Category: Poem Analysis

Introduction: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

“Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare first appeared in 1609 as part of the collection known as the “Sonnets.” This sonnet, like many others in the sequence, explores the complex emotions of love and longing. It is characterized by its vivid imagery, comparing the beloved to essential sustenance like food and life-giving rain. The poem delves into the speaker’s conflicting feelings of joy and insecurity, likening his love to a miser’s obsession with treasure. The sonnet’s emotional depth and relatable themes of love, loss, and the passage of time have contributed to its enduring appeal.

Text: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

Annotations: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

Themes: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

1. Immortality through Verse: One prominent theme in “Sonnet 75” is the idea of achieving immortality through poetry. The speaker expresses a belief that by immortalizing his beloved in verse, their beauty and essence will endure beyond the ravages of time. This theme is encapsulated in lines such as “So are you to my thoughts as food to life,” where the beloved is likened to a source of sustenance essential for survival. The act of preserving the beloved’s memory through poetry reflects the speaker’s desire to transcend mortality and ensure their legacy lives on.
2. Transience and Impermanence: Despite the speaker’s aspirations of immortalizing the beloved, another theme that emerges is the inevitability of transience and impermanence. The poem explores the fleeting nature of beauty and happiness, emphasizing the passage of time and its potential to diminish even the most cherished moments. This theme is evident in lines like “Possessing or pursuing no delight / Save what is had, or must from you be took,” highlighting the fleeting nature of joy derived solely from the beloved’s presence and the constant struggle against time’s erosion.
3. Love’s Struggle and Paradoxes: The theme of love’s struggle and paradoxes permeates the poem, portraying the complexities inherent in romantic relationships. The speaker oscillates between moments of fulfillment and deprivation, joy and despair, as captured in lines such as “Sometime all full with feasting on your sight, / And by and by clean starved for a look.” These contrasts underscore the intense emotional turmoil experienced in love, where moments of ecstasy are juxtaposed with periods of longing and dissatisfaction.
4. The Power of Artistic Creation: Finally, “Sonnet 75” explores the transformative power of artistic creation, particularly through poetry. The act of writing and immortalizing the beloved in verse becomes a form of personal and creative expression for the speaker. This theme is reflected in lines like “Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:,” where the speaker desires public recognition for their artistic endeavor and the validation of their emotional investment. The poem suggests that through art, one can transcend personal experience and communicate universal truths about love and mortality.

Literary Theories and “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

Critical Questions about “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

• How does the speaker reconcile the tension between immortality and transience in love?
• In “Sonnet 75,” the speaker grapples with the paradoxical nature of love’s durability and its inevitable vulnerability to time. The phrase “And for the peace of you I hold such strife,” encapsulates this tension, suggesting that the very essence of the beloved brings both fulfillment and struggle. This raises the question of whether the speaker’s attempt to immortalize the beloved through poetry is a futile endeavor against the relentless march of time. The poem navigates through moments of intense emotional attachment, where the speaker experiences profound joy in the beloved’s presence, and contrasting moments of despair, symbolized by “Or gluttoning on all, or all away,” illustrating the ephemeral nature of happiness derived solely from the beloved’s fleeting presence. Analyzing how the speaker confronts and reconciles these contradictions provides insights into Shakespeare’s exploration of love’s complexities and the human desire for permanence in the face of mortality.
• What role does poetic language play in shaping the speaker’s relationship with the beloved?
• “Sonnet 75” showcases the transformative power of poetry as a means to immortalize and elevate the beloved’s beauty and significance. The phrase “Now proud as an enjoyer, and anon / Doubting the filching age will steal his treasure,” underscores the speaker’s dual role as both a celebrant of the beloved’s virtues and a guardian against the passage of time. The poem’s language evokes sensory experiences and emotional depth, such as “Feasting on your sight,” where sight becomes a metaphorical feast that sustains the speaker’s emotional and artistic endeavors. Analyzing how Shakespeare employs poetic devices like metaphor, simile, and imagery to elevate the beloved’s presence beyond the temporal realm enriches our understanding of how language shapes and defines the speaker’s emotional landscape.
• In what ways does the sonnet form contribute to the exploration of love’s complexities?
• The structured form of the sonnet in “Sonnet 75” provides a framework for exploring the speaker’s emotional fluctuations and existential dilemmas. The poem’s division into an octave and a sestet allows for a progression of thought and emotion, evident in lines like “Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:,” where the volta marks a shift from personal introspection to a desire for public acknowledgment. The sonnet’s strict rhyme scheme and meter enforce a rhythmic cadence that mirrors the oscillating emotions of love, as seen in phrases such as “Possessing or pursuing no delight / Save what is had, or must from you be took,” where the structured form intensifies the contrast between fulfillment and longing. Analyzing how the sonnet form shapes the expression of love’s complexities enhances our appreciation of Shakespeare’s mastery in using structure to convey emotional depth and thematic resonance.
• How does the speaker’s portrayal of love challenge traditional notions of romantic idealism?
• “Sonnet 75” presents a nuanced depiction of love that challenges idealized notions of eternal devotion and unending happiness. The phrase “Or as sweet-season’d showers are to the ground,” invokes natural imagery to convey the ephemeral nature of love’s pleasures, suggesting that even the most cherished moments are subject to the forces of change and decay. The poem critiques conventional ideals by portraying the speaker’s struggle with fluctuating emotions and contradictory desires, such as the longing for both intimacy and public validation, as illustrated in “Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:.” This prompts critical reflection on whether Shakespeare intends to subvert or reaffirm societal expectations of love and relationships. Analyzing how the poem navigates between moments of fulfillment and disillusionment offers insights into Shakespeare’s exploration of love as a complex and multifaceted experience, challenging simplistic portrayals of romanticism.

Literary Works Similar to “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

1. “Sonnet 29“ by William Shakespeare: Like “Sonnet 75,” this poem delves into the speaker’s shifting emotional states, from despair to elation, highlighting the transformative power of love.
2. “How Do I Love Thee? (Sonnet 43)” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning: Echoing the depth of emotion in “Sonnet 75,” this poem passionately explores the vastness and multifaceted nature of love.
3. “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats: Sharing the theme of fearing loss and the passage of time with “Sonnet 75,” this poem focuses on the speaker’s anxiety about mortality and unfulfilled potential.
4. “Love Is Not All” by Edna St. Vincent Millay: Unlike the all-consuming love depicted in “Sonnet 75,” this poem questions the sufficiency of love alone for a fulfilling life, while acknowledging its importance.
5. “Bright Star, Would I Were Stedfast as Thou Art” by John Keats: Similar to the speaker’s yearning in “Sonnet 75,” this poem expresses a desire for eternal love and unwavering devotion, though directed towards a celestial body.

Suggested Readings: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

• Books:
• Booth, Stephen. Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Yale University Press, 1977.
• Duncan-Jones, Katherine. Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Arden Shakespeare, Third Series, 2010.
• Vendler, Helen. The Art of Shakespeare’s Sonnets. Harvard University Press, 1997.
• Scholarly Articles:
• Fineman, Joel. “Shakespeare’s Perjured Eye.” Shakespeare Quarterly, vol. 35, no. 2, 1984, pp. 15-32. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2870445.
• Kerrigan, John. The Sonnets and A Lover’s Complaint. Penguin Classics, 1986.
• Online Resources:
• The Folger Shakespeare Library. Shakespeare’s Sonnets. folger.edu/sonnets

Representative Quotations of “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

Introduction: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

“In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh was initially published in 1917 as part of his collection A Highland Regiment. The poem serves as a poignant elegy for fallen soldiers, demonstrating Mackintosh’s ability to encapsulate both the devastation of war and the enduring resilience of those who served. Through stark yet evocative language and vivid imagery, the poem explores the profound themes of loss and remembrance. Its emotional resonance continues to captivate readers, solidifying its place as a timeless piece of war literature.

Text: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

Private D. Sutherland
killed in action in the German trench, May 16, 1916,
and the others who died

So you were David’s father,
And he was your only son,
And the new-cut peats are rotting
And the work is left undone,
Because of an old man weeping,
Just an old man in pain,
For David, his son David,
That will not come again.

Oh, the letters he wrote you,
And I can see them still,
Not a word of the fighting,
But just the sheep on the hill
And how you should get the crops in
Ere the year get stormier,
And the Bosches have got his body,
And I was his officer.

You were only David’s father,
But I had fifty sons
When we went up in the evening
Under the arch of the guns,
And we came back at twilight –
O God! I heard them call
To me for help and pity
That could not help at all.

Oh, never will I forget you,
My men that trusted me,
More my sons than your fathers’,
For they could only see
The little helpless babies
And the young men in their pride.
They could not see you dying,
And hold you while you died.

Happy and young and gallant,
They saw their first-born go,
But not the strong limbs broken
And the beautiful men brought low,
The piteous writhing bodies,
The screamed ‘Don’t leave me, Sir’,
For they were only your fathers
But I was your officer.

Annotations: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

Literary And Poetic Devices: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

Themes: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

• The Devastation of War on the Home Front: The poem starkly illustrates the far-reaching impact of war beyond the battlefield. It opens with the image of “new-cut peats rotting” and work “left undone” because of David’s death, symbolizing the disruption of daily life and the loss of potential. “Because of an old man weeping, / Just an old man in pain” highlights the profound grief experienced by loved ones left behind.
• The Personal Cost of Leadership: The poem presents a powerful contrast between the officer’s sense of responsibility and the helplessness he feels in the face of his soldiers’ suffering. The lines “They could not see you dying, / And hold you while you died” reveal the emotional burden of leadership, where the officer witnesses the deaths of his men but cannot offer the comfort a father would.
• The Intimate Bond Between Soldiers: The poem emphasizes the unique camaraderie among soldiers, a bond often stronger than familial ties. The officer refers to his men as “More my sons than your fathers'”, highlighting the shared experiences and trust that develop in the trenches. This bond intensifies the pain of loss and the sense of duty to remember the fallen.
• The Importance of Remembrance: “In Memoriam” is a tribute to the fallen and a call to remember their sacrifice. The poem’s title itself, meaning “in memory of,” underscores this theme. The officer’s promise, “Oh, never will I forget you, / My men that trusted me”, is a pledge to keep their memory alive and honor their service. This theme resonates throughout the poem, emphasizing the importance of acknowledging the individual lives lost in war.

