Etymology of Performativity
The term “performativity” has its origins in the field of linguistics and gained prominence within academic discourse through the influential work of philosopher and gender theorist Judith Butler in the late 20th century.
Its etymology can be traced back to the linguistic concept of “performative utterances,” initially introduced by philosopher J.L. Austin in the mid-20th century. Austin contended that certain types of speech acts, such as declarations and promises, possess the capacity not solely to describe reality but also to effect changes in the social sphere through the very act of speaking.
Judith Butler further expanded upon this notion in the context of gender and identity, asserting that gender identity is not an inherent trait but rather a construct that is enacted and constituted through repeated performances of gender roles.
Consequently, the concept of performativity, in a broader sense, has come to signify the idea that language and actions do not merely mirror pre-existing identities and norms but actively participate in their creation and shaping. This concept has become central to contemporary gender studies and social theory.
Meanings of Performativity
| Aspect | Meaning |
| Linguistic Performativity | Language not only describes but also performs actions. Specific words or phrases can bring about effects or consequences. |
| Gender Performativity | Gender identity is constructed through social actions and expressions. People “perform” their gender roles. |
| Theatrical Performativity | Individuals take on roles or personas for entertainment or artistic purposes. |
| Corporate Performativity | Companies and individuals engage in performative actions to project an image or achieve goals. |
| Ritualistic Performativity | Rituals, ceremonies, and symbolic actions convey cultural or religious significance. |
| Political Performativity | Political actions, speeches, or gestures convey messages, gain support, or enact change. |
| Identity Performativity | Individuals construct and express identities through actions and self-presentation. Identity is fluid and performative. |
| Queer Performativity | LGBTQ+ individuals challenge gender and sexual norms through performative acts. |
| Social Media Performativity | People curate idealized online identities that may not reflect their offline reality. |
| Cultural Performativity | Cultures express values and beliefs through performative acts like festivals and traditions. |
| Economic Performativity | Financial markets and actors engage in actions that influence outcomes, regardless of underlying fundamentals. |
| Technology Performativity | Technology shapes and performs actions in society, affecting human behavior and interactions. |
Definition of Performativity as a Theoretical Term
Performativity, as a theoretical term, refers to the idea that language and social actions do not merely represent or describe reality but actively create and shape it. It posits that utterances and behaviors can bring about specific effects or outcomes, contributing to the construction of social norms, identities, and power structures.
This concept, popularized by theorists like Judith Butler, challenges traditional notions of language and identity by emphasizing their dynamic and performative nature within cultural and societal contexts.
Performativity: Theorists, Works, and Arguments
Theorists:
- Judith Butler: A prominent theorist in the realm of performativity, Judith Butler introduced the concept of gender performativity in her groundbreaking work Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. She argues that gender is not a fixed identity but is constructed through repeated social actions and performances, challenging traditional notions of gender as binary and innate.
- John Austin: John Austin’s work How to Do Things with Words laid the foundation for the theory of linguistic performativity. He explored how language can be performative, not just descriptive, and introduced concepts like illocutionary acts and perlocutionary acts to examine the functions of speech beyond simple communication.
- Erving Goffman: Erving Goffman’s sociological perspective, as presented in The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, revolves around the idea of dramaturgy. He argued that individuals engage in impression management, adopting different roles and personas in various social situations. This theory emphasizes how individuals perform their identities in everyday interactions.
Key Works:
- Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity by Judith Butler: This seminal work challenges traditional notions of gender by proposing that it is performative. Butler explores how individuals enact and express their gender roles through repeated social performances, deconstructing the idea of gender as a fixed or innate identity.
- How to Do Things with Words by John Austin: In this work, Austin introduces the concept of speech acts and performativity in language. He argues that utterances can have performative effects, such as making promises or declarations, beyond their descriptive function, reshaping our understanding of language’s role in shaping reality.
- The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life by Erving Goffman: Goffman’s sociological classic delves into the dramaturgical aspects of social interaction. He describes how individuals engage in impression management, adopting various roles and masks to present themselves differently in different social contexts. This work illuminates the performative nature of identity in daily life.
Key Arguments:
- Judith Butler’s Argument: Butler contends that gender identity is a social construct, not an inherent trait. She asserts that individuals continually perform and enact their genders through behaviors and expressions, challenging the fixed categories of male and female and emphasizing the fluidity of gender identity.
- John Austin’s Argument: Austin’s argument centers on the idea that language is not solely about conveying information but can also be performative, capable of bringing about actions and consequences. He introduces the distinction between locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts to illustrate how speech can shape reality.
- Erving Goffman’s Argument: Goffman’s argument revolves around the concept of dramaturgy, where individuals engage in impression management and role-playing to construct their social identities. He emphasizes that social life is akin to a theatrical performance, with individuals actively shaping their roles and presentations in various social contexts.
Performativity and Literary Theories
- Queer Theory: Performativity plays a central role in queer theory, which explores how gender and sexuality are socially constructed. Judith Butler’s notion of gender performativity, as discussed in her work Gender Trouble, has been influential in this regard. Literary scholars in queer theory analyze how characters and narratives challenge or conform to traditional gender and sexual norms through performative acts.
