.g., life is a journey).“Primary metaphors… motivate or constrain complex metaphors.” (p. 8)
🤝 Socio-Cognitive ModelA proposed integrative model that unifies cognitive and discourse perspectives, emphasizing the multimodal, interactive nature of metaphor.“Metaphor theory cannot but profit from an approach that accounts for findings yielded by multiple methodologies.” (p. 2)
🔁 Metaphor ScenarioA discourse-based concept highlighting recurring narrative structures tied to metaphorical framings in specific sociocultural contexts.“The notion of metaphor scenario anticipates this by actively invoking a conception of public discourse…” (p. 15)
🔍 MetaphoricityA term describing the degree to which an expression is perceived as metaphorical, ranging from “dead” to “vital” or “waking.”“Varying degrees of metaphoricity… ‘dead,’ ‘buried,’ ‘awake,’ ‘walking.'” (p. 19)
🔄 Multidimensional ModelA layered perspective of metaphor that spans neurophysiology, cognition, discourse, language systems, culture, and evolution.“A model… ranging from bodily foundations to cultural and evolutionary time scales.” (p. 11)
🌀 Complex-Dynamic SystemsA theoretical lens treating metaphor and cognition as emergent, adaptive, and socially distributed across multiple interacting levels.“Social interaction… ‘enslaves’ the behavior of individual actors.” (p. 13)
⚙️ Metaphorical Simulation HypothesisThe strongest embodiment hypothesis, claiming metaphor comprehension involves reactivating sensorimotor experiences associated with the source domain.“Comprehension… involves ‘re-living’ relevant source-domain experiences.” (p. 21)
🗣️ Deliberate MetaphorA concept suggesting that some metaphors are consciously chosen to direct attention to the metaphorical framing during communication.“Vital… metaphors are bound to deliberate metaphor use.” (p. 19)
🧶 Systematic MetaphorRecurrent metaphorical expressions that emerge across discourse events, indicating a shared conceptual pattern between interlocutors.“Functionality… emerges from repeated occurrences of token expressions.” (p. 16)
🧬 Hierarchical Mental Metaphors TheoryA model proposing that metaphorical associations can be layered and influenced by cultural, linguistic, and experiential feedback loops.“Associative learning… strengthens correlations more frequently activated.” (p. 14)
Contribution of “Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory” by Beate Hampe to Literary Theory/Theories

🔄 Redefining Metaphor as Both Cognitive and Discursive

Hampe challenges the traditional literary view of metaphor as merely poetic or rhetorical.
🗨️ “Metaphor as part of thought, but as socially emergent cognition, not just as private concepts buried inside people’s heads.” (Hampe, p. 3)
Contribution: Moves beyond metaphor as ornamentation, placing it at the core of conceptual and cultural cognition — relevant for analyzing metaphors in literature as cognitive and communal acts.


🧠 Advancing Embodied Approaches to Literary Language

The text links bodily experience to metaphor comprehension and production in both speech and writing.
🗨️ “Primary metaphors… constituted by conceptual correspondences that arise from bodily experience.” (p. 7)
Contribution: Aligns literary metaphor with embodied cognition — supporting analysis of physicality, emotion, and sensorimotor grounding in figurative literary expressions.


🌐 Bridging Literary Discourse and Cognitive Science

The chapter invites interdisciplinary convergence, drawing literary scholars into socio-cognitive metaphor theory.
🗨️ “It is high time for metaphor theory to integrate the major insights yielded by these… complementary strands of inquiry.” (p. 3)
Contribution: Reorients literary theory toward integrated cognitive-discursive models, expanding the scope of metaphor analysis in texts and cultural contexts.


🧩 Enriching Literary Interpretation with Multilevel Metaphor Analysis

Introduces a framework for metaphor at levels from language systems to evolution.
🗨️ “A model… ranging from the bodily foundations… to the evolutionary scale.” (p. 11)
Contribution: Equips literary scholars with a multilevel toolkit to interpret metaphors dynamically—across character, narration, genre, and cultural tradition.


🧶 Introducing Dynamic and Contextual Metaphor Usage

Emphasizes how metaphors emerge and shift meaning within discourse events.
🗨️ “Patterns of metaphor… shift in meaning, depend on interaction and vary across genres.” (p. 6)
Contribution: Grounds literary metaphor in real-time, socially interactive contexts—offering tools to analyze metaphor across scenes, dialogue, and reader response.


🧬 Highlighting the Cultural and Linguistic Embodiment of Figurative Language

Metaphors vary across languages and cultures but are shaped by shared bodily and linguistic experience.
🗨️ “Transparent metaphors… do not die because their original vehicles are so basic and universal to our experience.” (p. 10)
Contribution: Enhances cross-cultural literary analysis by linking metaphor universals and variations to cultural embodiment and linguistic systems.


🌀 Complex Metaphor as Cultural Narrative Structure

Complex metaphors like life is a journey are seen as stable yet adaptable frames in literary and public discourse.
🗨️ “Enduring conceptual metaphors present ‘stabilities’ that ’emerge’ in bigger groups and over larger timescales.” (p. 15)
Contribution: Supports narrative theory and cultural critique—analyzing how recurring metaphors scaffold ideologies, character arcs, and worldview in literature.


🖐️ Foregrounding Gesture and Performance in Metaphor Theory

Expands metaphor beyond verbal language to include multimodal and gestural dimensions.
🗨️ “Gestures… are produced as part of the cognitive processes that underlie thinking and speaking.” (p. 11)
Contribution: Encourages performance-based literary criticism (e.g. drama, spoken word) to consider how metaphor is embodied and enacted in gesture and tone.


🧭 Modeling Metaphor as Emergent in Interactive Literary Discourse

Metaphors in conversation, including literature, are emergent, co-created, and situated.
🗨️ “Systematic metaphors… emerge from repeated occurrences over the course of a social interaction.” (p. 16)
Contribution: Invites reinterpretation of dialogue, dramatic interaction, and reader-response as collaborative metaphorical meaning-making.


📚 Literature as a Site of Multimodal Metaphor Activation

Even conventional metaphors retain potential for reactivation, recontextualization, and embodiment.
🗨️ “The fact that a speaker uses a conventional metaphor… does not entail its source-domain content remains inactive.” (p. 20)
Contribution: Empowers literary scholars to read layers of metaphorical depth, even in cliché or conventional metaphors, reinterpreting them as contextually reawakened.