Literary Theories and “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

Critical Questions about “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

• How does the poem’s use of language and imagery contribute to its emotional impact and overall message?
• Mackintosh’s choice of simple, direct language and vivid imagery creates a visceral connection to the experiences of loss and grief. The “new-cut peats rotting” symbolize the wasted potential of a young life, while the “piteous writhing bodies” and the plea “Don’t leave me, Sir” evoke the raw horror of the battlefield. This stark portrayal forces readers to confront the human cost of war.
• What is the significance of the officer’s perspective in the poem, and how does it shape our understanding of the war experience?
• By focusing on the officer’s voice, the poem offers a unique perspective on the burden of leadership and the emotional toll of witnessing the deaths of one’s men. The officer’s guilt and helplessness, expressed in lines like “That could not help at all,” reveal the psychological scars of war often hidden from view. This perspective challenges the romanticized image of war and highlights the complex emotions experienced by those in command.
• How does the poem explore the themes of fatherhood and familial relationships in the context of war?
• The poem contrasts the biological father-son relationship with the surrogate father-son bond between the officer and his men. The lines “More my sons than your fathers'” emphasize the deep connection formed in the face of shared danger, while the image of the “old man weeping” for his “only son” highlights the profound personal loss experienced by families. This exploration of different forms of paternal love adds another layer of complexity to the poem’s portrayal of grief and loss.
• To what extent does “In Memoriam” serve as a commentary on the social and political realities of war?
• While the poem focuses on personal experiences of grief and loss, it also subtly critiques the systems that perpetuate war. The repetition of “officer” and “father” hints at the societal structures that send young men to their deaths. The officer’s inability to protect his men could be interpreted as a condemnation of the futility of war. By focusing on individual stories, the poem implicitly questions the broader social and political forces that drive conflict.

Literary Works Similar to “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

1. “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen: A poignant war poem that vividly captures the horrors of World War I, challenging notions of patriotism and heroism.
2. “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen: A Critical Analysis“Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen: Another powerful war poem that explores the brutal realities of war and its impact on young soldiers.
3. “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke: Reflects on the nobility of dying for one’s country, contrasting with the gritty realism often portrayed in other war poems.
4. “For the Fallen” by Laurence Binyon: Honors those who died in World War I with solemnity and reverence, capturing the collective grief and sacrifice of war.
5. “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae: A war poem that uses vivid imagery of poppies to symbolize fallen soldiers, urging remembrance and reflection.

Suggested Readings: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

• Books:
• Knight, Max. The Poetry of the First World War. Penguin Books, 2013.
• Gardiner, Michael. The Penguin Book of First World War Poetry. Penguin Classics, 2014.
• Weblinks:
• Poetry Foundation: This website provides a biography of Ewart Alan Mackintosh and a collection of his poems, including “In Memoriam.” https://www.poetryfoundation.org/
• The Great War Archive: This archive includes digitized versions of historical documents related to World War I, providing context for understanding Mackintosh’s poem. https://greatwar.nl/books/books.html

Representative Quotations of “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

Introduction: “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae

“In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae first appeared in 1915 in the London magazine Punch, initially published anonymously, it quickly gained immense popularity due to its poignant portrayal of the sacrifices made by soldiers in World War I. The poem’s rondeau form, with its repeating refrain, contributes to its memorable quality. Its vivid imagery of poppies growing among the crosses and the call to continue the fight resonated deeply with readers, making it an enduring symbol of remembrance and a powerful testament to the human cost of war.

Text: “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae

Annotations: “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae

Literary And Poetic Devices: “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae

Themes: “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae

• Remembrance and Sacrifice: The poem vividly describes the scene of Flanders fields where poppies grow among the crosses marking the graves of fallen soldiers. McCrae’s use of imagery, such as “In Flanders fields the poppies blow / Between the crosses, row on row,” encapsulates the solemnity of remembrance and the enduring sacrifice of those who died in war. The poppies symbolize both the bloodshed of battle and the renewal of life amidst loss, urging future generations to honor and remember the fallen.
• Duty and Continuation of Legacy: McCrae emphasizes the responsibility of the living to carry on the unfinished work of those who have died. Lines like “Take up our quarrel with the foe: / To you from failing hands we throw / The torch; be yours to hold it high” underscore the duty to uphold the cause for which the soldiers gave their lives. The metaphorical torch represents the legacy of defending freedom and justice, urging succeeding generations not to let their sacrifices be in vain.
• Consequences of Betrayal and Commitment: The poem warns of the consequences should the living fail to honor the sacrifices of the dead. McCrae writes, “If ye break faith with us who die / We shall not sleep, though poppies grow / In Flanders fields,” highlighting the solemn commitment to remember and continue the struggle. This admonition underscores the importance of fidelity to the values and causes for which soldiers fought, ensuring their memory endures beyond the battlefield.
• Resilience and Hope Amidst Tragedy: Despite the tragic backdrop of war, McCrae portrays resilience and hope through nature and the human spirit. The larks bravely singing amidst the gunfire in “The larks, still bravely singing, fly / Scarce heard amid the guns below” symbolize the enduring resilience of life and hope even in the face of destruction. This imagery suggests that amidst the horrors of war, there is still beauty and courage, echoing a message of resilience and the enduring human spirit.

Literary Theories and “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae

Critical Questions about “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae

• To what extent does the poem romanticize war and its consequences?
• While the poem honors the sacrifice of fallen soldiers, it could be argued that it also romanticizes the idea of dying for one’s country. The vivid imagery of poppies blowing in the wind and the call to “take up our quarrel with the foe” might be seen as glorifying the violence and downplaying the horrific realities of war. However, the poem also acknowledges the pain and loss of “short days ago We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow, Loved and were loved,” offering a more nuanced perspective.
• How does the poem’s use of the first-person plural perspective (“we”) shape its meaning and impact?
• The use of “we” creates a collective voice for the fallen soldiers, amplifying their message and emotional appeal. It fosters a sense of empathy and shared experience with the reader, making the call to action more personal and urgent. However, it could be argued that this collective voice obscures the individual experiences and perspectives of the soldiers, potentially reducing them to a single, unified entity.
• To what degree does the poem’s structure (rondeau form) enhance its message?
• The rondeau form, with its repeating refrain of “In Flanders fields,” reinforces the setting and the ongoing nature of the conflict. The cyclical structure could be interpreted as mirroring the endless cycle of war and death, or it could be seen as a call for remembrance and continuity. However, some might find the repetition overly sentimental or manipulative, potentially detracting from the poem’s overall impact.
• In what ways does the poem’s language and imagery contribute to its enduring legacy?
• The vivid imagery of poppies and larks juxtaposed with the sounds of guns creates a powerful contrast between the beauty of nature and the brutality of war. This imagery, combined with the emotive language and the poem’s simple yet powerful message, has resonated with readers across generations. However, some might argue that the poem’s idealized imagery of nature and its focus on the glory of sacrifice can obscure the harsh realities of war and its devastating impact on individuals and communities.

Literary Works Similar to “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae

1. “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen: A powerful anti-war poem that vividly describes the horrors of gas warfare and challenges the notion of glory in war.
2. “For the Fallen” by Laurence Binyon: A solemn poem that includes the famous stanza beginning with “They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old,” honoring those who died in World War I.
3. “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke: Reflects on the patriotic sentiment and sacrifice of soldiers who give their lives for their country, with a sense of duty and honor.
4. “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen: Explores the tragedy of war through the contrast between the chaos of battle and the traditional funeral rituals denied to the fallen soldiers.
5. “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh: A poignant poem that remembers soldiers who died in World War I, capturing the loss and grief felt by those left behind.

Suggested Readings: “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae

Representative Quotations of “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae

Introduction: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens

“Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen first appeared in 1920, a year after his death, in the posthumous collection Poems. The poem’s graphic imagery and unflinching portrayal of the horrors of World War I shocked readers and challenged the prevailing glorification of war. Owen’s use of visceral language, vivid metaphors, and irregular rhyme schemes creates a sense of chaos and despair, reflecting the psychological trauma experienced by soldiers. The poem’s bitter irony and condemnation of the lie that “it is sweet and fitting to die for one’s country” established it as a seminal work of war poetry and a poignant testament to the futility and brutality of conflict.

Text: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens

Annotations: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens

Themes: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens

• The Horrors of War: In “Dulce et Decorum Est,” Wilfred Owen vividly portrays the brutal realities of war, emphasizing its gruesome and dehumanizing effects on soldiers. Through graphic imagery, such as “Bent double, like old beggars under sacks” and “blood-shod,” Owen illustrates the physical and mental toll that warfare takes on individuals. The soldiers are depicted as exhausted, injured, and stripped of their humanity, marching “asleep” and “lame; all blind” (Owen, 1917). This stark depiction serves to counter the romanticized view of war, revealing it as a nightmarish experience filled with pain and suffering.
• The Futility of War: Owen’s poem also explores the futility and senselessness of war, highlighting the meaningless loss of life and the empty promises of glory. The repeated imagery of soldiers “coughing like hags” and “flound’ring like a man in fire or lime” underscores the chaotic and desperate nature of battle, where death is an ever-present threat (Owen, 1917). By portraying the soldiers’ struggles and the randomness of their deaths, Owen challenges the notion that war has any noble purpose, suggesting instead that it is a tragic waste of human life.
• The Betrayal of the Youth: The poem critiques the older generation’s betrayal of the youth by propagating the “old Lie: Dulce et decorum est / Pro patria mori” (Owen, 1917). This Latin phrase, meaning “It is sweet and proper to die for one’s country,” is revealed to be a cruel deception used to encourage young men to enlist and fight. Owen’s use of vivid and horrific imagery, such as “the blood / Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs,” exposes the stark contrast between the idealized vision of war and its gruesome reality. This theme underscores the manipulation and exploitation of young soldiers by those in positions of power.
• The Psychological Impact of War: Owen delves into the psychological trauma experienced by soldiers, depicting the lasting effects of their harrowing experiences. The speaker recounts haunting dreams in which a fellow soldier “plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning,” highlighting the persistent and inescapable nature of war’s horrors (Owen, 1917). This theme emphasizes the mental anguish and torment that soldiers endure long after the physical battles have ended, challenging the glorification of war and revealing its deep, lasting scars on the human psyche.

