Category: Literary Devices

Synecdoche

Etymology and Meanings of Synecdoche

The term “synecdoche” is a derivative of Greek word “synekdoche” meaning “simultaneous understanding.” It is a combination of two words: “syn” meaning “together” and “ekdoche” meaning “interpretation.” The term entered English in the late 16th century to describe a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole, or the whole is used to represent a part.

Synecdoche means a part of something is used to represent the whole, or doing the opposite. It is a literary device used to add layers of meaning to a text or speech by drawing attention to specific parts or elements of a larger concept or object. By using a synecdoche, writers and speakers can make their language more vivid, memorable, and effective in conveying their message. Examples of synecdoche include using “wheels” to refer to a car or “the Crown” to refer to the monarch of a country.

Synecdoche in Grammar

Grammatically, synecdoche is a singular noun with plural verb agreement. For example, we would say “Synecdoche is a literary device” rather than “Synecdoche are a literary device.” This is because “synecdoche” is a singular noun, even though it represents a figure of speech that involves substituting a part for the whole or vice versa. The verb used to describe “synecdoche” must agree with its singular form, just like any other singular noun.

Definition of Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a literary device that involves using a part of something to represent the whole or using the whole to represent a part. It is a type of metonymy, which is a broader term for the use of one term to stand in for another. In literature, synecdoche is often used to create vivid and memorable imagery, as well as to convey deeper meanings and themes.

Types of Synecdoche

There are several types of synecdoche used in literature and other forms of writing. Here are some examples:

  1. Part-for-whole: This type of synecdoche uses a part of something to refer to the whole thing. For example, “nice wheels” to refer to a car or “he’s got a new set of threads” to refer to a new outfit.
  2. Whole-for-part: This type of synecdoche uses the whole to refer to a part of something. For example, “The White House announced today” to refer to the President or “All hands on deck” to refer to the entire crew of a ship.
  3. Material-for-object: This type of synecdoche uses a material to refer to the object made from it. For example, “silver” to refer to cutlery or “bricks and mortar” to refer to a building.
  4. Object-for-owner: This type of synecdoche uses an object to refer to its owner. For example, “check out his new ride” to refer to someone’s new car or “she’s got a new set of wheels” to refer to someone’s new bike.
  5. Container-for-contents: This type of synecdoche uses a container to refer to its contents. For example, “the pot is boiling” to refer to the contents of the pot or “the bottle is empty” to refer to the liquid that was in the bottle.
Common Examples of Synecdoche

Here are some common examples of synecdoche in everyday language:

  1. “Lend me a hand” – This uses the part “hand” to represent the whole person, who is being asked for help.
  2. “Nice wheels” – This uses the part “wheels” to represent the whole car, which is being complimented.
  3. “The pen is mightier than the sword” – This uses the part “pen” to represent writing or literature, which is being compared to the whole concept of violence and warfare, represented by the word “sword.”
  4. “Cleveland won by six runs” – This uses the city “Cleveland” to represent the baseball team from that city, who won the game.
  5. “The suits on Wall Street” – This uses the clothing item “suits” to represent the entire group of people who work in finance and business in New York City’s financial district, known as “Wall Street.”
  6. “He’s a new face around here” – This uses the part “face” to represent the whole person, who is new to the area or organization.
Literary Examples of Synecdoche
From To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee:
  1. Extract: “Maycomb County had recently been told that it had nothing to fear but fear itself.” Explanation: This line uses the synecdoche of “Maycomb County” to refer to the people who live there. The fear that the people are being told they have nothing to fear is not just a fear of the physical place, but a fear of the people and events that occur within it.
From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
  1. Extract: “I’m going to make a big request of you today,” he said, turning to us. “So I thought you ought to know something about me. I didn’t want you to think I was just some nobody.” Explanation: In this sentence, Gatsby uses the synecdoche of “nobody” to refer to his low social status. By referring to himself as a “nobody,” Gatsby is highlighting his lack of importance in society.
From Hamlet by William Shakespeare:
  1. Extract: “The body is with the king, but the king is not with the body. The king is a thing–” Explanation: In this line, Hamlet is using the synecdoche of “the king” to refer to the physical body of the king, rather than the person himself. By separating the king’s body from his identity, Hamlet emphasizes the idea of mortality and the separation of the physical body from the soul.
From “Song of Myself” by Walt Whitman:
  1. Extract: “I loaf and invite my soul, / I lean and loaf at my ease observing a spear of summer grass.”

Explanation: In this sentence, Whitman uses the synecdoche of “a spear of summer grass” to represent the entire natural world. The image of the grass spear represents the interconnectedness of all things in nature.

From “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot:
  1. Extract: “These fragments I have shored against my ruins.”

Explanation: In this line, Eliot uses the synecdoche of “fragments” to represent the memories and experiences that make up a person’s life. By using this synecdoche, Eliot emphasizes the idea that even when a person’s life seems to be in ruins, they can still cling to their memories and experiences as a way of rebuilding themselves.

How to Create Synecdoche in a Fictional Work

To create and use synecdoche in your writing, follow these steps:

  1. Identify the whole and the part: Choose a whole concept or object that you want to represent, and then identify a smaller part of it that can stand in for the whole.
  2. Use the part to represent the whole: Use the smaller part to represent the whole concept or object throughout your writing. You can use this in various ways, such as in descriptions, dialogue, or metaphors.
  3. Make sure the context is clear: Ensure that the reader understands the context in which you are using the synecdoche. If the context is unclear, your meaning may be lost.
  4. Be creative: Synecdoche can be a powerful tool in creating memorable and vivid writing. Don’t be afraid to experiment with unusual or unexpected ways of using it.

Example: Instead of saying “the entire city was in a state of panic,” you could write “every heart in the city raced with fear.” In this sentence, “heart” represents the whole person, and the fear they are feeling. This creates a more vivid image in the reader’s mind, and makes the emotional impact of the panic more immediate and visceral.

Benefits of Synecdoche

Using synecdoche in your writing can offer several benefits, such as:

  1. Creating vivid images: Synecdoche can help you create more vivid and memorable images in the reader’s mind. By using a smaller part to represent the whole concept or object, you can create a more immediate and visceral impact.
  2. Adding depth to descriptions: Synecdoche can also add depth and nuance to your descriptions. By choosing a specific part to represent the whole, you can highlight certain aspects or qualities of the object or concept you’re describing.
  3. Simplifying complex ideas: Synecdoche can also be used to simplify complex ideas. By using a smaller part to represent the whole, you can distill complex concepts into a more manageable and accessible form.
  4. Enhancing rhetorical devices: Synecdoche can be used to enhance other rhetorical devices, such as metaphor and hyperbole. By using synecdoche within these devices, you can create even more striking and memorable writing.

Overall, using synecdoche in your writing can help you create more engaging and impactful writing, while also simplifying complex ideas and enhancing other rhetorical devices

Synecdoche and Literary Theory

Synecdoche is a common literary device used across various literary theories and approaches. Here are some examples:

  1. New Criticism: In New Criticism, synecdoche is often used to analyze the way language is used to create meaning in a text. By focusing on the use of specific parts to represent the whole, New Critics analyze the nuances and complexities of a text’s language.
  2. Reader-Response Criticism: Reader-Response critics examine the ways in which readers interact with a text, and how the reader’s personal experiences and beliefs shape their interpretation. Synecdoche can be used to help readers engage with a text by connecting the parts they see to the larger whole.
  3. Postmodernism: In postmodern literature, synecdoche can be used to highlight the fragmented and interconnected nature of modern life. By using parts to represent the whole, postmodern authors explore the disorienting and disjointed experience of living in a complex, interconnected world.
  4. Feminist Criticism: Feminist critics may use synecdoche to highlight the way women’s bodies are used to represent the whole of their gender. This can be used to critique the objectification and marginalization of women in literature and society.

In short, synecdoche is a versatile literary device that can be used across a wide range of literary theories and approaches to create meaning and deepen analysis.

Suggested Readings

Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford UP, 2011.

Genette, Gerard. Figures of Literary Discourse. Columbia UP, 1982.

Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., U of California P, 1991.

Lotman, Yuri. “2. From The Structure of the Artistic Text.” Culture and Communication. Academic Studies Press, 2020. 48-60.

Gorlée, Dinda L. “Wittgenstein’s persuasive rhetoric.” Semiotica 2016.208 (2016): 49-77.

Pun

Etymology and Meanings of Pun

Etymology of Pun:

The word “pun” comes from the Old English word “pund” or “pound,” which means “to beat” or “to strike.” The term evolved over time to refer to a play on words or a humorous use of a word with multiple meanings. In fact, the use of puns has been recorded as far back as ancient Egypt and Greece, showing that this type of wordplay has been around for centuries.

Meaning of Pun:

A pun is a form of wordplay that uses a word, or words, that have multiple meanings or sounds that are similar, to create a humorous effect. Puns can be used to add humor to a conversation, to make a joke, or to convey a double meaning in a clever way. Puns can also be used to create wordplay in literature and poetry, adding depth and complexity to the text. While puns may be seen as a type of low-brow humor, they have been used by some of the greatest writers and thinkers in history, including William Shakespeare and James Joyce.

Pun in Grammar

“Pun” is a singular noun, but it can take a plural verb when referring to multiple instances of puns. For example:

  • “That pun is hilarious!” (singular noun with singular verb)
  • “Those puns are hilarious!” (singular noun with plural verb)

This is because “pun” is a countable noun, meaning it can be counted and quantified. When referring to multiple puns, we use a plural verb to match the plural noun.

Definition of Pun

It is a term involving the use of a word or phrase having multiple meaning, or sounds like another word with a different meaning, to create a humoros or witty effect. Puns can be used to add complexity to a text, to create wordplay, and to convey a double meaning in a clever way. Puns are often used in literature, poetry, and comedy to add depth, humor, and interest to the text.

