Bakhtinian Theory in Literature

Introduction: Bakhtinian Theory

Bakhtinian theory, also known as dialogism, is a literary theory that focuses on the multiple voices and perspectives present in a text.

Developed by Russian philosopher and literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin, the theory emphasizes the importance of the relationship between the author, the reader, and the text itself. Bakhtin believed that a text is not a static entity, but rather a dynamic process that emerges through the interaction between various voices, contexts, and meanings.

According to Bakhtin, every text contains a multiplicity of voices and perspectives that are in constant dialogue with one another, creating a complex and ever-changing web of meanings and interpretations.

Thus, Bakhtinian theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the social and historical contexts in which a text is produced, as well as the ways in which it is interpreted by its readers.

Bakhtinian Theory: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Mikhail Bakhtin was a Russian literary theorist and philosopher known for his contributions to the fields of linguistics, semiotics, and literary theory. His work has had a significant impact on various disciplines, particularly in the study of language, literature, and culture.

Here are some key aspects of Bakhtinian theory, along with notable theorists, works, and arguments associated with it:

1. Mikhail Bakhtin:
   • Notable Works:
     • “Rabelais and His World” (1965): In this influential work, Bakhtin discusses the French Renaissance writer François Rabelais and his use of carnival and grotesque elements in literature.
     • “The Dialogic Imagination” (1981): A collection of Bakhtin’s essays on topics such as dialogism, polyphony, and the novel.
     • “Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics” (1929): Examines the writings of Fyodor Dostoevsky and introduces concepts like the “polyphonic novel.”
2. Dialogism and Heteroglossia:
   • Bakhtin’s theories emphasize the idea of dialogism, which is the dynamic and interactive nature of language. He argues that all language is inherently dialogical, involving a multiplicity of voices and perspectives.
   • Heteroglossia is the coexistence of diverse voices and languages within a single text or discourse. This concept is central to Bakhtin’s understanding of how meaning is constructed in communication.
3. Carnival and the Grotesque:
   • Bakhtin’s theory of carnival emphasizes the festive and subversive aspects of culture. He sees the carnival as a space where hierarchies are temporarily overturned, and various voices and perspectives are allowed to emerge.
   • The grotesque, in Bakhtin’s view, is a literary and cultural mode that challenges established norms and conventions through exaggerated and transgressive representations of the body and bodily functions.
4. Polyphony and the Novel:
   • Bakhtin’s ideas on the novel emphasize its “polyphonic” nature, where multiple voices and perspectives interact within the narrative. He contrasts this with the “monologic” nature of other literary forms.
   • The polyphonic novel presents a diversity of voices and worldviews, allowing for a more complex and open-ended exploration of truth and meaning.
5. Bakhtinian Theorists:
   • Several scholars have developed and extended Bakhtin’s ideas. Notable Bakhtinian theorists include Julia Kristeva, Tzvetan Todorov, and Mikhail Epstein, among others.
6. Key Arguments and Contributions:
   • Bakhtin’s work challenges structuralist and formalist approaches to literature and language by emphasizing the social and historical context of communication.
   • He argues that meaning is not fixed but emerges through dialogue, interaction, and the interplay of diverse voices.
   • Bakhtin’s ideas have been influential in the study of literature, rhetoric, cultural studies, and linguistics, providing a foundation for the analysis of language, discourse, and cultural phenomena.

Bakhtin’s theories have had a lasting impact on the study of language, literature, and culture, and they continue to be explored and developed by scholars in various fields. His emphasis on the dialogical nature of language and the importance of multiple voices in communication remains relevant in contemporary discussions of semiotics and cultural theory.