Literary Theories and “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens

Critical Questions about “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens

• How does Owen’s use of imagery impact the reader’s perception of war?
• Wilfred Owen’s use of vivid and graphic imagery in “Dulce et Decorum Est” profoundly shapes the reader’s understanding of the horrors of war. Phrases like “Bent double, like old beggars under sacks” and “blood-shod” paint a gruesome picture of the soldiers’ physical state, making their suffering palpable (Owen, 1917). This stark imagery contrasts sharply with romanticized notions of war, forcing the reader to confront the brutal reality and dispelling any illusions of glory or honor associated with battle.
• In what ways does the poem challenge the traditional notions of heroism and patriotism?
• “Dulce et Decorum Est” directly challenges traditional notions of heroism and patriotism by exposing the harsh realities of war and the deception behind the phrase “Dulce et decorum est / Pro patria mori” (Owen, 1917). Owen’s depiction of soldiers as “coughing like hags” and “flound’ring like a man in fire or lime” reveals the grim truth behind the glorified image of dying for one’s country. By juxtaposing the soldiers’ suffering with the idealized vision of patriotic sacrifice, Owen critiques the societal and governmental propaganda that glorifies war and exploits young soldiers.
• How does Owen convey the psychological trauma experienced by soldiers?
• Owen vividly conveys the psychological trauma experienced by soldiers through the poem’s intense and haunting descriptions. The recurring nightmare of a dying comrade “plunging at me, guttering, choking, drowning” exemplifies the enduring mental anguish faced by soldiers (Owen, 1917). These harrowing images illustrate that the trauma of war extends beyond the battlefield, affecting soldiers’ minds and spirits long after the physical danger has passed, thereby emphasizing the lasting impact of war on mental health.
• What is the significance of the poem’s title and the phrase “Dulce et decorum est / Pro patria mori”?
• The title and the phrase “Dulce et decorum est / Pro patria mori,” which translates to “It is sweet and proper to die for one’s country,” are used ironically to underscore the poem’s central theme of disillusionment with the glorification of war (Owen, 1917). Owen’s vivid descriptions of the soldiers’ suffering and his bitter recounting of their agonizing deaths starkly contrast with the idealistic sentiment expressed by the phrase. By framing the poem with this ironic statement, Owen critiques the patriotic propaganda that romanticizes war and highlights the deceitful nature of such rhetoric.

Literary Works Similar to “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens

1. “The Death of the Ball Turret Gunner” by Randall Jarrell: A chillingly brief account of a young airman’s death in World War II, highlighting the dehumanization and expendability of soldiers.
2. “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen: A mournful elegy lamenting the lack of proper mourning for fallen soldiers, emphasizing the loss of youth and potential.
3. “The Charge of the Light Brigade” by Alfred Lord Tennyson: A dramatic depiction of a doomed cavalry charge in the Crimean War, celebrating bravery while acknowledging the futility of war.
4. “Survivors” by Siegfried Sassoon: A bitter critique of the glorification of war, highlighting the psychological trauma and disillusionment of returning soldiers.
5. “The Man He Killed” by Thomas Hardy: A simple yet profound reflection on the senselessness of killing in war, as a soldier contemplates the common humanity he shares with his enemy.

Suggested Readings: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens

Representative Quotations of “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens

Introduction: “Bright Star” by John Keats

“Bright Star” by John Keats first appeared in 1848, posthumously published in the collection Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats. This sonnet, believed to have been written in 1819, is a passionate expression of love and longing for permanence. The speaker addresses a bright star, envying its steadfastness and unchanging nature, and wishes to be as constant in his love. The poem is rich in sensual imagery, evoking a sense of touch, sight, and sound. It explores themes of love, mortality, and the desire for eternal connection, making it a quintessential example of Romantic poetry.

Text: “Bright Star” by John Keats

Annotations: “Bright Star” by John Keats

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Bright Star” by John Keats

Themes: “Bright Star” by John Keats

1. The yearning for permanence amidst transience: The speaker expresses a deep longing to be “stedfast” and “unchangeable” like the bright star, contrasting it with the fleeting nature of human life. This desire for permanence is evident in the repetition of the word “still” and the wish to “live ever.” The star becomes a symbol of eternal love and beauty, a stark contrast to the ever-changing world around the speaker.
2. The conflict between the ideal and the real: The speaker initially admires the star’s isolated existence but soon realizes that true love and happiness lie in earthly connection. The volta, marked by the word “No,” signals a shift in the speaker’s desire. He no longer wishes for the star’s solitary existence but yearns for the warmth and intimacy of human love, recognizing the value of shared experiences and emotions.
3. The power of love to transcend mortality: Although the speaker acknowledges the inevitability of death, he believes that love can create a sense of immortality. The desire to “so live ever—or else swoon to death” suggests that love, even if it leads to death, is a powerful force that can transcend the limitations of human existence. The speaker’s wish to be “pillow’d upon my fair love’s ripening breast” and “hear her tender-taken breath” underscores the importance of physical and emotional connection in achieving this transcendent love.
4. The beauty and power of nature: Keats, a Romantic poet, celebrates the beauty and power of nature throughout the poem. The star, the moving waters, and the snow-covered mountains are all depicted as sources of awe and inspiration. The speaker’s initial desire to emulate the star’s steadfastness reflects a Romantic idealization of nature as a model for human behavior and a source of eternal truth and beauty.

Literary Theories and “Bright Star” by John Keats

Critical Questions about “Bright Star” by John Keats

• How does the speaker’s perception of the star evolve throughout the poem, and what does this reveal about his desires?
• Initially, the speaker admires the star’s steadfastness and eternal existence, wishing to emulate its unchanging nature. However, a shift occurs in the volta (line 9) as he rejects this desire for solitary permanence. Instead, he yearns for the warmth and intimacy of human love, recognizing the value of shared experiences and emotions. This evolution reflects a deeper understanding of love as a dynamic, ever-evolving force that thrives on connection and shared vulnerability rather than on static isolation.
• What is the significance of the imagery used to describe the star’s actions and surroundings?
• The star is depicted as “watching” with “eternal lids apart,” observing the “moving waters” and the “new soft-fallen mask of snow.” This imagery emphasizes the star’s role as a passive observer, removed from the world’s changes and emotions. The contrast between the star’s distant gaze and the speaker’s desire for earthly connection highlights the limitations of a life devoid of human interaction and emotional depth.
• How does the sonnet form contribute to the poem’s overall meaning and effect?
• The sonnet’s structure, with its octave (eight lines) and sestet (six lines), mirrors the poem’s thematic shift. The octave explores the speaker’s initial desire for unchanging love like the star, while the sestet reveals a newfound appreciation for the dynamic nature of human love. The volta, occurring between the octave and sestet, marks a crucial turning point in the speaker’s understanding of love and its connection to mortality.
• In what ways does the poem explore the tension between life and death, mortality and immortality?
• The speaker’s desire for eternal love, like the star’s unchanging existence, clashes with the reality of human mortality. The poem juxtaposes images of life (“ripening breast,” “tender-taken breath”) with the prospect of death (“swoon to death”). This tension highlights the inherent paradox of love: it is a life-affirming force that can bring both joy and pain, ultimately leading to an acceptance of mortality and a celebration of life’s fleeting moments.

Literary Works Similar to “Bright Star” by John Keats

1. “To the Evening Star” by William Blake: This poem shares a similar admiration for a celestial body, reflecting on its beauty and symbolic significance.
2. “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron: Like “Bright Star,” this poem idealizes the beloved, focusing on her beauty and the serene constancy she embodies.
3. “When I Have Fears” by John Keats: Another of Keats’ works, this poem explores themes of longing and the desire for permanence in the face of life’s fleeting nature.
4. “Sonnet 18” by William Shakespeare: Shakespeare’s famous sonnet also contemplates the theme of eternal beauty, comparing the beloved to a summer’s day and seeking to immortalize her through poetry.
5. “To a Skylark” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: This poem similarly celebrates a natural phenomenon, the skylark, and reflects on its ethereal qualities and the poet’s longing to capture its essence.

Representative Quotations of “Bright Star” by John Keats

Introduction: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen

“Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen first appeared in 1920 in the posthumously published collection Poems. This sonnet, written in 1917 during the poet’s service in World War I, captures the tragic futility of war and the dehumanization of young soldiers. Through stark imagery, jarring juxtapositions, and a somber tone, Owen paints a haunting portrait of the battlefield and the absence of traditional mourning rituals for fallen soldiers. The poem’s raw emotional power and unflinching portrayal of war’s horrors cemented its status as one of the most significant works of war poetry and a testament to Owen’s extraordinary talent.

Text: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen

What passing-bells for these who die as cattle?
Only the monstrous anger of the guns.
Only the stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle
Can patter out their hasty orisons.
No mockeries now for them; no prayers nor bells;
Nor any voice of mourning save the choirs,
The shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells;
And bugles calling for them from sad shires.
What candles may be held to speed them all?
Not in the hands of boys, but in their eyes
Shall shine the holy glimmers of good-byes.
The pallor of girls’ brows shall be their pall;
Their flowers the tenderness of patient minds,
And each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds.

Annotations: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen

Themes: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen

• The Futility of War: One of the central themes in “Anthem for Doomed Youth” is the futility and senselessness of war. Owen portrays the deaths of soldiers as meaningless and dehumanizing by comparing them to cattle being slaughtered: “What passing-bells for these who die as cattle?” This imagery starkly illustrates the mass, impersonal killing that characterizes trench warfare. The absence of traditional rites (“No mockeries now for them; no prayers nor bells”) further emphasizes the theme, suggesting that the soldiers’ sacrifices are not honored or recognized in the way they should be. Owen’s choice to forgo traditional funeral rites in favor of the violent sounds of battle underscores the senseless destruction of young lives.
• Dehumanization: Owen explores the theme of dehumanization by depicting soldiers as mere animals led to slaughter and by replacing human rites with the sounds of war. The comparison to cattle in the opening line starkly dehumanizes the soldiers, reducing them to mere numbers in the machinery of war. The “monstrous anger of the guns” and “stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle” replace the solemnity of passing-bells and prayers, stripping the soldiers of their humanity. The transformation of traditional mourning sounds into the chaos of battle symbolizes how war reduces men to mere objects, devoid of individuality and dignity.
• Mourning and Loss: Mourning and loss permeate the poem as Owen contrasts the expected rituals of death with the brutal reality faced by soldiers. Traditional mourning practices, such as prayers, bells, and choirs, are replaced by the “shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells” and “bugles calling for them from sad shires.” This shift highlights the deep sense of loss felt by those left behind and the inadequate means available to mourn the dead properly. By depicting the grief of the soldiers’ families and friends through metaphorical expressions such as “the pallor of girls’ brows” and “the tenderness of patient minds,” Owen underscores the personal and communal sorrow caused by the war.
• The Sacrifice of Youth: The poem poignantly addresses the theme of youth and the sacrifice of young lives in war. The title itself, “Anthem for Doomed Youth,” sets the stage for this exploration, suggesting a somber hymn for the young soldiers whose lives are cut short. The imagery of “candles” held not in hands but shining in the eyes of boys underscores the youth and innocence of the soldiers. Owen’s portrayal of the soldiers’ final moments, marked by the “holy glimmers of good-byes” in their eyes, evokes a powerful sense of wasted potential and the tragic loss of a generation. This theme is reinforced by the concluding image of “each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds,” symbolizing the end of life and the perpetual mourning for the young who never had the chance to grow old.