Types of Puns

There are several types of puns, including:

  1. Homographic puns: These puns use words that are spelled the same but have different meanings, such as “I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t raise the dough.”
  2. Homophonic puns: These puns use words that sound the same but have different meanings, such as “Why was the math book sad? Because it had too many problems.”
  3. Compound puns: These puns involve combining two or more words to create a new phrase with a humorous effect, such as “I’m studying a tome history of glue. I just can’t seem to put it down.”
  4. Recursive puns: These puns involve repeating a pun within a pun, such as “I’m reading a book on anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down.”
  5. Visual puns: These puns use visual cues or images to create a humorous effect, such as a cartoon that shows a cat wearing a necktie with the caption “cat-tie.”
  6. Linguistic puns: These puns involve playing with language itself, such as using words with multiple meanings, or creating a new word by combining existing words, such as “I’m reading a book on teleportation. It’s bound to take me places.”
  7. Numerical puns: These puns use numbers or mathematical concepts to create a humorous effect, such as “Why was six afraid of seven? Because seven eight nine.”
  8. Reversal puns: These puns involve reversing the meaning of a common phrase or idiom, such as “Why did the tomato turn red? Because it saw the salad dressing!”
  9. Spoonerism puns: These puns involve swapping the initial sounds of words in a phrase, such as Why did the tomato turn red? Because it saw the salad dressing! (Spoonerism: “saw the salad dressing” instead of “saw the sad lad stressing”)
  10. Synonym puns: These puns use synonyms or similar-sounding words to create a humorous effect, such as “I’m reading a book on the history of velcro. It’s a gripping tale.”
  11. Cultural puns: These puns involve references to cultural or historical events or figures, such as “I told a joke about a roof, but it went over my head.”
  12. Name puns: These puns use a person’s name or a fictional character’s name to create a humorous effect, such as “Why did the scarecrow win an award? Because he was outstanding in his field.”
  13. Onomatopoeic puns: These puns use words that imitate sounds to create a humorous effect, such as “I’m reading a book on anti-gravity. It’s uplifting!”
  14. Celebrity puns: These puns involve references to famous people or their work, such as “I told my wife she was drawing her eyebrows too high. She looked surprised.”
  15. Location puns: These puns involve references to a specific place or location, such as “Why did the bicycle fall over? Because it was two-tired.”
Common Examples of Pun

Puns are often used in everyday conversation, advertisements, and media. Here are some common examples of puns:

  1. “I’m reading a book on anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down.”
  2. “Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.”
  3. “I’m a big fan of whiteboards. They’re re-markable!”
  4. “I told my wife she was drawing her eyebrows too high. She looked surprised.”
  5. “I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t raise the dough.”
  6. “I’m so punny, I should be punted!”
  7. “I’m reading a book on teleportation. It’s bound to take me places.”
Literary Examples of Pun

Here are six literary examples of puns from various genres, along with an explanation and context:

  1. From Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare:

In Act II, Scene 4, Mercutio is trying to locate Romeo, and makes a pun on the word “blind” when he says, “Why, Romeo, he is already dead; stabbed with a white wench’s black eye; run through the ear with a love song; the very pin of his heart cleft with the blind bow-boy’s butt-shaft.”

Explanation: Mercutio is using the word “blind” in two different senses: as an adjective describing Cupid, the blind god of love, and as a noun referring to an arrow, which is the weapon Cupid uses to shoot people with. The pun adds humor to the scene, while also highlighting the theme of love and its dangerous consequences in the play.

  1. From The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde:

In Act III, Jack Worthing says, “The truth is rarely pure and never simple,” to which Algernon Moncrieff replies, “The truth is rarely pure and never simple. Modern life would be very tedious if it were either, and modern literature a complete impossibility!”

Explanation: Algernon is making a pun on Jack’s words by repeating them and adding a humorous twist to them. By doing so, Algernon is highlighting the theme of artifice and superficiality in the play.

  1. From The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain: In Chapter 8, Huck Finn says, “I don’t want to go fooling around much where there’s snakes. Stick a toad in your hair for fun.”

Explanation: Huck is using the word “toad” in two different senses: as a literal amphibian, and as a slang term for a blemish or pimple. The pun adds humor to the scene, while also highlighting Huck’s naivete and lack of education.

  1. “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe:

In the famous poem, the narrator says, “Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night’s Plutonian shore!” The Raven replies, “Nevermore.”

Explanation: The Raven’s response is a pun, as it can be interpreted as a straightforward answer to the narrator’s question, or as a play on the word “name” – the Raven is saying that it has no name, and will never say anything else.

  1. From The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway:

In Chapter 13, Bill Gorton says, “You are all a lost generation,” to which Lady Brett Ashley replies, “Don’t talk like a character in a novel.”

Explanation: Lady Brett is making a pun on the fact that she and her friends are, in fact, characters in a novel. The pun highlights the theme of disillusionment and aimlessness in the Lost Generation.

  1. From The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer:

In “The Miller’s Tale,” Absolon the clerk says, “Alas, my heart is broken right in two! / One half is yours, the other half is too!” when he is rejected by Alison.

Explanation: Absolon is using the word “heart” in two different senses: as a literal organ, and as a metaphor for his love for Alison. The pun adds humor to the scene, while also highlighting the theme of courtly love in medieval literature.

How to Create Pun in a Fictional Work

Creating puns in a fictional work can be a fun and effective way to add humor, depth, and complexity to your writing. Here are some tips for creating puns in a fictional work:

  1. Be aware of your words: Look for words that have multiple meanings or sounds similar to other words. This will allow you to create puns that are both clever and effective.
  2. Use context: Consider the context of your story and use puns that fit the tone and style of your work. This will help your puns feel more natural and less forced.
  3. Keep it subtle: Puns that are too obvious or forced can be distracting and take away from the overall impact of your work. Keep your puns subtle and let your readers discover them on their own.
  4. Be creative: Don’t be afraid to experiment with different types of puns, such as homophones, homonyms, and wordplay. This will help you create puns that are both unique and memorable.
  5. Use puns sparingly: While puns can be effective, using them too often can become tiresome and take away from the overall impact of your work. Use puns sparingly and strategically to make the biggest impact on your readers.

In short, creating puns in a fictional work requires a combination of creativity, awareness, and subtlety. With a little practice and experimentation, you can use puns to enhance the humor, depth, and complexity of your writing.

Benefits of Pun

There are several benefits to using puns in your writing, including:

  1. Humor: Puns are a great way to add humor and wit to your writing. They can lighten the tone of serious subject matter, making it more accessible to readers.
  2. Memorable: Puns are often memorable because they require a moment of mental gymnastics for the reader. This can make them more likely to remember your writing and engage with it on a deeper level.
  3. Wordplay: Puns are a form of wordplay that can add depth and complexity to your writing. They require you to think creatively about language, which can result in more nuanced and interesting writing.
  4. Cultural references: Puns can be used to reference cultural phenomena or current events, making your writing more relevant and relatable to readers.
  5. Versatility: Puns can be used in a variety of genres, from humor to satire to literary fiction. This makes them a versatile tool for any writer looking to add complexity and nuance to their work.

In short, using puns in your writing can help you connect with readers, add humor and depth to your work, and make your writing more memorable and engaging.

Pun and Literary Theory

Puns can be analyzed through various literary theories, including:

  1. Structuralism: Structuralism emphasizes the relationships between elements within a text. Puns can be analyzed as linguistic structures that reveal connections between different meanings and signifiers.
  2. Semiotics: Semiotics focuses on how signs and symbols create meaning. Puns can be analyzed as a form of sign or symbol that communicates multiple meanings simultaneously.
  3. Postmodernism: Postmodernism challenges the idea of fixed, objective meanings and emphasizes the role of language and subjectivity in creating meaning. Puns can be analyzed as a way of destabilizing meaning and calling into question the authority of language.
  4. Feminism: Feminist literary theory emphasizes how gender shapes language and culture. Puns can be analyzed as a way of challenging traditional gender roles and language norms.
  5. Psychoanalytic theory: Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the role of the unconscious in shaping language and meaning. Puns can be analyzed as a form of linguistic play that reveals the unconscious desires and fears of the writer and/or reader.

In short, puns can be analyzed through a variety of literary theories, depending on the particular focus of the analysis. They can reveal the connections between linguistic structures, the ways in which language creates meaning, and the role of language and culture in shaping identity and subjectivity.

Suggested Readings

Adams, Michael. Slayer Slang: A Buffy the Vampire Slayer Lexicon. Oxford University Press, 2003.

Beaton, Kate. Hark! A Vagrant. Drawn and Quarterly, 2011.

Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. Edited by Jill Mann, Penguin Classics, 2005.

Shakespeare, William. Much Ado About Nothing. Edited by F. H. Mares, Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. Edited by Michael Patrick Gillespie, Norton Critical Editions, 2006.

Euphemism

Etymology and Meanings of Euphemism

The word “euphemism” literally means “the use of good words” and is derived from the Greek words “eu,” meaning “good,” and “pheme,” meaning “speaking” or “speech.”

The term refers to the use of mild or indirect words or expressions to avoid offense, embarrassment, or unpleasantness. Euphemisms can be used to convey a more positive or polite tone, to soften the impact of difficult messages, or to show respect and sensitivity towards certain topics or individuals.

While euphemisms are often used in everyday language, they are particularly prevalent in contexts such as politics, religion, and death, where direct language might be considered impolite or offensive. Overall, euphemisms play an important role in shaping how we communicate with others and how we understand and respond to different situations.

Euphemism in Grammar

Grammatically, a euphemism is a noun that can take plural forms, just like any other noun. For example, the singular form of the euphemism “passed away” is “passing away”, and its plural form is “passings away”. Similarly, the singular form of the euphemism “restroom” is “restroom”, and its plural form is “restrooms”.

While euphemisms are primarily used as nouns, they can also be used as verbs in certain contexts. For example, the euphemism “downsizing” is commonly used as a verb to describe the act of reducing the size of a company’s workforce. Similarly, the euphemism “transitioning” is commonly used as a verb to describe the process of changing one’s gender identity. However, it’s important to note that not all euphemisms can be used as verbs, and their use as verbs may be more limited than their use as nouns.

Definition of Euphemism

As a literary device, euphemism is the use of a mild or indirect word or expression in place of one that might be considered harsh, blunt, or offensive. Euphemism is used to convey a particular tone or attitude, and to create a particular effect on the reader or audience.

Common Examples of Euphemism

Here are some common examples of euphemisms:

  1. “Passed away” instead of “died”
  2. “Bathroom” or “restroom” instead of “toilet”
  3. “Let go” or “laid off” instead of “fired”
  4. “Senior citizens” instead of “old people”
  5. “Sanitation engineer” instead of “garbage collector”
  6. “Intimately involved” instead of “having sex”
  7. “Enhanced interrogation” instead of “torture”
  8. “Undocumented immigrants” instead of “illegal immigrants”
  9. “Pre-owned” instead of “used”
  10. “Vertically challenged” instead of “short”
  11. “Revenue enhancement” instead of “tax increase”
  12. “Re-education” instead of “brainwashing”
  13. “Domestic engineer” instead of “housewife”
  14. “Departed” instead of “dead”
  15. “Correctional facility” instead of “prison”
  16. “Economically disadvantaged” instead of “poor”
  17. “Developmentally challenged” instead of “mentally disabled”
  18. “Visitor” instead of “salesperson”
  19. “Collateral damage” instead of “civilian casualties”
  20. “Alternative facts” instead of “lies”
Literary Examples of Euphemism
  1. “I am one, sir, that comes to tell you your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs.” – Iago in Shakespeare’s Othello

Explanation: Iago uses the euphemism “making the beast with two backs” to refer to the sexual activity between Othello and Desdemona.

  1. “And only yesterday, he reflected, it had been announced that the ration was to be reduced to twenty grammes a week. Was it possible that they could swallow that, after only twenty-four hours? Yes, they swallowed it.” – George Orwell, 1984

Explanation: Orwell uses the euphemism “increased” to refer to the reduction in the ration from thirty to twenty grammes a week.

  1. “But the effect of her being on those around her was incalculably diffusive: for the growing good of the world is partly dependent on unhistoric acts; and that things are not so ill with you and me as they might have been, is half owing to the number who lived faithfully a hidden life, and rest in unvisited tombs.” – George Eliot, Middlemarch

Explanation: Eliot uses the euphemism “rest in unvisited tombs” to refer to those who have died without recognition or acknowledgement for their good deeds.