Major Principals of Bakhtinian Theory

Principal	Explanation	Example
Dialogism	Bakhtin’s foundational principle emphasizing the dynamic and interactive nature of language, shaped by ongoing exchanges of ideas, perspectives, and voices.	In a conversation, two people express their contrasting views, creating a dialogue where meaning is constructed.
Heteroglossia	The coexistence of multiple voices, languages, and discourses within a single text or cultural context, highlighting the diversity that contributes to meaning.	In a novel like War and Peace by Tolstoy, various characters have their own distinct language, dialect, and perspective.
Polyphony	The concept that the novel, in particular, is a polyphonic genre where multiple characters and viewpoints coexist and interact, leading to complex and open-ended exploration.	In War and Peace by Tolstoy, various characters’ narratives and perspectives interweave to create a multifaceted story.
Carnival and the Grotesque	Bakhtin’s notion of carnival as a cultural phenomenon where established hierarchies are disrupted, allowing for the expression of the grotesque and transgressive elements.	Mardi Gras celebrations with their temporary inversion of social norms, costumes, and playful transgressions.
Chronotope	The concept of time-space configuration in literature, with different genres characterized by distinct chronotopes that shape narrative structure and meaning.	A detective novel might have a specific chronotope of a crime scene with its unique time-space elements.
Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces	Bakhtin’s distinction between centripetal forces centralizing meaning and imposing a single perspective and centrifugal forces encouraging diverse voices and perspectives.	A political debate where one side attempts to steer the discussion toward a single viewpoint (centripetal), while the other side promotes open dialogue with diverse perspectives (centrifugal).
Ideological and Aesthetic Becoming	The dynamic interplay between ideology and aesthetics, where the aesthetic qualities of a work are intertwined with its ideological content, continually evolving through interpretation.	The evolving interpretation of a classic painting as its meaning and cultural context change over time.
Monologism vs. Dialogism	The contrast between monologism, dominated by a single authoritative voice, and dialogism, embracing multiple voices and viewpoints. Dialogism enriches communication, while monologism restricts it.	A propaganda speech delivering a single, unchallenged viewpoint (monologism) vs. an open debate with multiple perspectives (dialogism).

Examples of Bakhtinian Theory

Work	Critique
“Moby-Dick” by Herman Melville	– Dialogism: “Moby-Dick” embodies Bakhtin’s dialogic principle through the diverse voices of the characters, each with their unique perspectives on the white whale, Captain Ahab, and the sea. The novel is a conversation where these voices interact, clash, and reflect different worldviews. – Heteroglossia: The novel is rich in heteroglossia, as it contains diverse discourses related to whaling, philosophy, religion, and nature. Melville’s use of various dialects and jargons among the crew members reflects the coexistence of multiple linguistic voices. – Polyphony: The novel is a prime example of polyphony, with characters like Ishmael, Ahab, and Queequeg contributing to a complex narrative where multiple viewpoints shape the meaning of the story. The open-ended exploration of the truth behind Moby-Dick is central to Bakhtin’s concept of polyphony. – Carnival: “Moby-Dick” incorporates Bakhtinian carnival elements through the chaotic and sometimes grotesque scenes aboard the Pequod. Ahab’s relentless pursuit of the white whale can be seen as a grotesque inversion of the normal order, leading to an ultimate confrontation of opposing forces.
“Ulysses” by James Joyce	– Dialogism: “Ulysses” is a modernist masterpiece that epitomizes dialogism. The novel presents a day in the life of its characters in Dublin, and it captures the various voices, thoughts, and interactions of its characters in a stream of consciousness style. – Heteroglossia: The novel features a rich tapestry of languages, styles, and dialects, reflecting the linguistic diversity of Dublin. Joyce’s use of different registers, from newspaper headlines to inner monologues, showcases a multitude of voices coexisting within the text. – Polyphony: The novel’s polyphonic nature becomes evident as it weaves together the lives and thoughts of its characters, particularly Leopold Bloom and Stephen Dedalus. These characters represent diverse worldviews and experiences, contributing to the overall narrative complexity. – Carnival: The novel challenges traditional narrative structure and societal norms through its fragmented and playful style. It revels in the grotesque and subversive, inviting readers to participate in the carnival-like celebration of everyday life.
“One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel García Márquez	– Dialogism: Márquez’s masterpiece is characterized by dialogism through its portrayal of the Buendía family’s multi-generational saga. The novel engages in a continuous dialogue between past and present, myth and reality, and individual and collective memory.   – Heteroglossia: The novel features the blending of various linguistic and cultural voices, combining the language of magical realism with historical and regional dialects. This heteroglossic approach adds depth and richness to the narrative. – Polyphony: “One Hundred Years of Solitude” is polyphonic in its exploration of time, history, and identity. The various family members and their stories represent a chorus of voices contributing to the understanding of the Buendía family’s destiny. – Carnival: The novel incorporates elements of the grotesque through its magical realism and the absurdity of events, challenging conventional notions of reality and identity. The novel’s narrative structure can be seen as a carnival, where boundaries between the ordinary and the extraordinary blur.
“The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald	– Dialogism: The novel reflects Bakhtin’s dialogic principle through the interactions of its characters, revealing the social and moral complexities of the Jazz Age. The conversations and relationships, particularly between Jay Gatsby and Daisy Buchanan, drive the narrative. – Heteroglossia: The novel juxtaposes different social classes and backgrounds, highlighting the diverse linguistic and cultural voices within the American society of the 1920s. The collision of old money and new money provides a backdrop of heteroglossia. – Polyphony: “The Great Gatsby” explores the American Dream and its disillusionment through multiple characters and their perspectives. The novel offers a chorus of voices that contribute to the understanding of the characters’ motivations and the broader societal context. – Carnival: While the novel may not overtly display the festive elements of carnival, it does expose the hypocrisy and decadence of the Roaring Twenties, which can be seen as a grotesque inversion of traditional values and social norms.