Examples of Critiques Through “Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory” by Beate Hampe

📘 Literary Work🧠 Embodied & Discursive Metaphor Critique📚 Relevant Concepts from Hampe (with page refs)
🚶‍♂️ The Road – Cormac McCarthyThe journey motif embodies physical and emotional endurance. The father-son bond is expressed through primary metaphors like difficulty is heaviness, affection is warmth. Their bodily suffering and motion foreground embodied cognition in discourse.• Primary Metaphor Theory (p. 7–10)
• Multimodal communication (p. 11)
• Embodied simulation (p. 21)
🪞 Beloved – Toni MorrisonMemory and haunting are embodied as socially emergent metaphors. The ghost becomes a multimodal metaphor for historical trauma and collective memory. This aligns with the idea of distributed cognition and cultural embodiment.• Discourse-level metaphor (p. 16)
• Cultural feedback loops (p. 14)
• Socio-cognitive metaphor dynamics (p. 12)
🌀 Mrs. Dalloway – Virginia WoolfTime is perceived spatially and sensorily via clocks, walks, and inner speech. Metaphors like states are locations, change is motion are non-linguistically embodied, captured through stream-of-consciousness.• Cross-domain mappings (p. 4–5)
• Non-linguistic metaphor (p. 14)
• Levels of metaphor manifestation (p. 10–11)
Moby-Dick – Herman MelvilleThe sea voyage metaphor structures the epistemological quest. Truth is depth, knowledge is navigation are complex metaphors that arise from embodied experience and are activated across narration, action, and gesture.• Simulation of source-domain (p. 21)
• Complex metaphor vs. primary (p. 7–8, 15)
• Blending theory and scenario framing (p. 8, 15)
Criticism Against “Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of

🔍 Criticism Against Hampe’s Socio-Cognitive Model

  • 🧭 Overcomplexity of Multilevel Integration
    The attempt to unify cognitive, discursive, cultural, and evolutionary scales into one dynamic model risks becoming too broad and unwieldy to be practically applicable or testable.
    (cf. pp. 10–12, “levels from neurophysiology to evolution”)
  • 🧱 Unclear Operationalization of ‘Embodiment’
    While advocating for embodied cognition, the chapter does not clearly distinguish between different degrees or types of embodiment (e.g., neural vs. social). Critics may argue that the term is used too loosely.
    (cf. pp. 13–14, discussion of Casasanto’s and Soliman & Glenberg’s views)
  • 🎭 Neglect of Literary and Aesthetic Metaphor
    The focus is on empirical and conversational data. Aesthetic, poetic, and literary metaphor is rarely engaged with, limiting the theory’s relevance to literary studies, despite its potential.
    (cf. general focus on discourse and gesture analysis, pp. 5–6, 16–18)
  • 📉 Underestimates the Role of Individual Creativity
    The emphasis on group interaction and distributed cognition may downplay the role of individual metaphorical innovation and artistic agency in meaning-making.
    (cf. pp. 12–13, on “soft-assembled” group dynamics)
  • 🎲 Empirical Evidence for Simulation Hypothesis Is Inconclusive
    While Hampe references Bergen and Gibbs’ metaphorical simulation hypothesis, neurological evidence remains mixed and far from conclusive, especially for abstract metaphors.
    (cf. pp. 20–21)
  • 🔁 Bidirectionality Challenges CMT Assumptions
    The chapter accepts new findings showing bidirectional metaphor processing (e.g., warmth → affection and vice versa), but this contradicts earlier unidirectional CMT claims, creating a theoretical tension.
    (cf. pp. 9–10, Casasanto and Lakoff debates)
  • 🌍 Western-Centric Embodiment Claims
    Although Hampe acknowledges cultural variation, the reliance on English and Indo-European examples may limit the universality of her claims about primary metaphors.
    (cf. pp. 14–15, e.g., knowing is seeing vs. hearing in Aboriginal languages)
  • 🎯 Vague Causality Between Embodiment and Discourse
    While the chapter emphasizes interplay, it often fails to specify causal mechanisms — how exactly embodied schemas shape discourse and vice versa remains under-explained.
Representative Quotations from “Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory” by Beate Hampe with Explanation
📝 Quotation 🧠 Explanation
🌉 “It is high time for metaphor theory to integrate the major insights yielded by these as yet largely separate, but ultimately complementary strands of inquiry.” (p. 3)Advocates for a synthesis between cognition-focused and discourse-focused metaphor research.
🧠 “Metaphor need not be stored in minds as passively listed entities… but as socially emergent cognition.” (p. 2, citing Gibbs 2014a)Highlights metaphor as a socially interactive process rather than an isolated cognitive one.
🧭 “The story of contemporary metaphor research cannot be told… without reference to Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT).” (p. 4)Acknowledges CMT as the foundational theory from which newer metaphor perspectives emerge.
🧱 “Primary metaphors are assumed to be directly embodied… constituted by conceptual correspondences that arise from bodily experience.” (p. 7)Clarifies how primary metaphors are rooted in direct sensory and bodily experiences.
🔄 “Primary metaphors differ from complex ones… in being much closer to the metonymy pole.” (p. 8)Positions primary metaphors closer to metonymy due to their correlation-based embodiment.
🌐 “A multidimensional model of metaphor should span… from (neuro-)physiology to evolution.” (p. 11)Introduces a comprehensive, layered model that connects body, mind, language, and culture.
🤝 “The gesture as simulated action framework… holds that gestures derive from simulated actions.” (p. 11)Emphasizes the embodied nature of communication, connecting gesture to cognition.
🧬 “Culture can be seen as a potent, cumulative reservoir… ‘ratcheting up’ the insights of previous generations.” (p. 11)Frames culture as an embodied, evolving system that influences cognitive processes.
🔁 “Most of the verbal metaphors in discourse are not processed as metaphors but by categorization.” (p. 19, Steen’s paradox)Suggests that metaphor is often understood implicitly, without deliberate metaphorical thinking.
🔬 “Metaphorical simulations may generally be less detailed than simulations of literal meanings.” (p. 21)Argues that metaphor activates mental imagery, but less vividly than literal expressions.
Suggested Readings: “Embodiment and Discourse: Dimensions and Dynamics of Contemporary Metaphor Theory” by Beate Hampe
  1. Hines, Andrew. “The Aristotelian Paradigm of Metaphor and Its Evolution.” Metaphor in European Philosophy after Nietzsche: An Intellectual History, NED-New edition, vol. 54, Modern Humanities Research Association, 2020, pp. 31–58. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1wsgqxb.6. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  2. Egge, James. “Theorizing Embodiment: Conceptual Metaphor Theory and the Comparative Study of Religion.” Figuring Religions: Comparing Ideas, Images, and Activities, edited by Shubha Pathak, State University of New York Press, 2013, pp. 91–114. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.18253675.9. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  3. Ernst, Christoph. “Moving Images of Thought: Notes on the Diagrammatic Dimension of Film Metaphor.” Revealing Tacit Knowledge: Embodiment and Explication, edited by Frank Adloff et al., 1st ed., transcript Verlag, 2015, pp. 245–78. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv371bnj8.15. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.
  4. Caracciolo, Marco. “Form, Science, and Narrative in the Anthropocene.” Narrative, vol. 27, no. 3, 2019, pp. 270–89. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26787962. Accessed 14 Apr. 2025.

“Deleuze And Literature: Metaphor And Indirect Discourse” by John Marks: Summary and Critique

“Deleuze and Literature: Metaphor and Indirect Discourse” by John Marks first appeared in Social Semiotics in 1997 (Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 233–246), published by Routledge.