  1. From Brave New World by Aldous Huxley:

“Ending is better than mending. The more stitches, the less riches.”

Explanation: In this excerpt, the phrase “ending is better than mending” is a euphemism for the idea that it is better to replace or dispose of something than to try and repair it. The line reinforces the theme of consumerism and the idea that society values material goods over personal relationships or experiences.

How to Create/Writre a Euphemism

Creating euphemisms involves finding a polite or indirect way to express a potentially sensitive, taboo, or offensive topic. Here are some tips on how to create a euphemism:

  1. Identify the topic: First, identify the topic or word that you want to soften or avoid. This could be a sensitive subject like death or sex, a taboo word like swear words or slang, or a negative term like “fired” or “fat”.
  2. Consider the context: Consider the context in which the euphemism will be used. Is it a formal or informal situation? Who is the audience? What is the tone you want to convey?
  3. Find a suitable replacement: Find a suitable replacement word or phrase that is less offensive or direct. This could involve using a metaphor or analogy, using a more polite or formal term, or using a less specific word.
  4. Test it out: Test the euphemism with others to see how it is received. Make sure it conveys the intended meaning without causing confusion or offense.

Example: For example, instead of saying “he died,” one might say “he passed away” or “he is no longer with us.” Instead of saying “fat,” one might say “overweight” or “full-figured.” The key is to find a way to express the same idea while being sensitive to the context and audience.

Benefits of Using Euphemism

There are several benefits of using euphemisms in language. Here are some of the key advantages:

  1. Politeness: Euphemisms allow people to discuss potentially sensitive or taboo topics in a more polite and indirect way. This can help avoid causing offense or discomfort to others.
  2. Softening harsh language: Euphemisms can soften the impact of harsh or negative language, making it more bearable or less harsh. For example, instead of saying “you’re fired,” one might say “we have to let you go” or “your position has been eliminated.”
  3. Diplomacy: Euphemisms can be useful in diplomatic or political contexts, where it may be necessary to discuss sensitive topics in a more tactful or indirect way.
  4. Cultural sensitivity: Euphemisms can be useful in multicultural or multilingual contexts, where different words or phrases may have different connotations or meanings. Using euphemisms can help avoid misunderstandings or offense.
  5. Creative expression: Euphemisms can be a fun and creative way to express ideas or to play with language. They can add humor, irony, or metaphorical meaning to language.

Overall, euphemisms can be a useful tool in communication, allowing people to express sensitive or negative ideas in a more socially acceptable or less offensive way.

Euphemism in Literary Theory

Euphemism is a literary device that appears in a variety of literary theories. Here are 8 to 10 literary theories that involve euphemism:

  1. Stylistics: Stylistics is the study of language use in literature, and euphemism is often analyzed in this field. Stylistic analysis might focus on the use of euphemism to create tone or to convey a particular theme.
  2. Psychoanalytic theory: Psychoanalytic theory explores the unconscious motivations of characters and the way that they relate to social norms. Euphemism can be used to explore repressed desires or fears in literature.
  3. Feminist theory: Feminist theory examines the ways that gender is constructed and portrayed in literature. Euphemism can be used to subvert traditional gender roles or to explore taboo topics related to gender.
  4. New Criticism: New Criticism is an approach to literary analysis that emphasizes close reading and the text itself, rather than the author or context. Euphemism might be analyzed in terms of its function within the text, rather than its cultural or social context.
  5. Deconstruction: Deconstruction is a literary theory that explores the ways that meaning is created and subverted in literature. Euphemism might be analyzed as a way of hiding or revealing meaning, or as a way of challenging linguistic norms.
  6. Postcolonial theory: Postcolonial theory examines the legacy of colonialism and imperialism in literature. Euphemism might be analyzed as a way of masking or exposing cultural differences, or as a way of subverting colonial power structures.
  7. Cultural studies: Cultural studies is an interdisciplinary field that examines the ways that culture is produced and consumed. Euphemism might be analyzed in terms of its role in constructing cultural norms or challenging cultural expectations.
  8. Reader-response theory: Reader-response theory explores the ways that readers interpret and engage with literature. Euphemism might be analyzed in terms of how it affects the reader’s interpretation of the text or their emotional response to it.
  9. Queer theory: Queer theory is an approach to literary analysis that examines the ways that sexuality and gender identity are portrayed in literature. Euphemism can be used to explore and challenge traditional views of sexuality and gender identity.
  10. Marxism: Marxism is a theoretical framework that examines the relationship between economic and social structures. Euphemism might be analyzed in terms of its role in maintaining or challenging power structures within society.
Suggested Readings

Allan, Keith and Kate Burridge. Euphemism and Dysphemism: Language Used as Shield and Weapon. Oxford University Press, 1991.

Burridge, Kate. “Euphemism and Language Change: The Sixth and Seventh Ages.” Lexis. Journal in English Lexicology 7 (2012). Croom, Adam. How to Do Things with Logic: An Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking. Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.

You may also read:
1. Fable
2. Figurative Language
3. Eulogy
4. Epitaph

Fable

Etymology and Meanings of Fable

The word “fable” comes from the Latin word “fabula,” meaning “a story” or “tale.” The term was originally used in ancient Rome to refer to a genre of literature that included stories about mythical or legendary creatures. As Latin spread throughout Europe, the term was adopted into various languages, including Old French, where it became “fable,” and Middle English, where it evolved into “fabel.” The first recorded use of “fable” in English dates back to the 14th century, and since then, the word has been used to describe a variety of stories that typically involve talking animals and teach a moral lesson.

Meanings of Fable

The term “fable” has a few literal meanings, including a short story or tale, often featuring animals or inanimate objects that speak and behave like humans, and that typically ends with a moral lesson or a message. Another meaning of “fable” is a story that is not based on fact but is created to explain something or teach a lesson. It can also refer to a falsehood or a lie, especially one that is deliberately created to deceive or mislead someone. Additionally, “fable” can be used to describe a fictional or imaginary story, especially one that is unlikely to happen in real life.

Fable in Grammar

“Fable” is a singular noun that can take a plural verb, depending on the context. This is because the word “fable” can refer to a single story or to a collection of stories. When referring to a single fable, a singular verb is used, for example: “The fable of the tortoise and the hare teaches us to never give up.” However, when referring to a collection of fables, a plural verb is used, for example: “Aesop’s fables are known for their moral lessons.”

Definition of Fable

As a literary device, a fable is a short story that often features anthropomorphic characters, such as talking animals or inanimate objects, and teaches a moral lesson or a message. The story typically has a simple plot and a clear message that is often stated explicitly at the end. Fables are often used to convey ethical, social, or political ideas in a memorable and entertaining way.

Types of Fable

There are various types of fables, and they can be categorized based on their origin, theme, or format. Here are a few examples:

  1. Aesopian fables: Named after the Greek storyteller Aesop credited with creating many of the most famous fables, these fables have specific features. They often feature animals as their main characters and convey a moral lesson.
  2. Eastern fables: These fables originate from the East, particularly India and the Middle East. They often feature mystical creatures like dragons and unicorns, and they convey moral lessons that are influenced by Eastern philosophy and religion.
  3. Beast fables: These fables feature animals as their main characters, but they are more elaborate and complex than Aesopian fables. They often have a satirical or political theme and are intended to criticize human behavior.
  4. Parables: While not strictly classified as fables, parables are similar in that they are brief stories that convey a moral lesson. However, parables often feature human characters and are more realistic than fables.
  5. Modern fables: Fables continue to be written and adapted in modern times. These fables often use contemporary themes and characters, but they still convey a moral message.
Common Examples of Fable

Fables have been a popular form of storytelling for centuries. There are many famous examples from various cultures and traditions. Here are some common examples of fables:

  1. “The Tortoise and the Hare”: This is one of the most well-known fables, and it tells the story of a slow-moving tortoise who challenges a speedy hare to a race. The hare initially takes the lead, but becomes overconfident and takes a nap, allowing the tortoise to win the race.
  2. “The Boy Who Cried Wolf”: This is another popular fable, and it tells the story of a young boy who repeatedly lies about seeing a wolf, causing his fellow villagers to ignore his warnings. When a wolf actually appears and attacks the flock, the boy is not believed and suffers the consequences.
  3. “The Ant and the Grasshopper”: In this fable, an ant works hard throughout the summer to gather food and prepare for the winter, while a grasshopper spends his time singing and dancing. When winter arrives, the grasshopper is left hungry and cold, while the ant has plenty of food and shelter.
  4. “The Lion and the Mouse”: This fable tells the story of a lion who spares the life of a mouse, and later, when the lion is trapped, the mouse returns the favor by freeing him.
  5. “The Fox and the Grapes”: This fable features a fox who tries to reach a bunch of grapes hanging from a vine, but fails to reach them. In frustration, the fox declares that the grapes were probably sour and not worth eating. This fable teaches the lesson that people often reject things that they cannot have.
Literary Examples of Fable
  1. “The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse” by Aesop (adapted by Robert Henryson): This fable tells the story of a town mouse who invites a country mouse to his home for a visit, but the country mouse is unhappy with the lavish lifestyle and longs to return to his simple life in the country.
  2. “The Ant and the Grasshopper” by Aesop (adapted by William Somerset Maugham): This fable tells the story of a grasshopper who spends the summer singing and dancing instead of preparing for winter, while an ant works diligently to store food. When winter arrives, the grasshopper is left starving while the ant has plenty of food.
  3. “The Bear and the Two Travelers” by Aesop (adapted by Mark Twain): This fable tells the story of two travelers who encounter a bear in the woods. One of the travelers climbs a tree to escape, while the other lies still and pretends to be dead. The bear sniffs at the second traveler, but ultimately leaves him alone. The fable highlights the importance of quick thinking and resourcefulness in dangerous situations.
  4. Jean de La Fontaine’s “The Crow and the Fox”: It is a fable that teaches the dangers of flattery and pride. The story follows a crow who is tricked by a fox into dropping a piece of cheese from her beak by flattery.
  5. Rudyard Kipling’s “The Elephant’s Child” is a fable that highlights the importance of curiosity and questioning. The story follows a young elephant who embarks on a journey to discover what crocodiles eat and how they got their “insatiable appetites.”
How to Create a Fable

To create a fable, you can follow these general steps:

  1. Identify the moral or lesson: A fable typically has a moral or lesson that it seeks to convey. Decide on the moral or lesson you want to teach through your fable.
  2. Choose animal characters: Fables often use animals to represent human behavior and characteristics. Choose animal characters that best convey the message of your fable.
  3. Develop a plot: Create a simple plot that revolves around the actions and behaviors of your animal characters. The plot should be easy to follow and should lead up to the moral or lesson you want to teach.
  4. Use vivid imagery and language: Use descriptive language and imagery to bring your fable to life. Use strong verbs and adjectives to make your characters and their actions more vivid.
  5. Keep it short and simple: Fables are typically short and simple stories, so keep your fable brief and to the point.
  6. Edit and refine: Once you have written your fable, read it over and make any necessary edits or revisions to ensure that it effectively conveys the message you want to teach.