Literary Theories and “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen

Critical Questions about “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen

• How does the poem’s title, “Anthem for Doomed Youth,” establish the poem’s central theme and tone?
• The title “Anthem for Doomed Youth” immediately sets a somber and ironic tone. An anthem is typically a song of celebration or praise, but here it’s applied to young men fated to die in war. This juxtaposition highlights the tragic loss of life and the lack of proper recognition or commemoration for these soldiers. The irony deepens as the poem unfolds, contrasting the absence of traditional mourning rituals with the harsh realities of the battlefield. The title thus serves as a poignant introduction to the poem’s exploration of grief, loss, and the futility of war.
• What specific poetic devices does Owen employ to convey the dehumanization and brutality of war?
• Owen masterfully uses similes, metaphors, and onomatopoeia to depict the horrors of war. The opening line, “What passing-bells for these who die as cattle?” compares the soldiers to livestock, highlighting their expendability. The “monstrous anger of the guns” and the “stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle” personify the weapons, emphasizing their destructive power and the chaotic nature of combat. These vivid images, combined with the poem’s stark diction and relentless rhythm, create a visceral and unsettling portrayal of war’s brutality, leaving a lasting impression on the reader.
• How does the poem’s structure, a Petrarchan sonnet, contribute to its overall meaning and impact?
• The poem’s structure as a Petrarchan sonnet, divided into an octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines), mirrors the thematic shift within the poem. The octave focuses on the absence of traditional mourning rituals, emphasizing the futility and anonymity of death in war. The sestet, however, offers a glimmer of hope and remembrance, suggesting that the memories of fallen soldiers will live on in the hearts and minds of those they left behind. This structural division reinforces the poem’s exploration of both despair and resilience in the face of tragedy.
• In what ways does “Anthem for Doomed Youth” challenge traditional notions of heroism and glory associated with war?
• Owen’s poem starkly contrasts the idealized image of war with its grim reality. Instead of glorifying heroic deeds, he focuses on the senseless loss of young lives and the absence of traditional honors. The soldiers are not celebrated as heroes but rather mourned as victims of a brutal and dehumanizing conflict. This unflinching portrayal of war’s horrors challenges readers to reconsider the romanticized narratives often associated with warfare and to acknowledge the profound suffering it inflicts on individuals and communities alike.

Literary Works Similar to “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen

1. “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen: Both poems critique the romanticized notion of war and highlight its brutal reality.
2. “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke: This poem, like Owen’s, deals with themes of sacrifice and the personal cost of war, though Brooke’s is more patriotic in tone.
3. “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae: Both poems address the aftermath of war and the memorialization of fallen soldiers.
4. “The Death of the Ball Turret Gunner” by Randall Jarrell: This poem, like Owen’s, starkly depicts the dehumanizing and mechanized nature of modern warfare.
5. “Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg: Similar to Owen’s work, this poem explores the grim realities of life in the trenches and the constant presence of death.

Suggested Readings: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen

Representative Quotations of “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen

Introduction: “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron

“She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron, first appeared in 1815 in a collection titled Hebrew Melodies, is a classic example of Romantic poetry, celebrating the idealization of beauty and its connection to inner goodness. It stands out for its lyrical language, rhythmic flow, and vivid imagery, capturing the essence of a woman whose beauty is both physical and spiritual. The poem’s harmonious structure and carefully chosen words create a sense of awe and admiration, while its themes of light, darkness, and inner radiance continue to resonate with readers today.

Text: “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron

Annotations: “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron

Literary And Poetic Devices: “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron

Themes: “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron

1. The Harmony of Contrasts: Byron’s poem celebrates the harmonious blending of opposing elements in the woman’s beauty. He juxtaposes “dark and bright,” “shade” and “ray,” to highlight the perfect balance that defines her allure. The woman’s beauty is not simply about her physical features but the seamless fusion of these contrasting elements, suggesting that true beauty lies in the harmonious coexistence of opposites. This harmony extends beyond the physical, reflecting a balance between inner and outer beauty, between thought and feeling, and between the earthly and the divine.
2. The Idealization of Beauty: “She Walks in Beauty” is an ode to idealized beauty, portraying the woman as a vision of perfection. Her “nameless grace,” “serenely sweet” thoughts, and “innocent” heart elevate her beyond mere mortal beauty. Byron employs vivid imagery and hyperbolic language, such as “tender light” and “days in goodness spent,” to create an aura of ethereal beauty that is almost otherworldly. The poem reflects the Romantic fascination with idealized beauty, capturing the sublime and unattainable nature of perfection.
3. The Connection Between Inner and Outer Beauty: Byron suggests that true beauty is not solely skin deep but emanates from within. The poem emphasizes the connection between the woman’s physical appearance and her inner qualities. Her “smiles that win” and “tints that glow” are not just superficial attributes but reflections of a “mind at peace with all below” and a “heart whose love is innocent.” This connection implies that genuine beauty is a manifestation of inner goodness, virtue, and a peaceful soul.
4. The Transcendent Power of Beauty: The poem suggests that beauty has the power to elevate the human spirit and connect us to something larger than ourselves. The woman’s beauty is described as “tender light / Which heaven to gaudy day denies,” suggesting a divine quality that surpasses the ordinary. Her beauty inspires awe and reverence, as if she is a celestial being gracing the earth with her presence. This theme reflects the Romantic belief in the transformative power of beauty, capable of inspiring wonder, joy, and a sense of connection to the sublime.

Literary Theories and “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron

·  New Criticism (Formalism):

• Reference from the poem: “She walks in beauty, like the night”
• Critique: New Criticism emphasizes close reading of the text itself, focusing on formal elements such as structure, language, and imagery. Byron’s use of visual imagery in comparing the woman’s beauty to the night sky (“like the night / Of cloudless climes and starry skies”) underscores the poem’s aesthetic appeal and evokes a sense of serene beauty. The precise choice of words like “cloudless,” “starry,” and “beauty” highlights the harmonious balance and visual allure of the woman’s appearance. New Criticism would analyze how Byron’s meticulous use of imagery contributes to the poem’s overall impact and theme of aesthetic perfection.

·  Psychoanalytic Criticism:

• Reference from the poem: “A mind at peace with all below, / A heart whose love is innocent!”
• Critique: Psychoanalytic Criticism explores unconscious desires, motivations, and conflicts reflected in literature. Byron’s depiction of the woman as having “a mind at peace” and “a heart whose love is innocent” suggests idealized virtues and inner tranquility. Psychoanalytic analysis would delve into how these qualities symbolize the speaker’s desires for purity and emotional fulfillment. The poem’s emphasis on the woman’s serenity and innocence may reflect the speaker’s idealized projection or longing for emotional harmony and moral integrity. This perspective would examine how Byron’s portrayal of the woman’s character serves to fulfill the speaker’s psychological needs and desires.

·  Feminist Criticism:

• Reference from the poem: “And all that’s best of dark and bright / Meet in her aspect and her eyes;”
• Critique: Feminist Criticism examines literature through the lens of gender roles, power dynamics, and representations of women. Byron’s description of the woman’s beauty as a blend of “dark and bright” qualities highlights her complexity and allure. Feminist analysis would explore how the poem portrays feminine beauty and identity, considering whether the woman is empowered or objectified through the speaker’s gaze. The poem’s focus on the woman’s external beauty and inner virtues could be critiqued for reinforcing traditional ideals of femininity that prioritize physical appearance and moral purity. Feminist theory would question how the poem constructs gender norms and whether it challenges or perpetuates stereotypes about women’s roles and attributes.

Critical Questions about “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron

• How does Byron use contrasting imagery to enhance the theme of beauty in the poem?
• Byron’s poem “She Walks in Beauty” employs contrasting imagery to accentuate the theme of beauty. The juxtaposition of “like the night / Of cloudless climes and starry skies” creates a vivid picture of the woman’s beauty as both serene and radiant (She Walks in Beauty). This contrast between darkness and light highlights her unique allure, suggesting that her beauty transcends ordinary descriptions. By merging elements of “dark and bright” in her “aspect and her eyes,” Byron emphasizes that her attractiveness lies in the harmonious balance of these opposites (She Walks in Beauty). This use of contrasting imagery not only enhances the visual appeal of the poem but also deepens the reader’s appreciation of the woman’s complex and multifaceted beauty.
• In what ways does Byron idealize the woman’s inner qualities alongside her physical beauty?
• In “She Walks in Beauty,” Byron idealizes the woman’s inner qualities as much as her physical beauty, suggesting a profound connection between outward appearance and inner virtue. He describes her “thoughts serenely sweet” and a face where such thoughts are “softly lightens o’er” (She Walks in Beauty). This portrayal of her inner serenity and sweetness as visibly manifest in her appearance elevates her beauty to a nearly divine status. Byron further emphasizes her moral purity by stating she has “a mind at peace with all below, / A heart whose love is innocent!” (She Walks in Beauty). This idealization of her internal qualities alongside her external beauty reinforces the Romantic ideal of harmony between inner virtue and outer appearance.
• How does the poem reflect Romantic ideals about nature and beauty?
• “She Walks in Beauty” reflects Romantic ideals by intertwining nature and beauty in its depiction of the woman. Byron’s comparison of her to a “night / Of cloudless climes and starry skies” aligns her beauty with natural elements, emphasizing the Romantic belief in the sublime qualities of nature (She Walks in Beauty). The tender light in her “aspect and her eyes,” which is mellowed and more delicate than the “gaudy day,” suggests that her beauty possesses a natural, unadorned purity that surpasses artificiality (She Walks in Beauty). This alignment of her beauty with the natural world underscores the Romantic ideal that true beauty is found in nature’s simplicity and purity, reflecting a deeper, spiritual essence.
• What role does the speaker’s perspective play in shaping the portrayal of the woman in the poem?
• The speaker’s perspective in “She Walks in Beauty” is crucial in shaping the portrayal of the woman, as it filters her beauty through his idealizing and admiring gaze. His observations begin with the striking simile, “She walks in beauty, like the night,” immediately setting a tone of reverent admiration (She Walks in Beauty). The speaker meticulously notes how “all that’s best of dark and bright / Meet in her aspect and her eyes,” suggesting that his perception is finely attuned to the nuances of her appearance (She Walks in Beauty). This perspective imbues the woman with an almost otherworldly grace and purity, as he attributes to her a “mind at peace” and “a heart whose love is innocent” (She Walks in Beauty). The speaker’s idealized view not only elevates her beauty but also shapes the reader’s understanding of her as a paragon of both physical and moral excellence.

Literary Works Similar to “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron

1. “Sonnet 18” by William Shakespeare: Celebrates the eternal beauty of the beloved, comparing it to a summer’s day and emphasizing its enduring nature.
2. “To Helen” by Edgar Allan Poe: Praises the timeless beauty of Helen, using classical references to convey admiration and reverence.
3. “La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats: Describes an enchanting and mysterious woman whose beauty captivates and ensnares the speaker.
4. “Bright Star” by John Keats: Expresses the speaker’s desire for the constancy and eternal beauty of a bright star, symbolizing a loved one.
5. “When You Are Old” by W.B. Yeats: Reflects on the enduring beauty and deep love for the speaker’s beloved, even as time passes and physical beauty fades.