"Deleuze And Literature: Metaphor And Indirect Discourse" by John Marks: Summary and Critique
Introduction: “Deleuze And Literature: Metaphor And Indirect Discourse” by John Marks

“Deleuze and Literature: Metaphor and Indirect Discourse” by John Marks first appeared in Social Semiotics in 1997 (Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 233–246), published by Routledge. This article, originating from Loughborough University, critically explores Gilles Deleuze’s contribution to literary theory, especially his interrogation of metaphor and emphasis on free indirect discourse as a foundational aesthetic mode. Marks argues that for Deleuze, metaphor is not primary in literature or language; instead, what underpins literary expression is a polyphonic interplay of voices that aligns with the concept of free indirect discourse—a synthesis of authorial, narrative, and character consciousness. This technique, Deleuze suggests, reveals the impersonal force of language and dissolves the boundary between subject and world, echoing his broader philosophical commitments to immanence and becoming. The article positions American literature—especially Melville, Whitman, and Lawrence—as exemplary in this regard, where narrative forms embody intensities, affects, and percepts rather than representations or symbolic meanings. Moreover, the piece connects Deleuze’s literary insights to his cinematic philosophy, showing how indirect discourse structures both visual and linguistic mediums. In doing so, Marks underscores the significance of literature not as a vehicle of interpretation, but as a site of experimentation, transformation, and ontological rupture. This shift has made Deleuze a pivotal figure in contemporary literary theory, with enduring implications for poststructuralist and affective aesthetics.

Summary of “Deleuze And Literature: Metaphor And Indirect Discourse” by John Marks

🔄 Rejection of Metaphor in Literature

  • 🔹 Deleuze rejects metaphor as central to literary expression:

“The general rejection of metaphor that informs Deleuze’s work on literature can be more precisely defined as a theory of free indirect discourse” (Marks, 1997, p. 234).

  • 🔹 Metaphor is seen as “disastrous for the study of language”, only a secondary effect of indirect discourse:

“Metaphors and metonymies are merely effects… they presuppose indirect discourse” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1987, p. 76; quoted in Marks, 1997, p. 238).
🌈 (Theme: Against Representation)


🗣️ Free Indirect Discourse as a Literary Principle

  • 🟣 Free indirect discourse is key to Deleuze’s literary philosophy:

“It is no longer metaphor… it is free indirect discourse” (Deleuze, 1986, p. 73; in Marks, 1997, p. 239).

  • 🟣 It reflects the multiplicity of voices in literature, enabling a zone of indiscernibility between narrator and character:

“Literature is a matter of becomings… a zone of indiscernibility” (Marks, 1997, p. 234).
🌈 (Theme: Multiplicity & Enunciation)


🌍 American Literature as a Model

  • 🟢 Deleuze privileges American literature for its experimental and deterritorialized character:

“Anglo-American literature is somehow ‘superior’… a literature of flight, rupture, deterritorialisation” (Marks, 1997, p. 235).

  • 🟢 Writers like Whitman, Melville, and Kerouac illustrate the “line of flight” and “open road” ideology, resisting interpretation:

“Whitman’s essential message was the Open Road… the bravest doctrine man has ever proposed to himself” (Lawrence, 1964, quoted in Marks, 1997, p. 233).
🌈 (Theme: Deterritorialization & Experimentation)


🧠 The Impersonal Force of Literature

  • 🔴 Writing becomes impersonal; the self is dissolved:

“Literature is characterised by ‘the force of the impersonal’” (Deleuze, 1993, p. 13; cited in Marks, 1997, p. 234).

  • 🔴 Great writers are “symptomatologists,” revealing signs and flows rather than telling personal stories:

“They may themselves be physically frail… overwhelmed by the life that traverses them” (Marks, 1997, p. 234).
🌈 (Theme: Impersonality & Affects)


🌀 Characters without Identity

  • 🟡 Characters like Bartleby and Nashe resist psychological or moral interpretation:

“Bartleby’s ‘I prefer not to’… hollows out a zone of indiscernibility” (Marks, 1997, p. 237).
“Nashe… remains obscure… describing Nashe’s enigmatic inner world” (Marks, 1997, p. 237).
🌈 (Theme: Subject Dissolution)


🎥 Application in Cinema

  • 🔵 Deleuze extends free indirect discourse to cinema (e.g., Cinema 1 & 2):

“Cinema’s perpetual destiny… from objective perception to subjective perception” (Deleuze, 1986, p. 72; in Marks, 1997, p. 239).

  • 🔵 Directors like Godard and Antonioni use free indirect discourse to displace the viewer’s position and create polyphonic narratives.
    🌈 (Theme: Media Crossovers)

🌿 Landscape, Percepts, and the Earth

  • 🟢 Deleuze argues that art is geophilosophical, rooted in the earth, not metaphor:

“We are not in the world, we become with the world… everything is vision, becoming” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1994, p. 169; in Marks, 1997, p. 243).

  • 🟢 Lawrence and Melville show how landscapes “see” and affect the subject, dissolving individual consciousness:

“The landscape sees as much as the subject… the mind is a membrane” (Zourabichvili, 1996, cited in Marks, 1997, p. 243).
🌈 (Theme: Percepts & Territory)


📚 Polyphony and Democratic Expression

  • 🟣 Literature allows the coexistence of voices, especially in American literature:

“Whitman is… a poet of polyphony” (Marks, 1997, p. 236).
“The novel contains… polyphonic, and plurivocal compounds” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1994, p. 188; in Marks, 1997, p. 239).
🌈 (Theme: Plurality & Minor Literature)


🌌 Affects and Percepts in Literary Creation

  • 🔴 Literature creates percepts and affects, not metaphors:

“Percepts aren’t perceptions… affects aren’t feelings, they’re becomings” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1995, p. 137; in Marks, 1997, p. 241).

  • 🔴 Melville and Kafka are cited as creators of perceptual intensities, not interpreters of meaning.
    🌈 (Theme: Becoming & Intensity)
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Deleuze And Literature: Metaphor And Indirect Discourse” by John Marks