Remember, the key to a successful fable is to have a clear moral or lesson conveyed through the actions and behaviors of animal characters in a simple and easy-to-understand story.

Benefits of Using Fable
  1. Teaching moral values: Fables are often used to teach moral values in a simple and engaging way. They can help readers learn important life lessons and values such as honesty, kindness, and perseverance.
  2. Enhancing critical thinking skills: Fables often have a hidden message or moral that requires readers to think critically and interpret the story’s meaning. This can help enhance critical thinking skills and analytical abilities.
  3. Improving reading comprehension: Fables are typically short and simple stories, making them an ideal tool for improving reading comprehension. They can help readers practice their reading skills and develop their understanding of the English language.
  4. Encouraging creativity: Fables often use animal characters and imaginative settings, which can inspire creativity and imagination in readers. This can be particularly beneficial for children and young adults.
  5. Providing entertainment: Fables can be entertaining and enjoyable to read. They can offer a break from more serious or challenging texts and provide a lighthearted and engaging reading experience.
Fable and Literary Theory

Fables can be analyzed and studied through various literary theories, such as:

  1. Structuralism: Structuralists analyze fables as a system of signs that have a deep structure that can be uncovered through close reading and analysis.
  2. Postcolonialism: Postcolonial scholars study fables in the context of cultural and social power dynamics, exploring how fables have been used to uphold or subvert dominant power structures.
  3. Feminism: Feminist literary theory examines how fables portray gender roles and relationships, and how they reinforce or challenge societal expectations and norms.
  4. Psychoanalytic theory: Psychoanalytic scholars analyze fables in terms of unconscious desires and fears, exploring how the characters and plot elements of fables reflect psychological conflicts and motivations.
  5. Reader-response theory: Reader-response theorists examine how readers interact with fables and how they interpret and make meaning from them, exploring how individual readers’ experiences and perspectives shape their understanding of the text.

Overall, fables offer a rich field for literary analysis and can be studied through a variety of theoretical lenses.

Suggested Readings

Aesop. Aesop’s Fables. Edited by D. L. Ashliman, Barnes & Noble Classics, 2003.

Gubar, Marah. Artful Dodgers: Reconceiving the Golden Age of Children’s Literature. Oxford UP, 2009.

Robinson, Martin. The Art ofs Fable Legends. Penguin Randomhouse, 2015. Walker, Barbara. The Crone: Woman of Age, Wisdom, and Power. HarperCollins, 1985.

You may also read:
1. Euphemism
2. Pun
3. Synecdoche

Figurative Language

Etymology and Meanings of Figurative Language

The term “figurative language” comes from the Latin word “figura,” which means “shape” or “form.” In the context of language, “figura” refers to the use of language that creates a visual image or “shape” in the mind of the listener or reader. The concept of figurative language has been recognized and studied for thousands of years, with the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle discussing it in his work on rhetoric. The term “figurative language” has been used in English since at least the 16th century to describe language that uses figures of speech, such as metaphors, similes, and personification, to convey meaning in a more imaginative or expressive way than literal language.

Meanings of Figurative Language

Figurative language is a broad term that encompasses any use of language that goes beyond the literal or dictionary definition of words to create meaning through comparison, association, or imagery. It includes figures of speech such as metaphors, similes, personification, hyperbole, and idioms, among others. Figurative language is used to convey complex ideas or emotions in a more vivid, imaginative, or persuasive way, and it can be found in all forms of writing, from poetry and literature to advertising and everyday conversation. Figurative language allows writers and speakers to engage their audience and create a deeper, more memorable impression, while also enabling readers and listeners to interpret and understand language in a more nuanced and creative way.

Definition of Figurative Language

Figurative language refers to any use of language that goes beyond the literal or dictionary definition of words. It includes a variety of figures of speech, such as metaphors, similes, personification, and hyperbole, that are used to create meaning through comparison, association, or imagery. Figurative language is an important tool for writers and speakers to convey complex ideas, emotions, and experiences in a more vivid, imaginative, or persuasive way.

Types of Figures of Speech

Figures of speech could be categorized differently. Some basic categories or types of figures of speech are as follows.

  1. Figures of Comparison
  2. Figures of Contrast
  3. Figures of Emphasis
  4. Figures of Relationships
  5. Figures of Sound
  6. Figures of Errors
  7. Figures of Disambiguation
  1. Figures of Comparison

The figures of comparison of those figures of speech show a comparison between two like or unlike objects, things, ideas, events, personas, or incidents. There are two types of figures of comparison.

  1. Figures of Direction Comparison: These types of figures of speech involve both things presented parallel to each other and then compared such as a simile. It shows that one thing is directly compared to another thing or one idea is directly compared to another idea. It could be a short or brief simile or an extended simile.
  2. Figures of Indirect Comparison: These types of figures of speech involve both things compared indirectly or implicitly and yet they occur side by side with each other. This type of comparison shows that both things are one and the same thing due to the feature of one being attributed to the other. For example, metaphor is an indirect comparison without the word “like” or “as.” There could be a simple metaphor, or an extended metaphor or a dead metaphor, or even a fossilized metaphor.
  3. Figures of Contrast

These types of figures of speech contrast things, events, ideas, and things. There are a total of seven figures of speech used for contrasting things or ideas. They are antithesis, paradox, oxymoron, and juxtaposition.

  1. Figures of Emphasis

These figures are used to stress upon some ideas by exaggerating or understating them through different techniques. These figures include hyperbole, litotes, antithesis, and rhetorical question. Sometimes, orators use different rhetorical techniques or

  1. Figures of Relationships

These literary devices show the relationship between different things, objects or ideas such as metaphor or similes and metonymy and synecdoche. Personification and euphemism are also considered figures of relationships.

  1. Figures of Sound

These figures show the use of sounds such as alliteration, consonance, assonance, and onomatopoeia.

  1. Figures of Errors

These figures show errors on the part of the speakers. They are also used in rhetoric besides literary texts. They are spoonerism and malapropism.

  1. Figures of Disambiguation

These figures are used for deception or to show a multiplicity of meanings or to deceive or to show verbal jugglery or expertise. They include puns, quips, anagrams, irony, and sarcasm. Neolosis and tropes also fall under this category.

Literary Examples

Example # 1

From All Quiet on the Western Front by Eric Maria Remarque

Once it was different. When we went to the district-commandant to enlist, we were a class of twenty young men, many of whom proudly shaved for the first time before going to the barracks. We had no definite plans for our future. Our thoughts of a career and occupation were as yet of too unpractical a character to furnish any scheme of life. We were still crammed full of vague ideas which gave to life, and to the war also an ideal and almost romantic character. We were trained in the army for ten weeks and in this time more profoundly influenced than by ten years at school. We learned that a bright button is weightier than four volumes of Schopenhauer.

This passage from Maria Remarque’s novel All Quiet on the Western Front shows the use of figurative language. It shows the use of metonymy as they were a class, a metaphor for sack as they were full of plans, and war as a personification of a romantic character. Further, he has used assonance and alliteration such as the sound of /w/ in the first line and /c/ in the third stanza, showing the use of consonance.

Example # 2

From Inaugural Address of Franklin D. Roosevelt, March 4, 1933

Yet our distress comes from no failure of substance. We are stricken by no plague of locusts.
Compared with the perils which our forefathers conquered because they believed and were not afraid, we have still much to be thankful for. Nature still offers her bounty and human
efforts have multiplied it. Plenty is at our doorstep, but a generous use of it languishes in the
very sight of the supply. Primarily this is because the rulers of the exchange of mankind’s
goods have failed, through their own stubbornness and their own incompetence, have
admitted their failure, and abdicated. Practices of the unscrupulous money changers stand
indicted in the court of public opinion, rejected by the hearts and minds of men.

The president has used several figures of speech such as metaphors, personificationس, and metonyms in some places such as the metaphor of peril or the personification of practices and hearts and minds as metonymies.

Example # 3

From “The Darkling Thrush” by Thomas Hardy

I leant upon a coppice gate

      When Frost was spectre-grey,

And Winter’s dregs made desolate

      The weakening eye of day.

The tangled bine-stems scored the sky

      Like strings of broken lyres,

And all mankind that haunted nigh

      Had sought their household fires.

This is the first stanza of the by Thomas Hardy. It shows the use of several figures of speech such as Frost and Winter shown as personificfications while images of seasons and sound show his mastery in using this type of language. There is also a simile in the third last line.

Example # 4

“A Walk After Dark” by W. H. Auden

A cloudless night like this
Can set the spirit soaring:
After a tiring day
The clockwork spectacle is
Impressive in a slightly boring
Eighteenth-century way.

The first stanza of the poem “A Walk after Dark” shows the use of different figures of speech. The first line shows the personification of the night or the metaphor of day or the use of assonance and consonance along with the metaphor.

How to Create Figurative Language

  • Choose a concept: This heading suggests starting with a clear idea of what you want to describe before creating any figurative language. It could be a physical object, an abstract concept, or an emotion.
  • Brainstorm metaphors: This heading suggests coming up with a list of potential metaphors for the chosen concept. Metaphors compare two seemingly unrelated things in order to create a new perspective on the original concept.
  • Consider context: This heading suggests thinking about the context in which the figurative language will be used. The same metaphor could have different connotations depending on the context in which it is used.
  • Use sensory details: This heading suggests using sensory languages, such as sight, sound, taste, touch, and smell, to bring the figurative language to life and create a vivid image in the reader’s mind.
  • Emphasize comparisons: This heading suggests placing emphasis on the comparison being made between the concept and the metaphor. The comparison should be clear and effective in order to create a strong impact.
  • Experiment with form: This heading suggests experimenting with different types of figurative language, such as metaphors, similes, personification, and hyperbole, to see which works best for the chosen concept.
  • Find unexpected angles: This heading suggests trying to find a unique and unexpected angle when creating figurative language. This can help to make the language more interesting and memorable.
  • Use similes: This heading suggests using similes, which compare two things using “like” or “as,” to create a comparison between the chosen concept and another object or idea.
  • Avoid cliches: This heading suggests trying to avoid overused or predictable metaphors and instead finding a fresh and original way to describe the chosen concept.
  • Revise and refine: This heading suggests reviewing and revising the figurative language to ensure it is clear, effective, and impactful. Refining the language can help to make it more precise and memorable.
Benefits of Using Figurative Language

Here are some benefits of using figurative language:

  1. Engages the reader: Figurative language can make writing more engaging by adding depth and interest to descriptions. It can also make a piece of writing more memorable by creating vivid and imaginative images in the reader’s mind.
  2. Conveys complex ideas: Figurative language can be used to express complex or abstract ideas in a way that is more accessible to readers. Metaphors and analogies can help readers to better understand and relate to difficult concepts.
  3. Creates emotional impact: Figurative language can evoke emotions in readers by creating powerful and vivid images. This can help to create a deeper connection between the reader and the text.
  4. Adds depth and richness: Figurative language can add depth and richness to writing by conveying meaning beyond the literal words on the page. It can create layers of meaning and add nuance to descriptions.
  5. Enhances creativity: Figurative language encourages writers to think creatively and experiment with language. This can help to improve writing skills and foster a greater appreciation for the beauty and complexity of language.
  6. Contributes to a unique writing style: Figurative language is a tool that writers can use to develop a unique writing style. By using metaphors, similes, and other figurative devices, writers can create a distinctive voice and tone that sets their writing apart from others.
Figurative Language  in Literary Theory
  1. Reader-response theory: This theory emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting a text. Figurative language, such as metaphor and simile, invites the reader to participate in the creation of meaning by drawing on their own experiences and associations.
  2. Structuralism: Structuralist theory focuses on the underlying structures and patterns in literature. Figurative language can be seen as part of these structures, with metaphors and other figures of speech forming part of a larger network of signifiers that contribute to the meaning of a text.
  3. Deconstruction: Deconstruction emphasizes the ambiguity and instability of language, suggesting that meanings are always provisional and subject to change. A figurative language is a key tool in creating this instability, as it can create multiple meanings that may be in tension with one another.
  4. Feminist theory: Feminist theory emphasizes the role of gender and power in shaping literature. Figurative language can be used to reinforce or challenge gender norms, with metaphors and other figures of speech often reflecting and perpetuating patriarchal assumptions.
  5. Postcolonial theory: Postcolonial theory examines the ways in which colonialism and imperialism have shaped literature and culture. Figurative language can be used to reflect the cultural hybridity that results from these historical processes, with metaphors and other figures of speech often drawing on multiple cultural traditions and perspectives.
Suggested Readings

Katz, Albert N., and Cristina Cacciari. Figurative Language and Thought. Oxford UP, 2017.