Suggested Readings: “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron

1. Bloom, Harold, editor. Lord Byron. Chelsea House Publishers, 1986.
2. Grosskurth, Phyllis. Byron: The Flawed Angel. Houghton Mifflin, 1997.
3. Wolfson, Susan J. Reading Byron. Cambridge University Press, 2014.
4. “She Walks in Beauty by Lord Byron – Analysis.” Poetry Foundation, www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/43844/she-walks-in-beauty.
5. “She Walks in Beauty: Summary and Analysis.” LitCharts, www.litcharts.com/poetry/lord-byron/she-walks-in-beauty.
6. “Byron’s Poetic Style: An Examination of ‘She Walks in Beauty’.” The British Library, www.bl.uk/works/she-walks-in-beauty.

Representative Quotations of “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron

Introduction: “Directive” by Robert Frost

“Directive” by Robert Frost, first appeared in 1947 in his collection Steeple Bush, is characteristic of Frost’s later work, showcasing a darker, more meditative tone than his earlier, more optimistic poems. “Directive” is a journey poem, guiding the reader through a physical and spiritual landscape, urging them to seek solace and meaning in a world that can often feel chaotic and disillusioning. The poem employs Frost’s signature plain-spoken language and deceptively simple imagery, while delving into deeper themes of loss, memory, and the search for spiritual fulfillment.

Text: “Directive” by Robert Frost

Back out of all this now too much for us,
Back in a time made simple by the loss
Of detail, burned, dissolved, and broken off
Like graveyard marble sculpture in the weather,
There is a house that is no more a house
Upon a farm that is no more a farm
And in a town that is no more a town.
The road there, if you’ll let a guide direct you
Who only has at heart your getting lost,
May seem as if it should have been a quarry—
Great monolithic knees the former town
Long since gave up pretense of keeping covered.
And there’s a story in a book about it:
Besides the wear of iron wagon wheels
The ledges show lines ruled southeast northwest,
The chisel work of an enormous Glacier
That braced his feet against the Arctic Pole.
You must not mind a certain coolness from him
Still said to haunt this side of Panther Mountain.
Nor need you mind the serial ordeal
Of being watched from forty cellar holes
As if by eye pairs out of forty firkins.
As for the woods’ excitement over you
That sends light rustle rushes to their leaves,
Charge that to upstart inexperience.
Where were they all not twenty years ago?
They think too much of having shaded out
A few old pecker-fretted apple trees.
Make yourself up a cheering song of how
Someone’s road home from work this once was,
Who may be just ahead of you on foot
Or creaking with a buggy load of grain.
The height of the adventure is the height
Of country where two village cultures faded
Into each other. Both of them are lost.
And if you’re lost enough to find yourself
By now, pull in your ladder road behind you
And put a sign up CLOSED to all but me.
Then make yourself at home. The only field
Now left’s no bigger than a harness gall.
First there’s the children’s house of make believe,
Some shattered dishes underneath a pine,
The playthings in the playhouse of the children.
Weep for what little things could make them glad.
Then for the house that is no more a house,
But only a belilaced cellar hole,
Now slowly closing like a dent in dough.
This was no playhouse but a house in earnest.
Your destination and your destiny’s
A brook that was the water of the house,
Cold as a spring as yet so near its source,
Too lofty and original to rage.
(We know the valley streams that when aroused
Will leave their tatters hung on barb and thorn.)
I have kept hidden in the instep arch
Of an old cedar at the waterside
A broken drinking goblet like the Grail
Under a spell so the wrong ones can’t find it,
So can’t get saved, as Saint Mark says they mustn’t.
(I stole the goblet from the children’s playhouse.)
Here are your waters and your watering place.
Drink and be whole again beyond confusion.

Annotations: “Directive” by Robert Frost                

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Directive” by Robert Frost

Themes: “Directive” by Robert Frost

1. The Quest for Spiritual Fulfillment: “Directive” presents a journey towards spiritual renewal, guiding the reader through a physical landscape that mirrors an inner quest for meaning. Frost invites us to “back out of all this now too much for us,” urging a retreat from the complexities of modern life. The dilapidated house, the abandoned farm, and the forgotten town symbolize the shedding of material attachments in favor of a simpler, more authentic existence. The “broken drinking goblet like the Grail” represents a spiritual treasure to be found in the most unexpected places, promising wholeness “beyond confusion.”
2. The Power of Memory and the Past: Frost explores the significance of memory and the past in shaping our present and future. The poem’s journey is not just physical but also temporal, leading the reader back through time to a place “made simple by the loss / Of detail.” The ruins of the town and the remnants of the children’s playhouse evoke a sense of nostalgia and longing for a simpler past. However, Frost doesn’t romanticize the past; he acknowledges its hardships and challenges, represented by the “coolness” of the Glacier and the watchful “eye pairs out of forty firkins.” The past serves as a guide, a source of wisdom, and a reminder of our connection to those who came before.
3. The Relationship Between Humanity and Nature: Frost masterfully weaves together human experience and the natural world, blurring the boundaries between the two. The landscape is not merely a backdrop but an active participant in the poem’s journey. The “monolithic knees” of the former town blend with the natural rock formations, suggesting a harmony between human creations and the environment. The brook, “too lofty and original to rage,” offers a source of purity and rejuvenation. Nature acts as a teacher, a healer, and a source of solace for those who are willing to listen and learn.
4. The Importance of Solitude and Self-Reliance: “Directive” advocates for a solitary retreat from society, a journey of self-discovery and self-reliance. The speaker encourages the reader to “pull in your ladder road behind you / And put a sign up CLOSED to all but me.” This isolation is not a rejection of others but a necessary step towards finding one’s true self. The “children’s house of make believe” and the “playthings in the playhouse” symbolize the illusions and distractions of society that we must shed to achieve genuine self-understanding. Only in solitude, surrounded by the simple beauty of nature, can we truly “drink and be whole again beyond confusion.”

Literary Theories and “Directive” by Robert Frost

Critical Questions about “Directive” by Robert Frost

• How does Frost use imagery to convey themes of loss and nostalgia?
•  In “Directive,” Robert Frost employs poignant imagery to evoke profound themes of loss and nostalgia. The poem vividly describes places transformed by time, such as “a house that is no more a house / Upon a farm that is no more a farm,” which symbolize the passage of time and the erosion of past realities (Directive). Frost’s imagery, such as “graveyard marble sculpture” and “belilaced cellar hole,” paints a picture of decay and impermanence, reinforcing the speaker’s reflective tone. These images not only depict physical changes in landscapes but also evoke a sense of longing for a simpler, bygone era. Through his masterful use of imagery, Frost invites readers to contemplate the inevitable changes brought by time and the emotional resonance of lost places.
• How does Frost explore the relationship between memory and identity in “Directive”?
• In “Directive,” Frost intricately explores the interplay between memory and identity, weaving them into the fabric of the poem’s narrative. The poem reflects on memories as integral to shaping personal and communal identities. For instance, Frost describes how “two village cultures faded / Into each other,” suggesting a blending of histories and identities (Directive). This blending highlights how memories of the past contribute to collective identity and cultural continuity. The speaker’s directive to reconstruct a comforting narrative (“Make yourself up a cheering song”) underscores the role of memory in defining personal and cultural narratives. Frost’s exploration of memory as a construct that influences identity resonates deeply, inviting readers to reflect on their own connections to history and memory.
• What is the significance of the poem’s structural progression from description to directive?
• The structural progression of “Directive” from descriptive passages to direct instructions plays a crucial role in shaping the poem’s narrative and thematic depth. Frost begins with evocative descriptions of lost places and histories, setting a nostalgic tone with lines like “Back out of all this now too much for us” (Directive). These descriptions create a sense of longing and introspection as the speaker reminisces about a simpler past. As the poem unfolds, the speaker shifts to direct the reader towards introspection and engagement with the past (“You must not mind…”), mirroring the speaker’s guiding role in the narrative (Directive). This progression invites readers to journey alongside the speaker, contemplating themes of memory, loss, and the passage of time. Frost’s strategic structural choices enhance the poem’s intimacy and emotional resonance, guiding readers through a reflective exploration of history and identity.
• How does Frost use language and tone to create a sense of intimacy and guidance in “Directive
• “? Robert Frost employs language and tone masterfully in “Directive” to foster intimacy and provide gentle guidance to the reader. The poem’s language is intimate and conversational, inviting readers to participate in the speaker’s nostalgic journey through phrases like “make yourself at home” and directives to imagine past lives (“Someone’s road home from work this once was”) (Directive). Frost’s tone is contemplative and reassuring, encouraging readers to reflect on their own connections to history and memory alongside the speaker. The gentle, instructive tone creates a sense of shared experience and personal reflection, drawing readers into the speaker’s nostalgic exploration of the past. Through his adept use of language and tone, Frost establishes a profound connection with readers, guiding them through themes of memory, belonging, and the passage of time in “Directive.”

Literary Works Similar to “Directive” by Robert Frost

1. “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost: Another of Frost’s iconic poems, this one explores the theme of choices and their consequences, inviting readers to reflect on the paths they choose in life.
2. “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost: This poem delves into themes of solitude, temptation, and the allure of the unknown, as a traveler pauses in a snowy woods, contemplating the mysteries of life and death.
3. “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot: A modernist masterpiece, this poem explores themes of disillusionment, spiritual emptiness, and the search for meaning in a fragmented world, employing a variety of allusions and fragmented narratives.
4. “Song of Myself” by Walt Whitman: This epic poem celebrates the individual, the natural world, and the interconnectedness of all things, offering a vision of spiritual transcendence and democratic ideals.
5. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: This poem delves into the anxieties and insecurities of a modern man, grappling with feelings of isolation, inadequacy, and the fear of rejection.

Suggested Readings: “Directive” by Robert Frost

Representative Quotations of “Directive” by Robert Frost

Introduction: “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen

“Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen first appeared in the posthumously published collection Poems in 1920. The poem, a bitter critique of war propaganda, highlights the grim reality faced by soldiers on the front lines, contrasting it with the cheerful and encouraging messages propagated back home. Owen’s stark imagery and use of repetition emphasize the emotional disconnect between the soldiers’ experiences and the public’s perception, contributing to the poem’s haunting and ironic tone. This stark juxtaposition of battlefield horror and forced optimism showcases Owen’s mastery of language and his unwavering commitment to expose the truth of war.