Keywords in Bakhtinian Theory Literary Theory

1. Dialogism: The concept of ongoing, dynamic conversation and interaction of voices, ideas, and perspectives within a text or discourse.
2. Heteroglossia: The coexistence of multiple languages, dialects, and discourses within a single text or cultural context, emphasizing linguistic diversity.
3. Polyphony: The existence of multiple, often conflicting, voices, viewpoints, and characters within a literary work, contributing to a complex and multifaceted narrative.
4. Carnival: A cultural and literary concept that refers to temporary disruptions of social hierarchies and norms, allowing for the expression of the grotesque and subversive.
5. Chronotope: The concept of time-space configuration in a literary work, influencing its narrative structure and meaning.
6. Centripetal Forces: Elements within a text or discourse that centralize meaning and impose a single perspective, often related to authoritative voices.
7. Centrifugal Forces: Elements within a text or discourse that encourage the proliferation of voices and perspectives, promoting diversity and complexity.
8. Ideological Becoming: The dynamic interaction between ideology and aesthetics in literary works, where the ideological content evolves in response to interpretation.
9. Aesthetic Becoming: The concept that the aesthetic qualities of a literary work are inseparable from its ideological content and evolve as the work is interpreted.
10. Monologism: The dominance of a single authoritative voice or perspective within a text or discourse, which limits diversity and dialogue.

Suggested Readings

• Bakhtin, Mikhail. Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics. Edited and translated by Caryl Emerson, University of Minnesota Press, 1984.
• Clark, Katerina, and Michael Holquist. Mikhail Bakhtin. Harvard University Press, 1984.
• Gardiner, Michael. Bakhtin and the Classics. Routledge, 2002.
• Holquist, Michael. Dialogism: Bakhtin and his World. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2002.
• Morson, Gary Saul, and Caryl Emerson. Mikhail Bakhtin: Creation of a Prosaics. Stanford University Press, 1990.
• Stallybrass, Peter, and Allon White. The Politics and Poetics of Transgression. Cornell University Press, 1986.
• Todorov, Tzvetan. Mikhail Bakhtin: The Dialogical Principle. Translated by Wlad Godzich, University of Minnesota Press, 1984.