Quinn, Arthur. Figures of Speech: 60 Ways to Turn a Phrase. Collins Reference, 2005.

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. 2nd ed., U of Chicago P, 2003.

Gibbs, Jr., Raymond W., editor. The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge UP, 2019.

Cruse, D. Alan, editor. The Handbook of Figurative Language. Routledge, 2017.

Goatly, Andrew. The Language of Metaphors. Routledge, 2007.

Turner, Mark. The Literary Mind: The Origins of Thought and Language. Oxford UP, 1998.

Dancygier, Barbara, editor. The Oxford Handbook of Figurative Language. Oxford UP, 2019.

Landau, Mark J., et al. The Power of Metaphor: Examining Its Influence on Social Life. APA, 2012. Jones, Rodney H., editor. The Routledge Handbook of Language and Creativity. Routledge, 2015.

Eulogy

Etymology of Eulogy

The word “eulogy” comes from the Greek term “eulogia,” which means “good words.” The prefix “eu” means “good,” and “logos” means “word” or “speech.” In ancient Greece, a eulogy was a speech given at a funeral or public event that praised the deceased person’s character and accomplishments.

In English, a eulogy is a speech or piece of writing that honors and pays tribute to a person who has recently died. It is typically delivered at a funeral or memorial service and highlights the person’s positive qualities, achievements, and contributions to their community or society.

Meanings:

The literal meanings of the word “eulogy” are derived from its Greek roots. The prefix “eu” means “good” or “well,” while “logos” means “word” or “speech.” So, the literal meanings of “eulogy” are:

  1. “Good words” or “well-spoken words”
  2. “Praise” or “commendation”
  3. “A tribute” or “a speech of praise”

These meanings reflect the traditional use of eulogies in ancient Greece, where they were speeches of praise given in honor of a deceased person. In modern usage, eulogies are still typically used to praise the deceased, but they can also be used to honor and celebrate the achievements and contributions of living individuals.

Definition of Eulogy

As a literary device, a eulogy is a speech or piece of writing that pays tribute to a person or thing, highlighting their positive qualities and achievements. It is often used to create a sense of reverence and admiration, as well as to evoke emotions such as sadness or nostalgia. Eulogies can be used in a variety of genres, including poetry, prose, and drama.

Types of Eulogy

There are different types of eulogies, including:

  1. Personal eulogy: This type of eulogy focuses on the personal qualities and experiences of the deceased, highlighting their unique characteristics, interests, and achievements.
  2. Religious eulogy: This type of eulogy is often delivered within a religious context and may incorporate scriptures, prayers, or other religious elements.
  3. Professional eulogy: This type of eulogy is commonly used to honor the achievements and contributions of the deceased in their professional life, highlighting their career milestones, impact on their field, and the legacy they leave behind.
  4. Tribute eulogy: This type of eulogy is a general tribute to the deceased that often includes personal stories and anecdotes shared by family members, friends, or colleagues.
  5. Commemorative eulogy: This type of eulogy is typically delivered on anniversaries or special occasions to commemorate the life and memory of the deceased.
  6. Inspirational eulogy: This type of eulogy seeks to inspire and uplift the audience, often using the life and legacy of the deceased as an example of strength, perseverance, and positivity.

In short, the type of eulogy selected will depend on the occasion, audience, and the preferences of the family and friends of the deceased.

Literary Examples of Eulogy
  1. Eulogy for Othello in Othello by William Shakespeare:

Extract: “This is thy work: the object poisons sight. / Let it be hid.”

Explanation: This eulogy is delivered by Lodovico in “Othello” after the tragic death of Othello, the play’s protagonist. The lines are a lament for Othello’s downfall and a reflection on the way that jealousy and suspicion can cloud one’s perception of the truth.

Reference: Shakespeare, William. “Othello.” Act 5, Scene 2.

  • Eulogy for Julius Caesar in Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare:

Extract: “Here was a Caesar! when comes such another?”

Explanation: This eulogy is delivered by Mark Antony in “Julius Caesar” after the assassination of the eponymous character. The lines are a tribute to Caesar’s greatness and a condemnation of his murderers.

Reference: Shakespeare, William. “Julius Caesar.” Act 3, Scene 2.

  • Eulogy for Yorick in Hamlet by William Shakespeare:

Extract: “Alas, poor Yorick! I knew him, Horatio: a fellow / of infinite jest, of most excellent fancy.”

Explanation: This eulogy is delivered by Hamlet in “Hamlet” as he holds the skull of Yorick, the court jester. The lines are a reflection on the transience of life and the power of memory.

Reference: Shakespeare, William. “Hamlet.” Act 5, Scene 1.

  • Eulogy for Abraham Lincoln by Walt Whitman:

Extract: “O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, / The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won.”

Explanation: This eulogy is a poem written by Walt Whitman after the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln. The lines are a metaphorical tribute to Lincoln’s leadership and sacrifice, comparing him to a captain who has led his ship through stormy waters to a hard-won victory.

Reference: Whitman, Walt. “O Captain! My Captain!” Leaves of Grass.

  • Eulogy for Arthur Hallam in “In Memoriam A.H.H.” by Alfred Lord Tennyson:

Extract: “I hold it true, whate’er befall; / I feel it, when I sorrow most; / ‘Tis better to have loved and lost / Than never to have loved at all.”

Explanation: This eulogy is a poem written by Alfred Lord Tennyson in memory of his friend Arthur Hallam, who died at a young age. The lines are a reflection on the nature of grief, loss, and love, and a tribute to the power of memory and friendship.

Reference: Tennyson, Alfred Lord. In Memoriam A.H.H.

How to Create a Eulogy

Writing a eulogy can be a daunting task, but here are some steps that may help you create a meaningful and heartfelt tribute to the deceased:

  1. Gather information: Take some time to gather information about the deceased. Speak to their family members and friends, look through old photos and mementos, and take note of their accomplishments, hobbies, and interests.
  2. Choose a focus: Decide what you want to focus on in your eulogy. You might choose to highlight the deceased’s personality, their achievements, their impact on others, or some other aspect of their life.
  3. Brainstorm: Spend some time brainstorming ideas for your eulogy. Write down any memories, stories, or quotes that come to mind. Don’t worry about organizing your ideas at this stage.
  4. Organize your ideas: Once you have a list of ideas, start organizing them into a coherent structure. You might choose to arrange your ideas chronologically, thematically, or according to the deceased’s personality traits.
  5. Write your eulogy: Using your notes and outline as a guide, start writing your eulogy. Keep in mind that a good eulogy is personal, heartfelt, and respectful. Be sure to include personal anecdotes, memories, and reflections on the deceased’s life.
  6. Edit and revise: Once you have a draft of your eulogy, take some time to read it over and make revisions. Edit for clarity, tone, and length, and make sure your eulogy accurately reflects the life and personality of the deceased.
  7. Practice: Practice delivering your eulogy out loud. You might want to rehearse in front of a mirror, a trusted friend or family member, or record yourself on your phone. This will help you feel more confident and comfortable when the time comes to deliver your eulogy.

NOTE: Remember that a eulogy is a tribute to the deceased, so focus on celebrating their life and honoring their memory. It’s okay to feel emotional and vulnerable while writing and delivering your eulogy, but take comfort in knowing that your words can provide comfort and support to those who are grieving.

Benefits of Writing or Delivering a Eulogy

Eulogies offer several benefits to both the speaker and the audience. Here are some of the main benefits of eulogies:

  1. Honoring the deceased: A eulogy is an opportunity to honor the life and memory of the deceased. It allows the speaker to celebrate the person’s accomplishments, personality, and impact on others, and helps the audience remember the person in a positive light.
  2. Providing comfort: Eulogies can be a source of comfort for the audience, especially those who are grieving. They can provide a sense of closure and help people process their emotions.
  3. Bringing people together: Eulogies can bring family and friends together in a shared experience of mourning and remembrance. They can create a sense of community and support during a difficult time.
  4. Sharing memories and stories: Eulogies allow people to share memories and stories about the deceased, which can be both healing and therapeutic. They can help people remember the person as they were in life, and keep their memory alive.
  5. Honing public speaking skills: For the speaker, delivering a eulogy can be an opportunity to practice public speaking and develop confidence in front of an audience. It can also be a chance to reflect on the meaning and importance of life, and to pay tribute to someone who was important to them
Eulogy and Literary Theory

Eulogies can be analyzed through several literary theories, depending on the context and purpose of the eulogy. Here are a few examples:

  1. Reader-Response Theory: This theory focuses on the reader’s interpretation and response to a literary text. In the case of a eulogy, the theory could be applied to the audience’s reaction to the speaker’s words. The eulogy becomes a text that is interpreted and responded to by the listeners, and their reactions are influenced by their own experiences and emotions.
  2. New Criticism: This theory emphasizes close reading of a literary text, looking at its formal elements and structure. In the case of a eulogy, a New Critic might analyze the speaker’s use of language, imagery, and tone to create meaning and convey emotion.
  3. Feminist Theory: This theory examines how gender influences literature and language. In the case of a eulogy, a feminist analysis might look at how gender roles and stereotypes are reinforced or challenged in the speaker’s words, or how the eulogy reflects cultural attitudes toward death and mourning.
  4. Psychoanalytic Theory: This theory looks at how unconscious desires and conflicts influence literary texts. In the case of a eulogy, a psychoanalytic analysis might look at how the speaker’s own unconscious feelings about the deceased, or their own mortality, are reflected in their words.
  5. Postcolonial Theory: This theory examines how power relations between different groups are reflected in literature. In the case of a eulogy, a postcolonial analysis might look at how the speaker’s words reflect cultural or social hierarchies, or how the eulogy reflects the relationship between the deceased and their community or society.
Suggested Readings

Williams, Victoria R. Celebrating Life Customs around the World: From Baby Showers to Funerals [3 volumes]. ABC-CLIO, 2016.