Text: “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen

Annotations of “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen      

Literary and Poetic Devices in “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen

Themes in “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen

1. The Disillusionment of War: Owen vividly captures the soldiers’ disillusionment with the war through their reading of the newspaper. The “sunk-eyed wounded” scanning the “Yesterday’s Mail” filled with propaganda about “Vast Booty” and “Cheap Homes” reveals the stark contrast between the reality of their suffering and the false promises made by those in power. The soldiers’ smiles, described as “curious,” suggest a shared understanding of the lies they’ve been fed.
2. The Manipulation of Propaganda: The poem is a scathing critique of war propaganda, exposing how it manipulates public opinion and conceals the true horrors of war. The lines about “Cheap Homes, not yet planned” and “aerodromes” being the foremost need highlight the government’s prioritization of war efforts over the well-being of its soldiers. The repetition of “Smile, Smile, Smile” serves as a chilling reminder of the insincerity behind the forced optimism propagated by those in power.
3. The Loss of Individuality and Agency: The poem suggests that war strips soldiers of their individuality and agency, turning them into mere numbers on a casualty list. The phrase “half-limbed readers” emphasizes their dehumanization and physical sacrifices. The fact that the soldiers “did not chafe” but instead “smiled at one another curiously” implies a sense of resignation and acceptance of their fate.
4. The Futility and Absurdity of War: Owen’s poem ultimately questions the very purpose and meaning of war. The lines “Peace would do wrong to our undying dead” and “We must be solidly indemnified” reveal the warped logic and misguided priorities of those in power. The final stanza’s reference to “The greatest glory” belonging to those who fought highlights the irony and absurdity of celebrating a conflict that causes so much suffering and loss. The poem leaves the reader with a profound sense of the futility of war and the tragic consequences it inflicts on both individuals and nations.

Literary Theories and “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen

1. Marxist Literary Theory: From a Marxist perspective, Owen’s poem critiques the societal structures and the exploitation of working-class soldiers during wartime. The references to Cheap Homes, not yet planned and Vast Booty from our Latest Haul underscore the disparity between promises of future rewards and the immediate needs of soldiers. Owen highlights how the ruling class, symbolized by rulers sitting in this ancient spot, manipulates patriotic sentiments to justify war and pacify dissent among soldiers who have sacrificed so much. This theory emphasizes the economic and class dynamics embedded in Owen’s portrayal of war’s impact on individuals and society.
2. Feminist Literary Theory: Applying feminist theory to “Smile, Smile, Smile” reveals underlying gender dynamics and the absence of women’s voices in the poem. The focus on male soldiers (the men’s first instinct) and England one by one had fled to France suggests a narrative dominated by male experiences and sacrifices. The poem’s portrayal of soldiers as half-limbed readers underscores their physical and emotional scars, yet the voices and perspectives of women, often affected by war through loss and displacement, remain marginalized. This theory critiques the poem’s depiction of war’s impact solely through a masculine lens, questioning whose stories and voices are privileged in narratives of conflict.
3. New Historicism Literary Theory: New Historicism examines “Smile, Smile, Smile” in its historical context, emphasizing how Owen’s portrayal of wartime propaganda and soldierly experiences reflects broader cultural and political tensions of World War I. The references to Peace would do wrong to our undying dead and The sons we offered might regret they died illustrate Owen’s critique of nationalist rhetoric and the manipulation of public sentiment for political ends. By exploring contemporary newspapers (Yesterday’s Mail) and societal attitudes towards war and sacrifice, Owen critiques the official narratives of heroism and national integrity. This theory highlights how Owen’s poem engages with and challenges dominant historical discourses, offering a critical perspective on the consequences of war beyond conventional narratives of valor and victory.

Critical Questions: “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen

• How does Owen use irony to convey the poem’s message?
• The title, “Smile, Smile, Smile,” is a starkly ironic contrast to the grim reality the poem depicts. The soldiers’ smiles, far from genuine expressions of happiness, are portrayed as a result of manipulation and forced optimism. This irony underscores the poem’s critique of propaganda and the disconnect between the soldiers’ experiences and the public’s perception. The repetition of “Smile” further amplifies this irony, making it a haunting refrain that echoes the soldiers’ silent suffering.
• What is the significance of the newspaper in the poem?
• The newspaper serves as a symbol of the lies and propaganda disseminated by the government to maintain public support for the war. The wounded soldiers reading about “Vast Booty” and “Cheap Homes” highlight the stark contrast between the government’s promises and the soldiers’ grim reality. The newspaper also represents the public’s detachment from the war’s horrors, as they remain oblivious to the true cost of the conflict.
• How does Owen portray the soldiers in the poem?
• The soldiers are depicted as victims of both physical and psychological trauma. Their “sunk-eyed” and “half-limbed” appearance reflects the physical toll of war, while their curious smiles suggest a shared understanding of the lies they’ve been fed. Owen portrays them as dehumanized and objectified, reduced to mere statistics in the “casualties (typed small)” section of the newspaper. Yet, their silent camaraderie and knowing glances hint at a deeper understanding of the war’s futility and absurdity.
• What is the overall message or theme of the poem?
• The poem’s central theme is the disillusionment and betrayal experienced by soldiers in the face of war propaganda. Owen exposes the hypocrisy and manipulation behind the cheerful facade presented to the public, revealing the true cost of war in terms of human suffering and loss. The poem also questions the concept of nationalism and the blind obedience demanded of soldiers, suggesting that the true victims of war are often those who are most deeply invested in its supposed glory.

Topics, Essays Questions and Thesis Statements about “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen

Literary Works Similar to “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen

1. “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen – A poignant portrayal of the horrors of war and its impact on young soldiers.
2. “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen – Exposes the brutal reality of warfare, challenging the romanticized notion of dying for one’s country.
3. “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke – A contrasting poem that idealizes death in service of one’s nation, reflecting the patriotic fervor of the time.
4. “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae – Uses vivid imagery to commemorate fallen soldiers and reflects on the enduring presence of war.
5. “The Next War” by Wilfred Owen – Anticipates the futility and continuation of conflict, questioning the lessons learned from past sacrifices.

Suggested Readings: “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen

Books:

• Owen, Wilfred. The Complete Poems and Fragments. Edited by Jon Stallworthy, Chatto & Windus, 1983.
• Web Links:
• GradeSaver: Analysis and commentary on the poem: https://www.gradesaver.com/wilfred-owen-poems/e-text/smile-smile-smile
• Poetry Foundation: Biography of Wilfred Owen and additional resources: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/wilfred-owen

Representative Quotations from about “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen

Introduction: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

“Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery, first published in 1974 in the Poetry magazine, is a complex and evocative poem that delves into themes of art, perception, and the nature of self. Inspired by the 16th-century painting of the same name by Parmigianino, Ashbery’s poem weaves together ekphrastic descriptions of the artwork with philosophical musings on time, memory, and the limitations of representation. The poem’s fragmented structure, shifting perspectives, and elusive language create a sense of ambiguity and open-endedness, inviting readers to engage in their own interpretations of the artwork and the poem’s broader implications.

Text: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

As Parmigianino did it, the right hand
Bigger than the head, thrust at the viewer
And swerving easily away, as though to protect
What it advertises. A few leaded panes, old beams,
Fur, pleated muslin, a coral ring run together
In a movement supporting the face, which swims
Toward and away like the hand
Except that it is in repose. It is what is
Sequestered. Vasari says, “Francesco one day set himself
To take his own portrait, looking at himself from that purpose
In a convex mirror, such as is used by barbers . . .
He accordingly caused a ball of wood to be made
By a turner, and having divided it in half and
Brought it to the size of the mirror, he set himself
With great art to copy all that he saw in the glass,”
Chiefly his reflection, of which the portrait
Is the reflection, of which the portrait
Is the reflection once removed.
The glass chose to reflect only what he saw
Which was enough for his purpose: his image
Glazed, embalmed, projected at a 180-degree angle.
The time of day or the density of the light
Adhering to the face keeps it
Lively and intact in a recurring wave
Of arrival. The soul establishes itself.
But how far can it swim out through the eyes
And still return safely to its nest? The surface
Of the mirror being convex, the distance increases
Significantly; that is, enough to make the point
That the soul is a captive, treated humanely, kept
In suspension, unable to advance much farther
Than your look as it intercepts the picture.
Pope Clement and his court were “stupefied”
By it, according to Vasari, and promised a commission
That never materialized. The soul has to stay where it is,
Even though restless, hearing raindrops at the pane,
The sighing of autumn leaves thrashed by the wind,
Longing to be free, outside, but it must stay
Posing in this place. It must move
As little as possible. This is what the portrait says.
But there is in that gaze a combination
Of tenderness, amusement and regret, so powerful
In its restraint that one cannot look for long.
The secret is too plain. The pity of it smarts,
Makes hot tears spurt: that the soul is not a soul,
Has no secret, is small, and it fits
Its hollow perfectly: its room, our moment of attention.
That is the tune but there are no words.
The words are only speculation
(From the Latin speculum, mirror):
They seek and cannot find the meaning of the music.
We see only postures of the dream,
Riders of the motion that swings the face
Into view under evening skies, with no
False disarray as proof of authenticity.
But it is life englobed.
One would like to stick one’s hand
Out of the globe, but its dimension,
What carries it, will not allow it.
No doubt it is this, not the reflex
To hide something, which makes the hand loom large
As it retreats slightly. There is no way
To build it flat like a section of wall:
It must join the segment of a circle,
Roving back to the body of which it seems
So unlikely a part, to fence in and shore up the face
On which the effort of this condition reads
Like a pinpoint of a smile, a spark
Or star one is not sure of having seen
As darkness resumes. A perverse light whose
Imperative of subtlety dooms in advance its
Conceit to light up: unimportant but meant.
Francesco, your hand is big enough
To wreck the sphere, and too big,
One would think, to weave delicate meshes
That only argue its further detention.
(Big, but not coarse, merely on another scale,
Like a dozing whale on the sea bottom
In relation to the tiny, self-important ship
On the surface.) But your eyes proclaim
That everything is surface. The surface is what’s there
And nothing can exist except what’s there.
There are no recesses in the room, only alcoves,
And the window doesn’t matter much, or that
Sliver of window or mirror on the right, even
As a gauge of the weather, which in French is
Le temps, the word for time, and which
Follows a course wherein changes are merely
Features of the whole. The whole is stable within
Instability, a globe like ours, resting
On a pedestal of vacuum, a ping-pong ball
Secure on its jet of water.
And just as there are no words for the surface, that is,
No words to say what it really is, that it is not
Superficial but a visible core, then there is
No way out of the problem of pathos vs. experience.
You will stay on, restive, serene in
Your gesture which is neither embrace nor warning
But which holds something of both in pure
Affirmation that doesn’t affirm anything.