🧠 Theoretical Term / Concept📖 Explanation with Reference
🌀 Free Indirect DiscourseA literary and philosophical mode where the voices of narrator, character, and author blur. For Deleuze, this replaces metaphor as the foundation of literature. It represents a multiplicity of enunciation and is central to both literary and cinematic thought.
🔹 “It is no longer metaphor… it is free indirect discourse” (Deleuze, 1986, p. 73; cited in Marks, 1997, p. 239).
🚫 Anti-Metaphor StanceDeleuze critiques the dominance of metaphor, arguing that it obscures the real dynamics of language. Instead, he sees language as impersonal, material, and indirect.
🔸 “The importance some have accorded to metaphor… proves disastrous for the study of language” (Marks, 1997, p. 238).
🌿 PerceptNot a perception, but a “packet of sensations and relations” that live on independently of the subject. In literature, percepts express the impersonal forces of the world.
🟢 “Percepts aren’t perceptions… they live on independently of whoever experiences them” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1995, p. 137; in Marks, 1997, p. 241).
💓 AffectA becoming or intensity beyond personal emotion. Affects overflow individual subjects and express transformation.
❤️ “Affects aren’t feelings, they’re becomings that spill over beyond whoever lives through them” (Marks, 1997, p. 241).
🚀 DeterritorializationA process of breaking away from fixed structures or meanings—linguistic, social, geographical. American literature is praised for embodying this dynamic.
🔹 “A literature of flight, rupture, deterritorialisation” (Marks, 1997, p. 235).
🌐 Minor LiteratureLiterature produced from the margins of a dominant language or tradition. Melville and Kafka exemplify this, where expression is collective, deterritorialized, and experimental.
🌀 “American literature is a minor literature ‘par excellence’” (Marks, 1997, p. 236).
👁️ Landscape-Percept / “The Landscape Sees”Literature’s landscapes aren’t metaphors, but percepts. The subject merges with the world. The landscape sees, thinks, and acts.
🌄 “The landscape sees as much as the subject… the mind is a membrane” (Zourabichvili, cited in Marks, 1997, p. 243).
🔧 Assemblage of EnunciationA system where multiple voices, elements, and signifying regimes form a plane of expression. Not confined to grammar or syntax.
🧩 “A molecular assemblage of enunciation… not given in my conscious mind” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1987, p. 84; in Marks, 1997, p. 238).
🎞️ Cinema and Indirect DiscourseCinema, like literature, uses free indirect discourse to destabilize subject/object boundaries. Directors like Antonioni and Godard “frame thought.”
🎬 “Cinema’s perpetual destiny… from an objective perception to a subjective perception” (Marks, 1997, p. 239).
🌌 BecomingCentral to Deleuze’s aesthetics: not about identity but transformation. Writing, seeing, and feeling are all forms of becoming, not representing.
🔁 “Becoming is an extreme contiguity… without resemblance” (Marks, 1997, p. 242).
Contribution of “Deleuze And Literature: Metaphor And Indirect Discourse” by John Marks to Literary Theory/Theories

🌀 Poststructuralism & Anti-Hermeneutics

  • 🔸 Challenge to traditional interpretation and hermeneutics: Marks emphasizes Deleuze’s resistance to interpretation in favor of flows, becomings, and intensities, destabilizing meaning as fixed or representational.

“Abandon interpretation in favour of ‘fluxes’ or flows” (Marks, 1997, p. 234).

  • 🔸 Marks positions Deleuze as part of a poststructuralist rejection of metaphor and symbol in favor of immanence and literal becoming.

“Metaphor… has no real significance… all language is indirect, or ‘oblique’” (Marks, 1997, p. 238).
🌈 (Contribution: Critiques metaphoric language and interpretive models)


🎭 Narratology / Voice Theory

  • 🗣️ The paper significantly contributes to narrative theory through its analysis of free indirect discourse as central to literary enunciation.

“Free indirect discourse… blurs the distinction between narrator, character and author” (Marks, 1997, p. 239).

  • 🗣️ This challenges classic narratology’s rigid distinctions between first-person/third-person or author/narrator/character, suggesting instead a polyvocal or plural mode of storytelling.

“All discourse is indirect… many voices in a voice, murmurings, speaking in tongues” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1987, quoted in Marks, 1997, p. 238).
🌈 (Contribution: Advances polyphonic and hybrid narrative theory)


🌍 Minor Literature / World Literature

  • 🌐 The article develops Deleuze & Guattari’s concept of “minor literature”, showing how American literature functions as a destabilizing, experimental space.

“American literature is a minor literature ‘par excellence’… its fragmentary nature lends itself to collective statements” (Marks, 1997, p. 236).

  • 🌐 By doing so, Marks contributes to the growing theoretical interest in non-canonical, transnational, and politically minor writing.

“American literature creates something schizophrenic from the neurosis of the Old World” (Marks, 1997, p. 236).
🌈 (Contribution: Reinforces minoritarian aesthetics and postcolonial resonance)


🧩 Affect Theory

  • ❤️ Marks connects Deleuze’s theory of affects—intensities beyond emotion or cognition—with literary practices.

“Affects aren’t feelings… they’re becomings that spill over beyond whoever lives through them” (Marks, 1997, p. 241).

  • ❤️ This influences the affective turn in literary theory, where emotion, sensation, and intensity replace interpretation and psychological realism.

“Literature creates percepts and affects, not metaphors” (Marks, 1997, p. 241).
🌈 (Contribution: Deepens affect theory’s engagement with literary form)


🌄 Ecocriticism / Geophilosophy

  • 🌿 Marks shows how Deleuze’s geophilosophy proposes a new relationship between literature, subjectivity, and environment: the landscape sees.

“The landscape sees as much as the subject… the mind is a membrane rather than a searchlight” (Marks, 1997, p. 243).

  • 🌿 This moves beyond anthropocentric readings to consider how geography, materiality, and affect form literature.

“Art is the Earth’s song… becoming is geographical” (Deleuze & Guattari, 1994, cited in Marks, 1997, pp. 241–243).
🌈 (Contribution: Contributes to ecocritical, materialist approaches in literary theory)


🧠 Experimental Literary Form & Modernism/Postmodernism

  • 📚 By exploring authors like Whitman, Melville, Kafka, Beckett, and Lawrence, Marks aligns Deleuze with the tradition of modernist and postmodern experimentation.

“Great writers… invent ways of living, of surviving, resisting, and freeing life” (Marks, 1997, p. 234).

  • 📚 This supports a non-linear, fragmented understanding of literature where logic and character dissolve into flows and becomings.

“The American writer must write spontaneously in fragments, or ‘specimens’” (Marks, 1997, p. 236).
🌈 (Contribution: Links modernist experimentation with Deleuzian ontology)


🎬 Intermedial Theory / Cinema Studies

  • 🎞️ Marks shows how Deleuze’s literary theory overlaps with cinematic theory, especially through Cinema 1 and Cinema 2.

“Cinema’s perpetual destiny is to make us move from an objective perception to a subjective perception” (Marks, 1997, p. 239).

  • 🎞️ This contributes to intermedial studies, where literature, cinema, and art share aesthetic functions—e.g., the indirect discourse of the image.

“Free indirect discourse is an aesthetic cogito to which cinema is ideally suited” (Marks, 1997, p. 234).
🌈 (Contribution: Connects narrative techniques across media)


🧬 Materialism / Assemblage Theory

  • 🧩 Marks presents literature not as symbolic but as a material assemblage of affects, language, subjectivity, and sensation.

“Speaking in tongues… the molecular assemblage of enunciation” (Marks, 1997, p. 238).