- Poststructuralism and Deconstruction: Performativity aligns with poststructuralist and deconstructionist approaches to literature. These theories emphasize the instability and multiplicity of meaning in texts. Literary critics draw on performativity to examine how language itself performs and subverts meaning, highlighting the performative aspects of literary discourse.
- Feminist Literary Theory: Gender performativity is often examined in the context of feminist literary theory. Scholars explore how literary texts depict and challenge conventional gender roles and how characters enact gender performances. This analysis can reveal the ways in which literature reinforces or subverts patriarchal norms.
- Dramatic and Theatrical Analysis: Literature with a strong theatrical or dramatic element, such as plays and performance poetry, lends itself naturally to performativity analysis. Scholars examine how characters’ speeches and actions not only convey the plot but also perform social roles, power dynamics, and conflicts within the narrative.
- Authorship and Literary Identity: Performativity can also be applied to the concept of authorship. Scholars explore how authors perform their literary identities and engage in self-presentation through their works, prefaces, and public personas. This approach highlights the constructed nature of authorial identity.
- Reader Response Theory: Performativity can be relevant in understanding how readers engage with texts. Scholars consider how readers perform interpretations of literary works, and how their readings can vary based on their own social and cultural contexts. This perspective underscores the interactive and performative nature of reading.
- Experimental and Metafictional Literature: Some contemporary literature is explicitly concerned with the performative aspects of language and narrative. In works of metafiction, authors draw attention to the constructed nature of storytelling, blurring the line between fiction and reality. Performativity becomes a key theme and analytical tool in understanding such texts.
- Language and Discourse Analysis: Literary theorists often draw on linguistic concepts related to performativity when analyzing the language and discourse within literary texts. They explore how characters‘ utterances and dialogues can have performative effects, shaping the narrative and its implications.
Performativity in Literary Criticism
| Work | Application |
| Macbeth by William Shakespeare | In Shakespeare’s Macbeth, the performative aspect of ambition is central to the narrative. Macbeth’s actions, driven by his ambition and his wife’s encouragement, lead to a series of violent deeds. Performativity analysis would focus on how Macbeth’s language and actions perform his transformation from a nobleman to a power-hungry tyrant. Lady Macbeth’s soliloquy, where she calls upon spirits to “unsex” her and “stop up the access and passage to remorse,” demonstrates her performative role as a manipulative and ruthless character. Literary criticism would examine how her language and actions contribute to the construction of gender and power dynamics within the play. |
| The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood | In Atwood’s dystopian novel, The Handmaid’s Tale, performativity is a key theme. The society of Gilead enforces strict gender roles, and women are assigned specific roles based on their fertility. Literary critique would explore how the characters, particularly the Handmaids, perform their assigned roles and the ways in which language and behavior contribute to the oppressive regime’s power. The protagonist, Offred, performs the role of a Handmaid as she narrates her experiences. Her internal monologue, which is often at odds with her outward compliance, highlights the tension between the performative and authentic self. Literary analysis would delve into how this tension reflects the broader themes of control and resistance. |
| The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald | In Fitzgerald’s novel, The Great Gatsby, performativity is evident in the characters’ attempts to construct and perform their social identities. Jay Gatsby, in particular, constructs an elaborate persona to win back Daisy Buchanan. Literary critique would examine how Gatsby’s extravagant parties and lavish lifestyle serve as performative acts to recreate his identity. Daisy Buchanan also engages in performative behavior, conforming to societal expectations of upper-class women. The critique would explore how her performances, such as her voice “full of money,” contribute to the novel’s critique of the superficiality of the Jazz Age. |
| Orlando by Virginia Woolf | In Woolf’s novel Orlando, the protagonist experiences both gender and time transitions. Literary analysis through the lens of performativity would focus on how Orlando’s transformation from a man to a woman and her experiences across different historical periods highlight the fluidity of identity and the performative nature of gender roles. The novel’s exploration of the performative aspects of gender identity is particularly relevant. Orlando’s experiences as both male and female underscore the notion that gender is not inherent but constructed through repeated actions and societal expectations. |
Suggested Readings
- Austin, John. How to Do Things with Words. Harvard University Press, 1962.
- Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of “Sex”. Routledge, 1993.
- Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
- Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Doubleday, 1959.
- Green, Adam Isaiah. The Cambridge Introduction to Literature and the Environment. Cambridge University Press, 2011.
- Gubar, Susan. Racechanges: White Skin, Black Face in American Culture. Oxford University Press, 1997.
- Halberstam, Jack. The Queer Art of Failure. Duke University Press, 2011.
- Povinelli, Elizabeth A. Economies of Abandonment: Social Belonging and Endurance in Late Liberalism. Duke University Press, 2011.
- Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. Epistemology of the Closet. University of California Press, 1990.
- Warner, Michael. Publics and Counterpublics. Zone Books, 2002.