Kent, Michael Lee. The Rhetoric of Eulogies: A Generic Critique of Classic and Contemporary Funeral Oratory. Diss. Purdue University, 1997. Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky. “Eulogy.” Women & Performance: A Journal of Feminist Theory 13.1 (2002): 233-236.

Epiphany

Etymology and Meanings of Epiphany

The word “epiphany” comes from the Greek “epiphaneia,” meaning “manifestation” or “appearance.” It originally referred to the manifestation of a deity or divine being to mortals, but later came to be used more broadly to describe any sudden realization or insight. In the Christian tradition, Epiphany is the celebration of the manifestation of Jesus Christ to the Magi, and marks the end of the Christmas season. The word “epiphany” is also commonly used in literature to describe a character’s sudden moment of insight or understanding.

Meanings:

The term “epiphany” is also commonly used in a more general sense to describe a sudden and profound understanding or realization. It can refer to a breakthrough moment in scientific research, a moment of clarity in personal growth, or a sudden realization of a solution to a problem. In literature, an epiphany can refer to a character’s sudden realization or insight that changes their perspective or understanding of a situation.

Epiphany in Grammar

Grammatically, “epiphany” is a singular noun, and when used in the context of a single event or concept, it should be paired with a singular verb, such as “was” or “is”. However, when the term is used in a more general sense to refer to multiple instances of sudden realization or insight, it can be paired with a plural verb, such as “have” or “occur”. For example, “The scientist had an epiphany about the nature of the universe” (singular), or “Epiphanies about the nature of the universe have occurred throughout history” (plural).

Definition of Epiphany

Epiphany is a literary device that refers to a sudden and profound realization or insight experienced by a character in a story. It is often used to create a dramatic turning point in the plot or to reveal deeper truths about the character or their situation. Epiphanies can be triggered by a variety of stimuli, such as a conversation, a moment of reflection, or a sudden event.

Types of Epiphanies

Here are some common types of epiphanies found in literature along with one example for each:

  1. Emotional Epiphany: This is a type of epiphany that brings about a shift in a character’s emotional state, often leading to a moment of catharsis or release. An example of an emotional epiphany can be found in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby,” when the protagonist, Jay Gatsby, realizes that his romantic quest for Daisy is ultimately futile, leading to a profound sense of disappointment and loss.
  2. Intellectual Epiphany: This type of epiphany is characterized by a sudden understanding or realization of a problem or situation that a character has been struggling to comprehend. An example of an intellectual epiphany can be found in Franz Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis,” when the protagonist, Gregor Samsa, realizes that he has been transformed into a giant insect and must adapt to a new way of living.
  3. Spiritual Epiphany: This type of epiphany involves a moment of profound insight or enlightenment regarding a character’s relationship with a higher power or sense of purpose. An example of a spiritual epiphany can be found in Herman Melville’s “Moby-Dick,” when the protagonist, Ishmael, has a mystical experience while observing the vastness of the sea, leading him to question his place in the universe.
  4. Social Epiphany: This type of epiphany involves a sudden understanding or realization regarding a character’s relationship with society or a particular social group. An example of a social epiphany can be found in Ralph Ellison’s “Invisible Man,” when the protagonist realizes that his attempts to conform to white society have led him to become invisible and marginalized, leading to a profound sense of disillusionment and rage.
Common Examples:

Here are some common examples of epiphanies:

  1. Realizing the truth about a situation: This type of epiphany involves a sudden understanding or realization of the truth about a situation or relationship. For example, a character in a story may suddenly understand that someone they thought was trustworthy is actually deceiving them.
  2. Understanding oneself better: This type of epiphany involves a sudden understanding or realization about one’s own personality or character. For example, a character may suddenly understand that their insecurities are holding them back from achieving their goals.
  3. Overcoming a limiting belief: This type of epiphany involves a sudden realization that a limiting belief or mindset is holding one back from achieving their full potential. For example, a character may suddenly realize that their fear of failure has been preventing them from pursuing their dreams.
  4. Gaining a new perspective: This type of epiphany involves a sudden shift in perspective that leads to a new understanding of a situation or relationship. For example, a character may suddenly understand that someone they disliked is actually a good person.
  5. Discovering a new truth or idea: This type of epiphany involves a sudden realization or discovery of a new truth or idea that changes one’s understanding of the world. For example, a character may suddenly discover a new scientific fact that changes their understanding of a particular subject.
Literary Examples:
  1. “A&P” by John Updike:

In this short story, the protagonist, Sammy, experiences an epiphany when he realizes the hypocrisy of his boss, Lengel, and the conformity of his society. It occurs when he sees his three young female customers being scolded by Lengel for wearing bathing suits in the store. Sammy realizes that he too is a part of the same system of social expectations and conformity, and that he cannot escape it. This moment of insight leads him to quit his job, but also makes him aware of the limitations of his rebellion.

  • The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka:

 In this novella, the protagonist, Gregor Samsa, experiences an intellectual and emotional epiphany when he realizes that he has transformed into an insect. The epiphany occurs when he sees his reflection in a mirror and understands the physical and psychological changes that have occurred. This realization leads him to a state of despair and isolation, as he becomes increasingly alienated from his family and society.

  • To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf:

In this novel, the character, Lily Briscoe, experiences a spiritual and intellectual epiphany when she realizes the importance of her art and the meaning of life. The epiphany occurs when she finishes her painting and understands the beauty and fragility of human existence. This moment of insight leads her to a sense of purpose and fulfillment, and also helps her to come to terms with her own sense of loss and grief.

  • A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce:

In this novel, the protagonist, Stephen Dedalus, experiences a series of epiphanies throughout his intellectual and spiritual development. The most notable epiphany occurs when he sees a young girl on the beach and realizes the sensual and emotional power of art and beauty. This realization leads him to pursue his own artistic vision, but also makes him aware of the conflicts and contradictions inherent in his own identity.

  • The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

In this novel, the protagonist, Jay Gatsby, experiences an emotional and intellectual epiphany when he realizes the futility of his romantic quest for Daisy Buchanan. The epiphany occurs when he sees Daisy’s true nature and understands that their relationship is based on illusions and nostalgia. This moment of insight leads him to a sense of despair and disillusionment, and ultimately to his tragic demise.

How to Create Epiphany in a Fictional Work

Creating an epiphany in a literary work involves a deliberate and strategic use of various literary techniques, such as imagery, symbolism, foreshadowing, and irony. Here are some tips on how to create an epiphany:

  1. Build tension: Create tension and conflict in your story to create a moment of realization that is satisfying and impactful.
  2. Use symbolism: Incorporate symbols that will lead the reader to a deeper understanding of the story and its themes.
  3. Use foreshadowing: Plant clues and hints throughout the story that will lead the reader to the moment of realization.
  4. Create a moment of crisis: Introduce a moment of crisis that will force the protagonist to confront their beliefs and assumptions.
  5. Use irony: Use irony to create a contrast between what the character believes to be true and what is actually true.
  6. Provide sensory details: Use sensory details to create a vivid and immersive experience for the reader, which will help them connect with the moment of realization.
  7. Allow time for reflection: After the moment of realization, allow the character to reflect on their experience and its implications.

Benefits:

Epiphany can have several benefits both in literature and in real life, such as:

  1. Increased self-awareness: Epiphany allows individuals to gain new insights into their own thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors, which can help them better understand themselves and their relationships with others.
  2. Greater empathy: Epiphany can lead to a deeper understanding of other people’s perspectives, experiences, and emotions, which can help foster empathy and connection with others.
  3. Personal growth: Epiphany can be a catalyst for personal growth and change, as it can help individuals to identify areas where they need to improve and make positive changes.
  4. Improved problem-solving skills: Epiphany can help individuals to see problems and challenges from a new perspective, which can lead to more creative and effective solutions.
  5. Enhanced creativity: Epiphany can inspire creativity and lead to new ideas, insights, and perspectives, which can be beneficial in various fields such as art, writing, and business.
  6. Emotional catharsis: Epiphany can provide a sense of emotional release and relief, particularly in the context of literature or personal reflection.

Epiphany can have numerous positive effects on an individual’s personal and professional life, as well as contribute to their emotional and psychological well-being.

Epiphany and Literary Theory

  • In New Criticism, epiphany is used to uncover the underlying meanings of a text and its themes.
  • In Reader-Response Theory, epiphany is seen as a subjective experience that is unique to each individual reader.
  • In Post-Structuralism, epiphany is often viewed as a moment of destabilization or rupture, in which the reader’s assumptions and beliefs are challenged.
  • Epiphany can contribute to a deeper understanding of the text and its themes, regardless of the theoretical approach used.
Suggested Readings

Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Wadsworth, 2014.

Bloom, Harold. The Art of Reading Poetry. Harper Perennial, 2005.

Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2011.

Foster, Thomas C. How to Read Literature Like a Professor. Harper Perennial, 2014.

Hawthorn, Jeremy. A Concise Glossary of Contemporary Literary Theory. Arnold, 2002.

McDonald, Ron. The Death of the Critic. Continuum, 2008.

Pfister, Joel. The Drama of Revolt: A Critical Study of Georg Büchner. Camden House, 2011. Wimsatt, W. K., and Monroe C. Beardsley. “The Intentional Fallacy.” The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, University of Kentucky Press, 1954, pp. 3-18.

Enjambment

Etymology and Meanings of Enjambment

The word “enjambment” comes from the French word “enjambement,” which is derived from the verb “enjamber,” meaning “to straddle” or “to stride over.”

The term was first used in English in the mid-19th century to describe a poetic technique in which a sentence or clause continues from one line of verse to the next without a pause or punctuation mark at the end of the line. This creates a sense of flow and continuity in the poem, and can add to the overall effect of the language and imagery.

The literal meaning of enjambment refers to the continuation of a sentence or clause from one line of poetry to the next, without a pause or punctuation mark at the end of the line. This technique is used in poetry to create a sense of flow and continuity, and to connect ideas and images across multiple lines. The word “enjambment” can also refer more broadly to any instance in which a sentence or clause carries over to the next line or sentence without a grammatical break, including in prose writing.

Enjambment in Grammar

Actually, the noun “enjambment” is typically used as a mass noun in English, which means that it does not typically have a plural form. While it is possible to use “enjambments” as a plural form in some contexts, this usage is relatively uncommon and may sound awkward or non-standard to some speakers. Instead, it is more common to use the term “instances of enjambment” or a similar phrase to refer to multiple examples of the technique in a given poem or literary work.

Definition of Enjambment

In literary terms, it is an incomplete syntax that occurs at the end of a line with meanings shifting to the next verse, having no punctuation at the end. When there is no Enjambment at the end of a line, it means it is end-stopped verse.

Literary Examples of Enjambment

Example # 1

From “The Waste Land” by T. S. Eliot

April is the cruellest month, breeding
Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing
Memory and desire, stirring
Dull roots with spring rain.
Winter kept us warm, covering
Earth in forgetful snow, feeding
A little life with dried tubers.