  • 🧩 This reinforces non-representational theories of literature that align with new materialism and assemblage thought.
    🌈 (Contribution: Develops a non-human-centered, assemblage-based literary materialism)
Examples of Critiques Through “Deleuze And Literature: Metaphor And Indirect Discourse” by John Marks

📚 Literary Work🔍 Deleuzian Critique (via Marks)📝 Explanation
🐳 Moby-Dick by Herman Melville💬 Free Indirect Discourse & PerceptsMelville’s Moby-Dick is seen as an exemplary text of affects and percepts rather than metaphor. Ahab does not represent anything—he becomes the whale. The whale’s whiteness is not symbolic but anomalous and perceptual.
> “Ahab does not identify with the whale, he becomes the whale” (Marks, 1997, p. 240).
📃 Bartleby, the Scrivener by Melville🌀 Zone of Indiscernibility & AggrammaticalityBartleby’s refrain “I prefer not to” introduces a linguistic virus into the narrative, resisting interpretation and psychological analysis. It exemplifies free indirect discourse that collapses categories of affirmation and negation.
> “Bartleby’s… ‘I prefer not to’… creates a void within language” (Marks, 1997, p. 237).
🚗 The Music of Chance by Paul Auster🎲 Contingency & Indirect EnunciationNashe’s journey is a line of flight, where the narrative resists rational causality. His psychology remains opaque, and the narration, while third-person, enters an indirect mode of consciousness aligned with Deleuzian thought.
> “Nashe… describes his enigmatic inner world… reason becomes contingency” (Marks, 1997, p. 237).
🎯 Libra by Don DeLillo🎯 Intensive System & PolyphonyOswald is not a psychological subject but a “dark precursor”—a conduit for heterogeneous series of ideology, information, and paranoia. The narrative is polyphonic, invoking free indirect discourse as both structure and theme.
> “Libra… functions as an example of an ‘intensive system’” (Marks, 1997, p. 240).

🔑 Key Themes Across All Works:
  • 🔄 Rejection of metaphor and symbolic interpretation
  • 🧠 Focus on becoming, deterritorialization, and impersonal forces
  • 💬 Free indirect discourse as a destabilizing narrative technique
  • 🌍 Connection between inner subjectivity and external materiality (landscape, systems, events)
Criticism Against “Deleuze And Literature: Metaphor And Indirect Discourse” by John Marks

⚖️ Philosophical Overreach

  • 🧠 Too abstract for literary analysis: Critics may argue that Marks, by channeling Deleuze’s philosophy, often departs from grounded textual analysis, making the paper more philosophical than literary.

📍 Focuses more on Deleuze’s ontology than the works themselves.


📉 Marginalization of Metaphor

  • 🔍 Neglects metaphor’s productive role: The paper follows Deleuze in rejecting metaphor wholesale, but this can be seen as reductive, especially when metaphor is a cornerstone of literary aesthetics.

📍 “Against metaphor” stance may ignore how metaphor generates complexity and ambiguity in literature.


📚 Selective Canon

  • 📘 Overemphasis on Anglo-American and male writers: While celebrating “minor literature,” the essay paradoxically centers canonical white male authors (Melville, Whitman, Lawrence, etc.), overlooking more diverse minoritarian voices.

📍 Limited representation of gendered, racialized, or non-Western ‘minor’ literatures.


🌀 Ambiguity in Methodology

  • 🧩 Conceptual slippage: Terms like becoming, assemblage, and percept are used evocatively but can feel vague or underdefined in a literary context, making application difficult for close reading.

📍 Lacks methodological clarity for literary critics unfamiliar with Deleuzian vocabulary.


📽️ Overextension into Cinema

  • 🎬 Cinema analysis diverts from literary focus: The integration of Cinema 1 and Cinema 2 insights, while illuminating, might distract from the core argument about literature, creating a diffuse theoretical field.

📍 Blurs the boundary between literary and cinematic analysis, potentially weakening focus.


🧭 Directionless in Application

  • 🔄 Non-linear, deterritorialized structure: Although this mirrors Deleuzian logic, the article’s structure can appear unanchored, making it challenging for readers seeking cohesive literary theory.

📍 May feel like a “rhizome” of ideas without clear critical payoff.


🧓 Lack of Contemporary Examples

  • Few modern or experimental texts beyond 20th-century canon: Despite theoretical openness, the essay focuses on earlier works (Melville, Beckett, etc.) and lacks strong engagement with contemporary or avant-garde literature post-1990s.

📍 Missed opportunity to apply Deleuze to newer postmodern or digital literature.


🤖 Inaccessibility

  • 🧬 Heavy jargon and reliance on Deleuzian idiom: The density of Deleuzean terminology may alienate readers not already versed in poststructuralism or continental philosophy.

📍 Difficult for entry-level students or general literary scholars to engage with.

Representative Quotations from “Deleuze And Literature: Metaphor And Indirect Discourse” by John Marks with Explanation

🔖 Quotation💡 Explanation
🌀 “Free indirect discourse… testifies to a system which is always heterogeneous, far from equilibrium.” (p. 239)📚 Marks shows that Deleuze sees free indirect discourse as central to literature because it captures multiplicity, flux, and the impersonal force of language. It challenges unified narrative voices and reflects literary chaos and openness.
🚫 “The importance some have accorded to metaphor and metonymy proves disastrous for the study of language.” (p. 238)🔍 Deleuze attacks traditional literary criticism’s reliance on metaphor, emphasizing instead the literal, direct, and impersonal aspects of language as primary.
🧩 “To write is perhaps to bring this assemblage of the unconscious to the light of day… to extract something called my Self (Moi).” (p. 238)🧠 Writing, for Deleuze, is not expression of a stable self but the emergence of an assemblage from unconscious flows—reshaping identity in the process.
🧠 “Literature is characterised by ‘the force of the impersonal.’” (p. 234)🎭 This quote underscores Deleuze’s rejection of autobiographical or expressive models of writing, preferring a depersonalized, non-subjective force.
🧬 “Great writers… are stylists, in that they invent ways of living, of surviving, resisting, and freeing life.” (p. 234)✍️ Literature, through style and invention, is not about describing life but intensifying and transforming it.
🧭 “American literature is a minor literature ‘par excellence’, since its fragmentary nature lends itself to collective statements.” (p. 236)🇺🇸 American literature is viewed as decentralized, non-hierarchical, and thus ideal for Deleuze’s concept of minor literature, resisting totalities.
🌀 “Bartleby’s… ‘I prefer not to’… creates a void within language.” (p. 237)📉 The aggrammatical, noncommittal phrase becomes a literary rupture—disabling narrative closure and fixed meaning.
🌍 “The landscape sees as much as the subject… the mind is a membrane.” (p. 243)🌄 Marks explains how Deleuze inverts subject/object relations: literature is not about perception of landscape, but entanglement with it.
🎬 “Cinema’s perpetual destiny is to make us move from an objective perception to a subjective perception.” (p. 239)📽️ By applying this cinematic logic to literature, Marks shows how free indirect discourse destabilizes perspective, making thought visible in form.
💥 “Affect and percept… overflow subjectivity… they are becomings.” (p. 241)⚡ Affects and percepts are not feelings or observations, but forces that transform the subject, foundational to Deleuze’s aesthetics.
Suggested Readings: “Deleuze And Literature: Metaphor And Indirect Discourse” by John Marks
  1. Marks, John. “Deleuze and literature: Metaphor and indirect discourse.” Social Semiotics 7.2 (1997): 233-246.
  2. Haines, Daniel. “From Deleuze and Guattari’s Words to a Deleuzian Theory of Reading.” Deleuze Studies, vol. 9, no. 4, 2015, pp. 529–57. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45331832. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.
  3. Deleuze, Gilles, et al. “Literature and Life.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 23, no. 2, 1997, pp. 225–30. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343982. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.
  4. Deleuze, Gilles, et al. “What Is a Minor Literature?” Mississippi Review, vol. 11, no. 3, 1983, pp. 13–33. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20133921. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.

“Critical Discourse Analysis And Metaphor: Toward A Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart: Summary and Critique

“Critical Discourse Analysis and Metaphor: Toward a Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart first appeared in Critical Discourse Studies in May 2008 (Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 91–106), published by Routledge.

"Critical Discourse Analysis And Metaphor: Toward A Theoretical Framework" by Christopher Hart: Summary and Critique
Introduction: “Critical Discourse Analysis And Metaphor: Toward A Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart

“Critical Discourse Analysis and Metaphor: Toward a Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart first appeared in Critical Discourse Studies in May 2008 (Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 91–106), published by Routledge. This landmark article offers a critical intervention in the field of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) by addressing a long-neglected aspect—metaphor. Hart proposes a shift from the widely used Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) to the more dynamically responsive Conceptual Blending Theory (CBT), arguing that CBT is more compatible with the sociocognitive approach of CDA. The article outlines the limitations of CMT when applied to political discourse, particularly its neglect of speaker intention and its deterministic grounding in embodied experience. Instead, CBT allows for metaphors to be treated as strategic, ideologically charged tools in discourse construction. By examining metaphors in the British National Party’s 2005 manifesto—like the migration-as-flood metaphor—Hart demonstrates how blending metaphors not only reflect but shape public cognition, social structure, and policy justification. This has significant implications for literary theory, especially when applied to poetic texts where metaphor is not merely decorative but politically consequential. For example, in metaphor-rich poetry addressing themes of migration, identity, or nationhood, Hart’s framework enables readers to dissect how conceptual blending reinforces dominant narratives or resists them. Thus, the article contributes a powerful analytical tool for scholars in both discourse studies and literary criticism.

Summary of “Critical Discourse Analysis And Metaphor: Toward A Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart

1. CDA’s Neglect of Metaphor

  • While CDA has focused on structures like passivization and nominalisation, metaphor has been underexplored.

“Metaphor, on the other hand, has been largely neglected in mainstream CDA” (Hart, 2008, p. 91).

  • Yet metaphor is central to how ideology and social reality are constructed.

“Metaphor is ‘central to critical discourse analysis since it is concerned with forming a coherent view of reality'” (Charteris-Black, 2004, p. 28, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 91).


🔹 2. Metaphors as Ideological Tools

  • Metaphors shape our understanding and privilege certain perspectives.

“Metaphors are ideological… in so far as they ‘define in significant part what one takes as reality'” (Chilton & Lakoff, 1995, p. 56, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 91).

  • They serve both the interpersonal and ideational functions of language.

“Metaphors also play an important role with regard to both the interpersonal and the ideational function of language” (Hart, 2008, p. 91).


🔹 3. Call for Cognitive Approaches in CDA

  • CDA needs a cognitive dimension to explain how discourse produces social knowledge.

“Discourse is produced and interpreted by human individuals interacting with one another” (Chilton, 2005a, p. 23, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 91).

  • Cognitive linguistics and CDA both deal with language, cognition, and culture, making the former suitable for metaphor analysis in CDA.

🔹 4. Critique of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT)

Hart identifies three major incompatibilities between CMT and CDA:

a) Problem of Focus

  • CMT is too abstract and introspective, relying on imagined examples.

“The data CMT presents… are often not attested but rather appeal to native speaker intuition” (Hart, 2008, p. 92).

b) Problem of Motivation

  • CMT sees metaphor as an unconscious product of embodiment, ignoring speaker intention.

“Metaphors are ‘chosen by speakers to achieve particular communication goals'” (Charteris-Black, 2004, p. 247, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 93).

c) Problem of Relation

  • CMT posits that linguistic expressions merely reflect internal thought structures, while CDA sees discourse as constructing thought.

“In CDA… linguistic representation in discourse can determine, to some extent, conceptual representation” (Hart, 2008, p. 94).


🔹 5. Introduction of Conceptual Blending Theory (CBT)

  • CBT focuses on online meaning construction through multiple input spaces.

“Blending can ‘compose elements from the input spaces to provide relations that do not exist in the separate inputs'” (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002, p. 48, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 96).

  • The blend is not just a reflection but a site of cognitive activity, where meaning, reasoning, and emotion coalesce.

“Blended spaces are ‘sites for central cognitive work: reasoning… drawing inferences… and developing emotions'” (Fauconnier & Turner, 1996, p. 115, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 97).


🔹 6. Selective Projection and Ideological Framing

  • Not all knowledge is projected into the blend—what’s left out is often ideologically significant.

“Speakers may choose to recruit particular structure in order to promote a certain perceived reality” (Hart, 2008, p. 96).


🔹 7. Entrenchment and Social Cognition

  • Frequent metaphorical blends become entrenched and shared socially, reinforcing dominant ideologies.

“Integration networks built up dynamically can become entrenched and available to be activated all at once” (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002, p. 103, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 97).

  • Such entrenched blends function as social cognitions in Van Dijk’s model.

“Entrenched conceptual blending networks are precisely the mental representations and processes of group members” (Hart, 2008, p. 97).


🔹 8. Three Types of ‘Discourse’ and Metaphor’s Place

  • Drawing from Foucault and Fairclough, Hart distinguishes:
    • Discourse (concrete): actual talk/text
    • Discourse (collective): sets of related statements
    • Discourse (abstract): systems of knowledge/practice
  • Metaphors travel across all three:

“Synchronically, current conventional uses of metaphor reflect entrenched conceptual blending patterns…. Diachronically… they give rise to entrenched conceptual blending patterns” (Hart, 2008, p. 99).


🔹 9. Case Study: BNP Immigration Metaphors

  • Hart analyses metaphors in the British National Party 2005 manifesto to show how metaphor supports racist and exclusionary discourse.

a) Immigration as Water

  • ‘Flood of asylum seekers’ uses the topoi of number and danger, making immigrants seem overwhelming and threatening.

“The conceptualisation of an ongoing ‘flood of asylum seekers’ immediately warrants… restrictive immigration policy” (Hart, 2008, p. 100).

b) Nation as Container

  • Britain is conceptualised as a full container, suggesting that no more immigration can be ‘absorbed’.

“Britain is full up…” (BNP quote, cited in Hart, 2008, p. 101).

c) Nation as House

  • ‘Shut the door’ metaphor frames the nation as private property, evoking ownership and the right to exclude.

“Entry into which only takes place with the permission of the resident” (Hart, 2008, p. 101).

  • These metaphors employ a referential strategy (us vs. them) and an evaluative strategy (threat, invasion, dilution).

🔹 10. Conclusion: Toward a Full Framework

  • Hart’s approach, using CBT within sociocognitive CDA, enables the microlevel analysis of metaphors with ideological consequences.
  • However, he acknowledges the need for quantitative analysis to identify widespread metaphorical patterns.

“A complete and lucid framework requires quantitative analysis across different discourse genres” (Hart, 2008, p. 102).


Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Critical Discourse Analysis And Metaphor: Toward A Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart
🧠 Theoretical Term📘 Explanation📌 Reference / Quotation
🧱 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)Examines how discourse structures perpetuate social inequality, often through ideologically embedded language.“Critical discourse analysis (CDA) explores the role of discourse structures in constituting social inequality” (Hart, 2008, p. 91).
🔄 Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT)Views metaphor as cross-domain mapping based on bodily experiences; often criticized for ignoring discourse context and speaker intention.“CMT posits relationships between pairs of mental representations” (Hart, 2008, p. 92).
🌐 Conceptual Blending Theory (CBT)A dynamic model of meaning construction where mental spaces blend to form emergent conceptual structures. Favored over CMT for CDA.“Blending can ‘compose elements from the input spaces to provide relations that do not exist in the separate inputs'” (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002, p. 48, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 96).
🧠 Social CognitionShared mental representations within a group that link discourse and social structure. Central to sociocognitive CDA.“Social cognitions… are shared and presupposed by group members” (van Dijk, 1993, p. 257, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 97).
📦 Mental SpacesTemporary conceptual packets activated during discourse; serve as inputs for blending processes.“Mental spaces are small conceptual packets constructed as we think and talk” (Fauconnier & Turner, 1996, p. 113, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 95).
⚗️ Emergent StructureNew conceptual elements created through blending that do not exist in the original input spaces.“The blend inherits partial structure… and has emergent structure of its own” (Fauconnier & Turner, 1996, p. 113, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 96).
🔎 Selective ProjectionThe strategic selection of elements from mental spaces into the blend, shaped by communicative or ideological intent.“Speakers may choose to recruit particular structure in order to promote a certain perceived reality” (Hart, 2008, p. 96).
🧬 EntrenchmentThe process through which repeated blending patterns become cognitively fixed and socially shared.“Integration networks… can become entrenched and available to be activated all at once” (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002, p. 103, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 97).
🏛️ Discourse (Concrete, Collective, Abstract)Hart distinguishes: (1) discourse as situated talk/text, (2) discourse as recurring patterns, and (3) discourse as systems of knowledge.“Discourse (abstract) dictates the nature of discourse (concrete)… and vice versa” (Hart, 2008, p. 99).
🌊 Topoi (Danger, Number, Displacement)Common argumentative schemes in discourse that justify ideological positions, especially in right-wing and racist rhetoric.“An argumentation schema like this one is defined as topos of number” (Wodak & Sedlak, 2000, p. 233, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 100).
🪟 Container SchemaA conceptual structure with interior, exterior, and boundary used metaphorically to frame nations and inclusion/exclusion.“A container schema has an inherent ‘logic’… interior and exterior defined by a boundary” (Hart, 2008, p. 102).
🎭 Referential & Evaluative StrategiesReferential strategies define in-groups/out-groups; evaluative strategies judge them positively or negatively. Both are used in racist discourse.“Referential strategies are used… evaluative strategy is manifested in negative representation of the out-group” (Hart, 2008, p. 99).
Contribution of “Critical Discourse Analysis And Metaphor: Toward A Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart to Literary Theory/Theories

🔍 🧩 Bridging Linguistics and Literary Criticism

  • Hart integrates cognitive linguistics with critical discourse analysis, offering literary theorists tools to unpack how metaphor constructs ideology in poetic and narrative texts.

“Metaphors are ideological… in so far as they ‘define in significant part what one takes as reality'” (Chilton & Lakoff, 1995, p. 56, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 91).


🧠 🌀 Expanding the Interpretive Scope of Metaphor

  • Unlike classical metaphor theories focused on rhetorical ornamentation, Hart’s framework treats metaphor as a cognitive and discursive act—deepening literary analysis beyond figurative style.

“Metaphor is ‘central to critical discourse analysis since it is concerned with forming a coherent view of reality'” (Charteris-Black, 2004, p. 28, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 91).


📦 🧠 Applying Mental Space Theory to Literature

  • Hart’s use of Conceptual Blending Theory (CBT) allows readers to visualize meaning construction in narrative or poetic metaphor, emphasizing how emergent structure reshapes understanding.

“The blend inherits partial structure… and has emergent structure of its own” (Fauconnier & Turner, 1996, p. 113, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 96).


🎭 🎯 Reframing Characterization and Plot in Ideological Terms

  • His focus on metaphor as a referential and evaluative strategy can be extended to literature to analyze how characters, spaces, or actions are ideologically positioned.

“Referential strategies are used in discourse to represent… social actors… evaluative strategy is manifested in negative representation” (Hart, 2008, p. 99).


🏠 🌍 Nation and Identity Metaphors in Literary Texts

  • Literary metaphors that depict the nation as a house, container, or bordered space can be critically re-examined using Hart’s framework for entrenched blending and emotional resonance.

“The nation is conceptualised as a private property… where policymakers have the right to refuse entry” (Hart, 2008, p. 101).


📚 📖 Contributes to Discourse Theory in Literature

  • Hart’s distinction among discourse (concrete, collective, abstract) offers literary theorists a way to trace how texts interact with discursive formations, genres, and ideologies.

“Discourse (abstract) dictates the nature of discourse (concrete)… and vice versa” (Hart, 2008, p. 99).


💬 🧭 Enabling Socio-Political Literary Critique

  • His model equips scholars to explore how metaphors shape political worldviews in literary texts, especially in postcolonial, migration, and nationalist narratives.

“Metaphors… contribute to a situation where they privilege one understanding of reality over others” (Chilton, 1996, p. 74, as cited in Hart, 2008, p. 91).


🧬 🎓 Grounding Literary Ideology in Cognitive Theory

  • Hart shows how literary metaphors become socially entrenched and cognitively shared, which aligns with cultural memory studies and the role of entrenchment in interpretive communities.

“Entrenched conceptual blending networks are… the mental representations and processes of group members” (Hart, 2008, p. 97).


📈 📊 Toward Quantitative Literary Metaphor Studies

  • Hart calls for blending qualitative and quantitative analysis of metaphor, paving the way for corpus-based literary criticism.

“A complete and lucid framework requires quantitative analysis… to determine which metaphors are used conventionally” (Hart, 2008, p. 102).

Examples of Critiques Through “Critical Discourse Analysis And Metaphor: Toward A Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart

🎨 Literary Work🧠 Critical Discourse Insight via CDA/CBT (Hart)🔍 Key Metaphors / Discursive Strategies
🌊 Chinua Achebe – Things Fall ApartColonial discourse frames African tradition as irrational, chaotic, and destined to “fall apart.” Hart’s framework shows how metaphors of disorder justify colonial control.“Igbo culture” as chaos vs. “colonialism” as order → metaphor of containment, civilisation as light vs. darkness (referential & evaluative strategy)
🧱 Margaret Atwood – The Handmaid’s TaleMetaphors of fertility, control, and enclosure (e.g., the female body as a container) align with Hart’s container schema and selective projection, reinforcing gender-based power.Wombs as political territory; doors, walls, and eyes evoke container schema and the “nation as house” metaphor (topos of danger + preservation)
🔥 William Blake – LondonBlake critiques state ideology through metaphors of imprisonment and infection. Hart’s concept of entrenched blending reveals how discourse sustains suffering.“Mind-forged manacles” → metaphor for ideological control; plague, cry, and curse reflect evaluative strategies against hegemonic discourse
🐍 Seamus Heaney – PunishmentThe speaker uses metaphors of burial and silence to show complicity in violence. Hart’s idea of metaphor as ideology helps unpack how guilt and justice are shaped by discourse.Bog woman as sacrifice → metaphor of containment and purification; selective projection hides shared societal blame (referential strategy: us vs. victim)

✳️ Key Concepts from Hart Used Across These Critiques
  • 🧠 Conceptual Blending: How mental spaces combine to produce emergent meanings in literary metaphor.
  • 🔎 Selective Projection: What elements are foregrounded or excluded in metaphors to support ideology.
  • 🎭 Referential/Evaluative Strategies: How language positions characters or themes as good/bad, in-group/out-group.
  • 🧬 Entrenchment: How recurring metaphors become ideologically normalized in literary discourse.
  • 📦 Container Schema: Used to explore imagery of boundaries, restriction, purity, and belonging.
Criticism Against “Critical Discourse Analysis And Metaphor: Toward A Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart

⚖️ Over-reliance on Cognitive Models

  • While Hart successfully integrates Conceptual Blending Theory (CBT) with CDA, critics may argue that it over-intellectualizes discourse by framing metaphor primarily as a cognitive phenomenon, potentially neglecting material conditions and historical contexts.

🔬 Limited Empirical Validation

  • Hart advocates for the cognitive entrenchment of metaphor through discourse, but offers limited empirical data to substantiate how often specific blends occur across genres or populations.

“A complete and lucid framework requires quantitative analysis…” (Hart, 2008, p. 102).


🚫 Dismissal of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT)

  • Some may view Hart’s critique of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) as overly rigid. While he treats CBT and CMT as “competing,” many linguists (e.g., Grady et al.) argue for their complementarity, not conflict.

📉 Reduction of Metaphor to Ideological Function

  • Hart often ties metaphor directly to ideology and strategy (e.g., immigration discourse), which may risk simplifying metaphor’s poetic, emotional, or ambiguous functions, especially in literature or art.

🌍 Limited Cultural Flexibility

  • The blending framework as presented is based mostly on Western political discourse (e.g., the British National Party). It may not be as adaptable across non-Western rhetorical traditions without significant modification.

🗺️ Under-theorization of Power Structures

  • Although Hart discusses social cognition and inequality, his model doesn’t fully address macro-level power systems (e.g., capitalism, patriarchy) in the way traditional CDA (e.g., Fairclough, Wodak) does.

🧱 Highly Technical Jargon

  • The heavy use of cognitive linguistics terminology (e.g., “mental space integration,” “vital relations,” “entrenchment”) may limit accessibility for scholars outside the field or from humanities/literary backgrounds.

📚 Singular Case Study Focus

  • The BNP manifesto is the sole example in the paper’s application section, raising questions about generalizability. Critics might ask: Can this framework apply equally well to literature, film, or visual art?
Representative Quotations from “Critical Discourse Analysis And Metaphor: Toward A Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart with Explanation
🎯 Quotation📘 Explanation
🧱 “Critical discourse analysis (CDA) explores the role of discourse structures in constituting social inequality.” (p. 91)This foundational quote defines CDA’s purpose: to reveal how language contributes to power relations and oppression.
🌊 “Metaphors are ideological… in so far as they ‘define in significant part what one takes as reality.'” (Chilton & Lakoff, 1995, p. 56, cited on p. 91)Hart emphasizes that metaphors aren’t neutral—they actively shape perception and ideology, which is central to his analysis.
🧠 “Discourse is produced and interpreted by human individuals interacting with one another.” (Chilton, 2005a, p. 23, cited on p. 91)Highlights the cognitive foundation of discourse interpretation, justifying the use of cognitive linguistics within CDA.
🔄 “CMT posits relationships between pairs of mental representations… [while] BT allows for more than two.” (p. 92)Contrasts Conceptual Metaphor Theory with Blending Theory, showing why Hart favors CBT for richer metaphor analysis.
🔍 “Speakers may choose to recruit particular structure in order to promote a certain perceived reality.” (p. 96)This statement introduces selective projection, a key mechanism by which metaphors support ideological positioning.
⚗️ “The blend inherits partial structure from the input spaces, and has emergent structure of its own.” (Fauconnier & Turner, 1996, p. 113, cited on p. 96)Describes how new, ideologically loaded meanings are constructed during discourse through conceptual blending.
🧬 “Entrenched conceptual blending networks are… the mental representations and processes of group members.” (p. 97)Shows how metaphors become socially shared and naturalized, forming part of collective cognition and discourse.
🧱 “Referential strategies are used… to represent social actors… evaluative strategy is manifested in negative representation.” (p. 99)Demonstrates how metaphor is used to construct identities and values in political and ideological discourse.
🏠 “The nation is conceptualised as a private property… where policymakers have the right to refuse entry.” (p. 101)Analyses metaphors in immigration discourse, using the house/container schema to expose nationalist ideology.
📊 “A complete and lucid framework requires quantitative analysis… to determine which metaphors are used conventionally.” (p. 102)Acknowledges the need for empirical breadth, calling for more data-driven studies to strengthen metaphor analysis in CDA.

Suggested Readings: “Critical Discourse Analysis And Metaphor: Toward A Theoretical Framework” by Christopher Hart
  1. Hart, Christopher. “Critical discourse analysis and metaphor: Toward a theoretical framework.” Critical discourse studies 5.2 (2008): 91-106.
  2. Blommaert, Jan, and Chris Bulcaen. “Critical Discourse Analysis.” Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 29, 2000, pp. 447–66. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/223428. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.
  3. Davidson, Donald. “What Metaphors Mean.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 5, no. 1, 1978, pp. 31–47. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1342976. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.
  4. Chilton, Paul, and Mikhail Ilyin. “Metaphor in Political Discourse: The Case of the ‘Common European House.'” Discourse & Society, vol. 4, no. 1, 1993, pp. 7–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42887835. Accessed 13 Apr. 2025.