The balloon pops, the attention
Turns dully away. Clouds
In the puddle stir up into sawtoothed fragments.
I think of the friends
Who came to see me, of what yesterday
Was like. A peculiar slant
Of memory that intrudes on the dreaming model
In the silence of the studio as he considers
Lifting the pencil to the self-portrait.
How many people came and stayed a certain time,
Uttered light or dark speech that became part of you
Like light behind windblown fog and sand,
Filtered and influenced by it, until no part
Remains that is surely you. Those voices in the dusk
Have told you all and still the tale goes on
In the form of memories deposited in irregular
Clumps of crystals. Whose curved hand controls,
Francesco, the turning seasons and the thoughts
That peel off and fly away at breathless speeds
Like the last stubborn leaves ripped
From wet branches? I see in this only the chaos
Of your round mirror which organizes everything
Around the polestar of your eyes which are empty,
Know nothing, dream but reveal nothing.
I feel the carousel starting slowly
And going faster and faster: desk, papers, books,
Photographs of friends, the window and the trees
Merging in one neutral band that surrounds
Me on all sides, everywhere I look.
And I cannot explain the action of leveling,
Why it should all boil down to one
Uniform substance, a magma of interiors.
My guide in these matters is your self,
Firm, oblique, accepting everything with the same
Wraith of a smile, and as time speeds up so that it is soon
Much later, I can know only the straight way out,
The distance between us. Long ago
The strewn evidence meant something,
The small accidents and pleasures
Of the day as it moved gracelessly on,
A housewife doing chores. Impossible now
To restore those properties in the silver blur that is
The record of what you accomplished by sitting down
“With great art to copy all that you saw in the glass”
So as to perfect and rule out the extraneous
Forever. In the circle of your intentions certain spars
Remain that perpetuate the enchantment of self with self:
Eyebeams, muslin, coral. It doesn’t matter
Because these are things as they are today
Before one’s shadow ever grew
Out of the field into thoughts of tomorrow.

Tomorrow is easy, but today is uncharted,
Desolate, reluctant as any landscape
To yield what are laws of perspective
After all only to the painter’s deep
Mistrust, a weak instrument though
Necessary. Of course some things
Are possible, it knows, but it doesn’t know
Which ones. Some day we will try
To do as many things as are possible
And perhaps we shall succeed at a handful
Of them, but this will not have anything
To do with what is promised today, our
Landscape sweeping out from us to disappear
On the horizon. Today enough of a cover burnishes
To keep the supposition of promises together
In one piece of surface, letting one ramble
Back home from them so that these
Even stronger possibilities can remain
Whole without being tested. Actually
The skin of the bubble-chamber’s as tough as
Reptile eggs; everything gets “programmed” there
In due course: more keeps getting included
Without adding to the sum, and just as one
Gets accustomed to a noise that
Kept one awake but now no longer does,
So the room contains this flow like an hourglass
Without varying in climate or quality
(Except perhaps to brighten bleakly and almost
Invisibly, in a focus sharpening toward death–more
Of this later). What should be the vacuum of a dream
Becomes continually replete as the source of dreams
Is being tapped so that this one dream
May wax, flourish like a cabbage rose,
Defying sumptuary laws, leaving us
To awake and try to begin living in what
Has now become a slum. Sydney Freedberg in his
Parmigianino says of it: “Realism in this portrait
No longer produces and objective truth, but a bizarria . . . .
However its distortion does not create
A feeling of disharmony . . . . The forms retain
A strong measure of ideal beauty,” because
Fed by our dreams, so inconsequential until one day
We notice the hole they left. Now their importance
If not their meaning is plain. They were to nourish
A dream which includes them all, as they are
Finally reversed in the accumulating mirror.
They seemed strange because we couldn’t actually see them.
And we realize this only at a point where they lapse
Like a wave breaking on a rock, giving up
Its shape in a gesture which expresses that shape.
The forms retain a strong measure of ideal beauty
As they forage in secret on our idea of distortion.
Why be unhappy with this arrangement, since
Dreams prolong us as they are absorbed?
Something like living occurs, a movement
Out of the dream into its codification.

As I start to forget it
It presents its stereotype again
But it is an unfamiliar stereotype, the face
Riding at anchor, issued from hazards, soon
To accost others, “rather angel than man” (Vasari).
Perhaps an angel looks like everything
We have forgotten, I mean forgotten
Things that don’t seem familiar when
We meet them again, lost beyond telling,
Which were ours once. This would be the point
Of invading the privacy of this man who
“Dabbled in alchemy, but whose wish
Here was not to examine the subtleties of art
In a detached, scientific spirit: he wished through them
To impart the sense of novelty and amazement to the spectator”
(Freedberg). Later portraits such as the Uffizi
“Gentleman,” the Borghese “Young Prelate” and
The Naples “Antea” issue from Mannerist
Tensions, but here, as Freedberg points out,
The surprise, the tension are in the concept
Rather than its realization.
The consonance of the High Renaissance
Is present, though distorted by the mirror.
What is novel is the extreme care in rendering
The velleities of the rounded reflecting surface
(It is the first mirror portrait),
So that you could be fooled for a moment
Before you realize the reflection
Isn’t yours. You feel then like one of those
Hoffmann characters who have been deprived
Of a reflection, except that the whole of me
Is seen to be supplanted by the strict
Otherness of the painter in his
Other room. We have surprised him
At work, but no, he has surprised us
As he works. The picture is almost finished,
The surprise almost over, as when one looks out,
Startled by a snowfall which even now is
Ending in specks and sparkles of snow.
It happened while you were inside, asleep,
And there is no reason why you should have
Been awake for it, except that the day
Is ending and it will be hard for you
To get to sleep tonight, at least until late.

The shadow of the city injects its own
Urgency: Rome where Francesco
Was at work during the Sack: his inventions
Amazed the soldiers who burst in on him;
They decided to spare his life, but he left soon after;
Vienna where the painting is today, where
I saw it with Pierre in the summer of 1959; New York
Where I am now, which is a logarithm
Of other cities. Our landscape
Is alive with filiations, shuttlings;
Business is carried on by look, gesture,
Hearsay. It is another life to the city,
The backing of the looking glass of the
Unidentified but precisely sketched studio. It wants
To siphon off the life of the studio, deflate
Its mapped space to enactments, island it.
That operation has been temporarily stalled
But something new is on the way, a new preciosity
In the wind. Can you stand it,
Francesco? Are you strong enough for it?
This wind brings what it knows not, is
Self–propelled, blind, has no notion
Of itself. It is inertia that once
Acknowledged saps all activity, secret or public:
Whispers of the word that can’t be understood
But can be felt, a chill, a blight
Moving outward along the capes and peninsulas
Of your nervures and so to the archipelagoes
And to the bathed, aired secrecy of the open sea.
This is its negative side. Its positive side is
Making you notice life and the stresses
That only seemed to go away, but now,
As this new mode questions, are seen to be
Hastening out of style. If they are to become classics
They must decide which side they are on.
Their reticence has undermined
The urban scenery, made its ambiguities
Look willful and tired, the games of an old man.
What we need now is this unlikely
Challenger pounding on the gates of an amazed
Castle. Your argument, Francesco,
Had begun to grow stale as no answer
Or answers were forthcoming. If it dissolves now
Into dust, that only means its time had come
Some time ago, but look now, and listen:
It may be that another life is stocked there
In recesses no one knew of; that it,
Not we, are the change; that we are in fact it
If we could get back to it, relive some of the way
It looked, turn our faces to the globe as it sets
And still be coming out all right:
Nerves normal, breath normal. Since it is a metaphor
Made to include us, we are a part of it and
Can live in it as in fact we have done,
Only leaving our minds bare for questioning
We now see will not take place at random
But in an orderly way that means to menace
Nobody–the normal way things are done,
Like the concentric growing up of days
Around a life: correctly, if you think about it.