This is the very first stanza of “The Waste Land,” the most popular poem of T. S. Eliot. It shows that the poet has used enjambment in almost every other line except the fourth and the last line. They also show that the poet has shifted the meanings to the very next line such as mixing is closely occurring with “memory” in the next line and that the thought has not broken here.

Example # 2

From “Eldorado” by Edgar Allen Poe

But he grew old—
This knight so bold—
And o’er his heart a shadow
Fell as he found
No spot of ground
That looked like Eldorado.

This is the second stanza of the popular poem “Eldorado” by Edgar Allen Poe. He has used the enjambment successively in the third, fourth and fifth line, showing that there is no break in the though and no break in the verses. However, the last line is end-stopped verse.

Example # 3

From “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Think not for this, however, the poor treason

Of my stout blood against my staggering brain,

I shall remember you with love, or season

My scorn with pity,—let me make it plain:

I find this frenzy insufficient reason

For conversation when we meet again.

These are the last verses of the popular sonnet of Edna St. Vincent Millay. She has beautifully used enjambments in the first, third, and the second last verse. The first line has been beautifully merged with the second and third with the fourth clearly showing that there is not break in the thought and hence no break in the line.

Example # 4

“Icarus” by Edward Field

Only the feathers floating around the hat
Showed that anything more spectacular had occurred
Than the usual drowning. The police preferred to ignore
The confusing aspects of the case,
And the witnesses ran off to a gang war.

Edward Field has used enjambments in the first three verses of this poem. The first two verses continue until there is a stop in the middle of the third verse and it continues with the fourth having a comma and the last having a period. This shows the thought continues in the first two verses, leaving no space for an end. That is why these two enjambments are highly effective here.

How to Create Enjambment

  1. Enjambments often occur only in poetry or in black verses used for plays. Therefore, plan it earlier where, how and when to use it in your thought.
  2. Carefully write the verse and leave it to continue the thought in the next verse.
  3. Continue it with three or four verses and see how it impacts the overall reading.
  4. Read it aloud to continue the though from two to four and more verses as it is done in the free verse poetry.

Benefits of Using Enjambment

  1. Enjambments bring flow in the verses when there is no stop or end stop.
  2. Enjambments complete the thoughts or ideas and given a complete information to the readers about the thought.
  3. It completes abstract thoughts and clarify them.
  4. It means reading poetry enjoyable and clear.

Enjambment in Literary Theory

  1. Although enjambments are rarely used in literary theory, they are important when doing critique from formalistic literary theoretical point of view. It is because it is an important part of poetic devices and they are used to critique poetry.
  2. Other than these, they could be used in poetic criticism or criticism of poetry disregard of literary theory.
  3. They are also important for postcolonial and indigenous theory in critiquing poetry of such cultures.

Suggested Readings

Abrams, Meyer Howard, and Geoffrey Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2014.

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Tsur, Reuven, and Chen Gafni. “Enjambment–Irony, Wit, Emotion. A Case Study Suggesting Wider Principles.” Studia Metrica et Poetica 5.2 (2018): 7-28.

Deus Ex Machina

Etymology of Deus Ex Machina

The origin of the term “Deus Ex Machina” finds its history traced back to ancient Greek theater, where a mechanical device known as “mechane” used to lower actors portraying gods onto the stage. The term is derived from Latin, with “machina” being the Latin word for machine. Therefore, the term translates into “god from the machine.”

Meaning of Deus Ex Machina

In literature, “Deus Ex Machina” refers to a plot device where an unexpected, seemingly miraculous event or character is introduced to resolve a seemingly impossible situation. This device is often criticized for being contrived or unrealistic, as it feels like the author is taking an easy way out of a difficult plot. However, when used effectively, a Deus Ex Machina can be a powerful tool for creating a satisfying resolution to a complex story.

Deus Ex Machina in Grammar

In grammar, “Deus Ex Machina” is a Latin phrase that functions as a singular noun in English. Therefore, the plural form of the noun is “Deus Ex Machinae.” As a singular noun, it takes singular verbs, and as a plural noun, it takes plural verbs. However, in common usage, the term is often used as a collective noun, and the singular form is more commonly used even when referring to multiple instances.

Definition of Term Deus Ex Machina

Deus ex machina is a literary device used in plots in epics, stories, novels, plays and and theater where a apparently unsolvable problem suddenly and unexpectedly resolves through an intervention from an external force or character. The term literally means “god from the machine” in Latin, and refers to a theatrical device where a god would be lowered onto the stage by a crane to resolve the plot.

Types:

There are several types of Deus Ex Machina that can be used in literature, including:

  1. Divine Intervention: This involves the direct involvement of a god or supernatural being to resolve a plot or conflict.
  2. Coincidence: This involves an unlikely occurrence that happens to benefit the protagonist or resolve a conflict, often without any real explanation.
  3. Contrivance: This involves the sudden introduction of a new element or character that conveniently resolves a plot or conflict, often without proper development or explanation.
  4. Unexpected Power: This involves the protagonist suddenly discovering a new power or ability that helps them overcome a seemingly impossible situation.
  5. Irony: This involves the unexpected outcome of a situation that is contrary to what was expected, often in a humorous or satirical way.

Common Examples:

Here are some common examples of Deus Ex Machina in literature and media:

  1. In the Greek play “Medea,” the titular character is about to be captured by her enemies when she is saved by the appearance of a chariot sent by the sun god, Helios.
  2. In the novel “The War of the Worlds” by H.G. Wells, the invading aliens are ultimately defeated by bacteria that they have no immunity to, which is an unexpected and convenient solution to the conflict.
  3. In the TV series “Lost,” the characters are saved from a seemingly impossible situation by the sudden appearance of a previously unknown group of characters with a helicopter.
  4. In the movie “The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King,” the main character Frodo is saved from the brink of destruction by the sudden appearance of the giant eagles, who conveniently swoop in to save the day.
  5. In the play “The Birds” by Aristophanes, the main characters are saved from danger by the intervention of the birds, who provide them with a safe haven.

While these examples can be effective in resolving conflicts, they can also be criticized for being contrived or unrealistic. It is important to use Deus Ex Machina sparingly and with careful consideration to ensure that it feels satisfying and not forced.

Literary Examples:

  1. The Iliad by Homer: In the epic poem, Achilles is about to kill Hector when the god Apollo intervenes and helps Hector escape. This is an example of Divine Intervention, where the gods directly intervene to change the outcome of the conflict.

“Then Phoebus Apollo, angered at his heart against him, addressed to him winged words: “Hector, why dost thou await Achilles’ onset, forgetting thy task of impelling thy men on to fight in defence of thy city?’“ (Book 22, lines 100-103)

  1. Macbeth by William Shakespeare: In the play, Macduff is able to kill Macbeth because he was “not born of woman,” as he was born via Caesarean section. This is an example of an Unexpected Power, where a previously unknown or unanticipated power is introduced to resolve the conflict.

“Despair thy charm, And let the angel whom thou still hast served Tell thee, Macduff was from his mother’s womb Untimely ripp’d.” (Act 5, Scene 8, lines 19-22)

  1. The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien: In the novel, Frodo and Sam are saved from the erupting Mount Doom by the sudden appearance of the giant eagles. This is an example of Contrivance, where a previously unknown or unexplained element is introduced to conveniently resolve the conflict.

“There came Gwaihir the Windlord, and Landroval his brother, greatest of all the Eagles of the North, mightiest of the descendants of old Thorondor, who built his eyries in the inaccessible peaks of the Encircling Mountains when Middle-earth was young.” (Book 6, Chapter 3, “Mount Doom”)

  1. The Odyssey by Homer: In the epic poem, Odysseus is about to be killed by the suitors when his son Telemachus and a few loyal servants suddenly appear to help him. This is an example of Coincidence, where an unlikely occurrence conveniently resolves the conflict.

“Then, as they talked, Telemachus’ men brought in the armour that was in the house, and put it in the porch. They also brought wood for the fire, and set it on the hearth; moreover, they brought sheep and oxen and the fatlings of pigs, and set them up as a feast for the suitors.” (Book 16, lines 328-332)

  • The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins: In the novel, Katniss and Peeta are about to be killed by the mutated muttations when they are suddenly saved by the appearance of Cato, who is also being attacked by the muttations. This is an example of Coincidence, where an unlikely occurrence conveniently resolves the conflict.

“Just as I’m about to give up, I hear a hissing from the Cornucopia. It takes a moment to recognize it as Cato’s voice. ‘Katniss,’ he says. ‘I’m coming, too. You’re not leaving me alone with these mutts.’“ (Chapter 27)

How to Create Deus Ex Machina in Works

  1. Establish the rules of your story’s universe: Before introducing a Deus Ex Machina, make sure you have established the rules and limitations of your story’s universe. This will help you avoid introducing elements that feel out of place or inconsistent with the story’s established world.
  2. Foreshadow the solution: If you do plan to use a Deus Ex Machina, it’s important to foreshadow the solution in some way. This can be done through subtle hints, character dialogue, or other narrative devices. By foreshadowing the solution, you can make it feel less contrived when it is introduced.
  3. Use it sparingly: Deus Ex Machina should be used sparingly and thoughtfully in your writing. Overusing it can make your story feel predictable, unrealistic, and unsatisfying to readers.
  4. Make it feel organic: When introducing a Deus Ex Machina, try to make it feel organic to the story. This means introducing it in a way that makes sense within the narrative and doesn’t feel forced or out of place.
  5. Have a good reason for using it: Finally, make sure you have a good reason for using a Deus Ex Machina. It should serve a clear narrative purpose and help to move the story forward in a meaningful way.

Benefits:

  1. Surprise and excitement: A well-executed Deus Ex Machina can be a surprising and exciting twist that keeps readers engaged and interested in the story.
  2. Conflict resolution: When used sparingly and thoughtfully, Deus Ex Machina can help to resolve conflicts in the story and provide a satisfying resolution for readers.
  3. Symbolic meaning: A Deus Ex Machina can be used to convey a symbolic meaning or message in the story, adding depth and complexity to the narrative.
  4. Empowerment of characters: Introducing a Deus Ex Machina can empower characters and give them agency in the story, as they may be able to use the unexpected element to their advantage.
  5. Creation of memorable moments: A well-crafted Deus Ex Machina can create a memorable moment in the story that readers will remember long after they have finished reading.

Deus Ex Machina and Literary Theory

Here are some ways in which Deus Ex Machina can be analyzed through literary theories:

  • Structuralism: Structuralism emphasizes the underlying structures that shape the meaning of a text. In the case of Deus Ex Machina, structuralists might analyze the role of the unexpected element in the story’s structure, and how it shapes the narrative and themes of the text.
  • Post-structuralism: Post-structuralism challenges the idea that there is a fixed meaning in a text. Post-structuralists might analyze the use of Deus Ex Machina as a way of disrupting or subverting traditional narrative structures, and how this can create new and unexpected meanings.
  • Reader-response theory: Reader-response theory emphasizes the role of the reader in creating meaning from a text. Readers might interpret the use of Deus Ex Machina in different ways, based on their own experiences and perspectives.
  • Feminist theory: Feminist theory examines how gender roles and power dynamics are represented in literature. Feminist critics might analyze the use of Deus Ex Machina as a way of reinforcing or challenging traditional gender roles or power structures in the story.
  • Marxist theory: Marxist theory examines how class and economic structures shape society and culture. Marxist critics might analyze the use of Deus Ex Machina as a way of reinforcing or challenging dominant economic or social structures in the story.
Suggested Readings

Frey, James N. How to Write a Damn Good Thriller: A Step-by-Step Guide for Novelists and Screenwriters. St. Martin’s Press, 2010.

Gassner, John, and Edward Quinn. The Reader’s Encyclopedia of World Drama. Dover Publications, 2002.

Oliver, Kelly. Technologies of Life and Death: From Cloning to Capital Punishment. Fordham University Press, 2013.

Rabinowitz, Nancy Sorkin. Greek Tragic Theatre. Routledge, 2016. Segal, Erich. The Death of Tragedy. Harvard University Press, 2012.

Chiasmus

Etymology and Meanings of Chiasmus

Etymology of Chiasmus

The term “chiasmus” is derived from the Greek letter “chi” (Χ), which represents the cross-over pattern that occurs in this type of construction. The word itself comes from the Greek word “khiasmos,” which means “crossing” or “arrangement in the form of an X.”

The term “chiasmus” entered the English language in the 19th century, when it was adopted by scholars and grammarians studying ancient Greek and Latin literature. The earliest known use of the term in English dates back to the 1820s, when it was used by the British classicist and literary critic Henry Nettleship in his work on the Greek poet Aeschylus. Since then, the term has become a standard part of the English lexicon, used by writers, scholars, and students alike to describe the rhetorical device of repeating a phrase in reverse order

Meanings of Chiasmus

The literal meaning of chiasmus is “crossing” or “criss-crossing.” This is because the term is derived from the Greek letter “chi” (Χ), which looks like an “X” and represents the cross-over pattern that occurs in this type of construction. The word “chiasmus” is often used to describe a specific type of rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are structured in a criss-cross pattern, with the second clause mirroring the first but in reverse order. This creates a memorable and often impactful repetition of words or ideas that can be used to emphasize a point or create a memorable turn of phrase.

Chiasmus in Grammar

Grammatically, “chiasmus” is a singular noun, but it takes a plural verb when referring to multiple instances or examples of the device. For example, you could say “This essay contains several examples of chiasmus” or “Chiasmus is a powerful rhetorical tool, and its use can be seen in many great speeches.” In both cases, “chiasmus” is the subject of the sentence, but the verb form changes to reflect whether it’s being used in the singular or plural form.

Definition of Chiasmus

Chiasmus is a literary device that involves the repetition of a phrase or idea in reverse order. It is a figure of speech in which words or ideas are repeated in a crisscross pattern, creating a parallel structure that emphasizes the contrast between the two ideas. In other words, chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two parallel phrases are used, but with the second phrase reversing the order of the words used in the first phrase.

Chiasmus is often used in literature, poetry, and public speaking to create memorable phrases, emphasize important points, or create a sense of symmetry or balance in the language.

Common Examples of Chiasmus

  1. “He went to the country, to the town went she.”
  2. “You can have my gun when you pry it from my cold, dead hands.”
  3. “I meant what I said and I said what I meant.”
  4. “Don’t sweat the small stuff, and it’s all small stuff.”
  5. “Life is a journey, not a destination.”
  6. “Fair is foul, and foul is fair.”
  7. “The first shall be last, and the last shall be first.”
  8. “We shape our buildings, and afterward our buildings shape us.”
  9. “Eat to live, not live to eat.”
  10. “You can’t have a light without a dark to stick it in.”
  11. “When the going gets tough, the tough get going.”
  12. “It’s not the years in your life that count. It’s the life in your years.”
  13. “Never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you.”
  14. “All for one, and one for all.”
  15. By day the frolic, and the dance by night.”

Literary Examples of Chiasmus

  1. From Hamlet by William Shakespeare:

“To be or not to be, that is the question.”

This is perhaps one of the most famous examples of chiasmus in literature. The phrase “to be or not to be” is repeated in reverse order to create a parallel structure that emphasizes the contrast between existence and non-existence, or life and death. The use of chiasmus in this line highlights the philosophical nature of Hamlet’s internal debate about whether it is better to endure the sufferings of life or to end them through suicide.

  1. From  The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

“I am still a little afraid of missing something if I forget that, as my father snobbishly suggested, and I snobbishly repeat, a sense of the fundamental decencies is parceled out unequally at birth.”

This is an example of a complex chiasmus that uses parallel clauses to make a point about social class and morality. The phrase “my father snobbishly suggested, and I snobbishly repeat” is repeated in reverse order, while the phrase “a sense of the fundamental decencies is parceled out unequally at birth” is used to emphasize the idea that social class can determine one’s sense of morality.

  1. From Animal Farm by George Orwell:

“All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”

This is an example of a chiasmus that uses a paradox to create a memorable phrase. The phrase “all animals are equal” is repeated in reverse order with the phrase “but some animals are more equal than others” to create a paradoxical statement that highlights the hypocrisy of the pigs who have taken over the farm and are using their power to oppress the other animals.

  1. From The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain:

“You can’t pray a lie – I found that out.”

This is an example of a chiasmus that uses a simple structure to make a point about morality. The phrase “you can’t pray a lie” is repeated in reverse order to emphasize the idea that honesty and morality are fundamental to a genuine religious experience.

  1. From Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen:

“Those who do not complain are never pitied.”

This is an example of a chiasmus that uses a simple structure to make a point about human nature. The phrase “those who do not complain” is repeated in reverse order with the phrase “are never pitied” to create a memorable phrase that emphasizes the idea that people who suffer in silence are often overlooked and forgotten.

How to Create Chiasmus

  1. Identify the key ideas or phrases you want to use

The first step in creating chiasmus is to identify the key ideas or phrases you want to use. Chiasmus works by repeating these ideas in reverse order, so it’s important to have a clear understanding of what you want to say.

  • Write the first clause

Once you’ve identified your key ideas or phrases, write the first clause of your chiasmus. This should contain one or more of the key ideas or phrases you want to use.

  • Identify the reverse order of the key ideas or phrases

In order to create the cross-over pattern that defines chiasmus, you need to identify the reverse order of the key ideas or phrases you’re using. This will allow you to create a second clause that mirrors the first, but in reverse order.

  • Write the second clause

Using the reverse order of your key ideas or phrases, write the second clause of your chiasmus. This should mirror the first clause, but with the key ideas or phrases in reverse order.

  • Revise and refine your chiasmus

Once you’ve written your chiasmus, take some time to revise and refine it. Look for ways to improve the wording or phrasing to make it more impactful or memorable.

  • Practice delivering your chiasmus

Finally, practice delivering your chiasmus. Pay attention to the rhythm and cadence of your words, and try to emphasize the repetition and cross-over pattern to make it more effective.

Here’s an example of how you can create chiasmus:

  • Original sentence: “She loves me more than I love her.”
  • Chiasmus: “More than I love her, she loves me.”

In this example, the key phrase “loves me” is repeated in reverse order to create a parallel structure. The chiasmus creates a balanced, memorable phrase that emphasizes the contrast between the speaker’s love for his partner and her love for him.

Benefits of Using Chiasmus

There are several benefits of using chiasmus in writing and speech. Here are some of the main benefits:

  1. Creates a Memorable Phrase: Chiasmus can create a memorable phrase that sticks in the mind of the reader or listener. The repetition of words or phrases in reverse order creates a symmetrical structure that is pleasing to the ear and easy to remember.
  2. Emphasizes Key Ideas: Chiasmus can be used to emphasize key ideas or themes in writing or speech. By repeating key words or phrases, the writer or speaker can draw attention to important concepts or ideas and create a sense of balance and symmetry.
  3. Adds Style and Elegance: Chiasmus adds a sense of style and elegance to writing or speech. The use of parallel structure and repetition creates a rhythmic quality that is pleasing to the ear and adds a level of sophistication to the language.
  4. Enhances Persuasion: Chiasmus can be used to enhance persuasion in writing or speech. The repetition of key ideas or phrases can reinforce the argument being made and make it more convincing to the audience.
  5. Improves Clarity: Chiasmus can improve clarity in writing or speech by creating a clear and concise structure that is easy to understand. The repetition of key ideas or phrases can help to reinforce the meaning of the message being conveyed.

Chiasmus  in Literary Theory

Chiasmus can be analyzed and appreciated from different literary theories. Here are five literary theories that can be applied to the study of chiasmus:

  1. Structuralism: Structuralism is a theory that focuses on the underlying structures and patterns in language and literature. Chiasmus is a prime example of structuralist analysis, as it is based on a symmetrical structure that repeats words or phrases in reverse order.
  2. Formalism: Formalism is a theory that emphasizes the formal elements of literature, such as language, form, and style. Chiasmus is a formal element that can be analyzed for its effectiveness in creating a balanced and symmetrical structure that adds to the overall aesthetic of a work.
  3. Rhetoric: Rhetoric is the study of persuasive language and communication. Chiasmus is often used in rhetorical devices such as antithesis, where contrasting ideas are presented in a balanced and parallel structure.
  4. Post-Structuralism: Post-structuralism is a theory that challenges the idea of a fixed or stable meaning in language and literature. Chiasmus can be analyzed in a post-structuralist context to explore how it disrupts traditional notions of language and meaning.
  5. Deconstruction: Deconstruction is a theory that emphasizes the idea of meaning as unstable and open to multiple interpretations. Chiasmus can be analyzed through a deconstructive lens to explore how its symmetrical structure can be subverted or deconstructed to reveal alternative meanings and interpretations.
  6. Psychoanalytic Theory: Psychoanalytic theory explores the unconscious motivations and desires that shape human behavior and language. Chiasmus can be analyzed in a psychoanalytic context to explore how it reflects the structure of the unconscious mind, with its repeating patterns and mirror-like images.
  7. Reader-Response Theory: Reader-response theory emphasizes the role of the reader in creating meaning from a literary text. Chiasmus can be studied from a reader-response perspective to explore how different readers might interpret the symmetrical structure and repeated phrases in different ways.
  8. Feminist Theory: Feminist theory examines the ways in which gender shapes language and literature. Chiasmus can be analyzed from a feminist perspective to explore how it reflects and reinforces gender norms and expectations, or how it can be subverted to challenge or critique those norms.
  9. Cultural Studies: Cultural studies explores the ways in which language and literature reflect and shape cultural values and identities. Chiasmus can be studied in a cultural studies context to explore how it reflects and reinforces cultural patterns and values, or how it can be used to subvert or challenge those patterns and values.
Suggested Readings

Barthes, Roland. “The Structuralist Activity.” Critical Essays. Translated by Richard Howard, Northwestern University Press, 1972, pp. 208-22.

Filson, Floyd V. “Chiasmus in the New Testament: A Study in Formgeschichte.” (1943): 92-94. Kennedy, George A. New Testament Interpretation through Rhetorical Criticism. UNC Press Books, 2014.

You may also read:
1. Epiphany
2. Enjambment
3. Doppelganger
4. Deus Ex Machina