A breeze like the turning of a page
Brings back your face: the moment
Takes such a big bite out of the haze
Of pleasant intuition it comes after.
The locking into place is “death itself,”
As Berg said of a phrase in Mahler’s Ninth;
Or, to quote Imogen in Cymbeline, “There cannot
Be a pinch in death more sharp than this,” for,
Though only exercise or tactic, it carries
The momentum of a conviction that had been building.
Mere forgetfulness cannot remove it
Nor wishing bring it back, as long as it remains
The white precipitate of its dream
In the climate of sighs flung across our world,
A cloth over a birdcage. But it is certain that
What is beautiful seems so only in relation to a specific
Life, experienced or not, channeled into some form
Steeped in the nostalgia of a collective past.
The light sinks today with an enthusiasm
I have known elsewhere, and known why
It seemed meaningful, that others felt this way
Years ago. I go on consulting
This mirror that is no longer mine
For as much brisk vacancy as is to be
My portion this time. And the vase is always full
Because there is only just so much room
And it accommodates everything. The sample
One sees is not to be taken as
Merely that, but as everything as it
May be imagined outside time–not as a gesture
But as all, in the refined, assimilable state.
But what is this universe the porch of
As it veers in and out, back and forth,
Refusing to surround us and still the only
Thing we can see? Love once
Tipped the scales but now is shadowed, invisible,
Though mysteriously present, around somewhere.
But we know it cannot be sandwiched
Between two adjacent moments, that its windings
Lead nowhere except to further tributaries
And that these empty themselves into a vague
Sense of something that can never be known
Even though it seems likely that each of us
Knows what it is and is capable of
Communicating it to the other. But the look
Some wear as a sign makes one want to
Push forward ignoring the apparent
NaÏveté of the attempt, not caring
That no one is listening, since the light
Has been lit once and for all in their eyes
And is present, unimpaired, a permanent anomaly,
Awake and silent. On the surface of it
There seems no special reason why that light
Should be focused by love, or why
The city falling with its beautiful suburbs
Into space always less clear, less defined,
Should read as the support of its progress,
The easel upon which the drama unfolded
To its own satisfaction and to the end
Of our dreaming, as we had never imagined
It would end, in worn daylight with the painted
Promise showing through as a gage, a bond.
This nondescript, never-to-be defined daytime is
The secret of where it takes place
And we can no longer return to the various
Conflicting statements gathered, lapses of memory
Of the principal witnesses. All we know
Is that we are a little early, that
Today has that special, lapidary
Todayness that the sunlight reproduces
Faithfully in casting twig-shadows on blithe
Sidewalks. No previous day would have been like this.
I used to think they were all alike,
That the present always looked the same to everybody
But this confusion drains away as one
Is always cresting into one’s present.
Yet the “poetic,” straw-colored space
Of the long corridor that leads back to the painting,
Its darkening opposite–is this
Some figment of “art,” not to be imagined
As real, let alone special? Hasn’t it too its lair
In the present we are always escaping from
And falling back into, as the waterwheel of days
Pursues its uneventful, even serene course?
I think it is trying to say it is today
And we must get out of it even as the public
Is pushing through the museum now so as to
Be out by closing time. You can’t live there.
The gray glaze of the past attacks all know-how:
Secrets of wash and finish that took a lifetime
To learn and are reduced to the status of
Black-and-white illustrations in a book where colorplates
Are rare. That is, all time
Reduces to no special time. No one
Alludes to the change; to do so might
Involve calling attention to oneself
Which would augment the dread of not getting out
Before having seen the whole collection
(Except for the sculptures in the basement:
They are where they belong).
Our time gets to be veiled, compromised
By the portrait’s will to endure. It hints at
Our own, which we were hoping to keep hidden.
We don’t need paintings or
Doggerel written by mature poets when
The explosion is so precise, so fine.
Is there any point even in acknowledging
The existence of all that? Does it
Exist? Certainly the leisure to
Indulge stately pastimes doesn’t,
Any more. Today has no margins, the event arrives
Flush with its edges, is of the same substance,
Indistinguishable. “Play” is something else;
It exists, in a society specifically
Organized as a demonstration of itself.
There is no other way, and those assholes
Who would confuse everything with their mirror games
Which seem to multiply stakes and possibilities, or
At least confuse issues by means of an investing
Aura that would corrode the architecture
Of the whole in a haze of suppressed mockery,
Are beside the point. They are out of the game,
Which doesn’t exist until they are out of it.
It seems like a very hostile universe
But as the principle of each individual thing is
Hostile to, exists at the expense of all the others
As philosophers have often pointed out, at least
This thing, the mute, undivided present,
Has the justification of logic, which
In this instance isn’t a bad thing
Or wouldn’t be, if the way of telling
Didn’t somehow intrude, twisting the end result
Into a caricature of itself. This always
Happens, as in the game where
A whispered phrase passed around the room
Ends up as something completely different.
It is the principle that makes works of art so unlike
What the artist intended. Often he finds
He has omitted the thing he started out to say
In the first place. Seduced by flowers,
Explicit pleasures, he blames himself (though
Secretly satisfied with the result), imagining
He had a say in the matter and exercised
An option of which he was hardly conscious,
Unaware that necessity circumvents such resolutions.
So as to create something new
For itself, that there is no other way,
That the history of creation proceeds according to
Stringent laws, and that things
Do get done in this way, but never the things
We set out to accomplish and wanted so desperately
To see come into being. Parmigianino
Must have realized this as he worked at his
Life-obstructing task. One is forced to read
The perfectly plausible accomplishment of a purpose
Into the smooth, perhaps even bland (but so
Enigmatic) finish. Is there anything
To be serious about beyond this otherness
That gets included in the most ordinary
Forms of daily activity, changing everything
Slightly and profoundly, and tearing the matter
Of creation, any creation, not just artistic creation
Out of our hands, to install it on some monstrous, near
Peak, too close to ignore, too far
For one to intervene? This otherness, this
“Not-being-us” is all there is to look at
In the mirror, though no one can say
How it came to be this way. A ship
Flying unknown colors has entered the harbor.
You are allowing extraneous matters
To break up your day, cloud the focus
Of the crystal ball. Its scene drifts away
Like vapor scattered on the wind. The fertile
Thought-associations that until now came
So easily, appear no more, or rarely. Their
Colorings are less intense, washed out
By autumn rains and winds, spoiled, muddied,
Given back to you because they are worthless.
Yet we are such creatures of habit that their
Implications are still around en permanence, confusing
Issues. To be serious only about sex
Is perhaps one way, but the sands are hissing
As they approach the beginning of the big slide
Into what happened. This past
Is now here: the painter’s
Reflected face, in which we linger, receiving
Dreams and inspirations on an unassigned
Frequency, but the hues have turned metallic,
The curves and edges are not so rich. Each person
Has one big theory to explain the universe
But it doesn’t tell the whole story
And in the end it is what is outside him
That matters, to him and especially to us
Who have been given no help whatever
In decoding our own man-size quotient and must rely
On second-hand knowledge. Yet I know
That no one else’s taste is going to be
Any help, and might as well be ignored.
Once it seemed so perfect–gloss on the fine
Freckled skin, lips moistened as though about to part
Releasing speech, and the familiar look
Of clothes and furniture that one forgets.
This could have been our paradise: exotic
Refuge within an exhausted world, but that wasn’t
In the cards, because it couldn’t have been
The point. Aping naturalness may be the first step
Toward achieving an inner calm
But it is the first step only, and often
Remains a frozen gesture of welcome etched
On the air materializing behind it,
A convention. And we have really
No time for these, except to use them
For kindling. The sooner they are burnt up
The better for the roles we have to play.
Therefore I beseech you, withdraw that hand,
Offer it no longer as shield or greeting,
The shield of a greeting, Francesco:
There is room for one bullet in the chamber:
Our looking through the wrong end
Of the telescope as you fall back at a speed
Faster than that of light to flatten ultimately
Among the features of the room, an invitation
Never mailed, the “it was all a dream”
Syndrome, though the “all” tells tersely
Enough how it wasn’t. Its existence
Was real, though troubled, and the ache
Of this waking dream can never drown out
The diagram still sketched on the wind,
Chosen, meant for me and materialized
In the disguising radiance of my room.
We have seen the city; it is the gibbous
Mirrored eye of an insect. All things happen
On its balcony and are resumed within,
But the action is the cold, syrupy flow
Of a pageant. One feels too confined,
Sifting the April sunlight for clues,
In the mere stillness of the ease of its
Parameter. The hand holds no chalk
And each part of the whole falls off
And cannot know it knew, except
Here and there, in cold pockets
Of remembrance, whispers out of time.

Annotations: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

Themes: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

• Art and Perception: The poem extensively explores the nature of art and how it shapes and distorts perception. Ashbery uses Parmigianino’s self-portrait as a metaphor for the ways art manipulates reality, emphasizing the distorted proportions caused by the convex mirror. This distortion is highlighted in lines such as, “As Parmigianino did it, the right hand / Bigger than the head, thrust at the viewer,” which showcases the deliberate alteration of physical dimensions to create a specific artistic effect.
• Parmigianino’s self-portrait as a symbol
• Distortion of reality through art
• Visual manipulation and perception
• Philosophical Musings on Self and Soul: Ashbery delves into philosophical reflections on the nature of the self and the soul, questioning how far the soul can extend beyond the physical body. This theme is poignantly expressed in lines like, “The soul establishes itself. / But how far can it swim out through the eyes / And still return safely to its nest?” Here, Ashbery contemplates the limits of self-perception and the essence of identity beyond the physical form.
• Contemplation of the soul’s reach
• Identity beyond physical appearance
• Limits of self-perception
• Temporal Displacement and Historical Context: The poem juxtaposes different time periods, reflecting on the loss of traditional artistic skills and the seamless nature of contemporary experiences. Ashbery laments, “The gray glaze of the past attacks all know-how: / Secrets of wash and finish that took a lifetime / To learn,” indicating a disconnection from the meticulous craftsmanship of the past. This theme underscores the impact of time on art and perception.
• Juxtaposition of past and present
• Loss of traditional skills
• Impact of time on art and experience
• Modernity and Fragmented Reality: Ashbery captures the fragmented and interconnected nature of modern life, where events blend seamlessly without distinct boundaries. He remarks, “Today has no margins, the event arrives / Flush with its edges, is of the same substance, / Indistinguishable.” This observation highlights the blurred lines in contemporary experiences and the challenge of finding distinct meaning in a constantly shifting reality.
• Fragmentation of modern life
• Blurred boundaries of events
• Search for meaning in contemporary experiences

Critical Questions about “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

• How does Ashbery’s poem challenge the traditional concept of the self-portrait through its engagement with Parmigianino’s painting?
• Ashbery’s poem doesn’t merely describe the painting; it interrogates the very act of self-representation. While Parmigianino’s convex mirror distorts the physical image, Ashbery suggests that the distortion lies deeper, in the gap between the self as subject and the self as object of representation. Lines like “The soul is a captive, treated humanely, kept in suspension” and “The soul is not a soul, / Has no secret, is small” question the ability of any portrait, be it painted or poetic, to capture the essence of a person. This challenges the notion that a self-portrait can offer a definitive or authentic representation of the self.
• How does Ashbery explore the relationship between art, perception, and reality in “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror”?
• The poem delves into the complexities of how art mediates our perception of reality, particularly self-perception. The convex mirror acts as a symbol of both distortion and revelation, showing us a version of ourselves that is both familiar and unfamiliar. The lines “everything is surface” and “there are no recesses in the room, only alcoves” suggest that the visible world is all we have access to, yet it is also constantly shifting and elusive. Through the poem’s engagement with Parmigianino’s painting, Ashbery questions whether art can ever fully capture the truth of reality, or if it inevitably distorts and reshapes our understanding of the world.
• How does the poem’s structure and style contribute to its overall meaning and effect?
• Ashbery’s poem is characterized by its fragmented structure, shifting perspectives, and digressive nature. The poem weaves together ekphrastic descriptions of the painting with personal reflections, philosophical musings, and historical allusions. This fragmented form mirrors the fragmented nature of the self, the difficulty of capturing it in a unified representation. The poem’s shifting perspectives, sometimes adopting the voice of the poet, sometimes that of Parmigianino, or even the painting itself, create a sense of ambiguity and open-endedness, inviting readers to actively participate in the creation of meaning.
• What is the role of time and memory in Ashbery’s exploration of the self in “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror”?
• The poem grapples with the elusive nature of time and memory, suggesting that our understanding of the self is constantly shaped and reshaped by the passage of time and the accumulation of memories. The lines “A peculiar slant of memory that intrudes on the dreaming model” and “Whose curved hand controls, Francesco, the turning seasons and the thoughts that peel off and fly away…” highlight the role of memory in both distorting and preserving our sense of self. Time is portrayed as both a destructive and creative force, eroding the past while simultaneously giving rise to new possibilities for self-understanding. The poem suggests that our relationship to time and memory is a central aspect of our identity, shaping who we are and how we see ourselves.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

Literary Works Similar to “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

1. “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot: Like Ashbery, Eliot’s poem explores fragmented perceptions and the complexities of modern existence.
2. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: This poem delves into the introspective and fragmented nature of self-perception, similar to Ashbery’s work.
3. “The Idea of Order at Key West” by Wallace Stevens: Stevens’ poem examines the relationship between reality and artistic creation, akin to Ashbery’s themes.
4. “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens: Stevens’ exploration of art and reality mirrors Ashbery’s reflections on perception and representation.
5. “Directive” by Robert Frost: Frost’s poem navigates the blurred lines between past and present, echoing Ashbery’s temporal displacement themes.

Suggested Readings: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

Books:

• Ashbery, John. Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror. Penguin Books, 1975.
• Lehman, David. The Last Avant-Garde: The Making of the New York School of Poets. Doubleday, 1998.
• Shapiro, David. John Ashbery: An Introduction to the Poetry. Columbia University Press, 1979.

Web Links:

• Poetry Foundation: John Ashbery: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/john-ashbery
• Academy of American Poets: John Ashbery: https://poets.org/poet/john-ashbery

Representative Quotations of “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery