Category: Literary Theory

Sound Studies: Term and Concept

Etymology of Sound Studies

The term “Sound Studies” has emerged as a distinct field of inquiry in the humanities, focusing on the cultural, historical, and theoretical dimensions of sound. Rooted in the broader disciplines of musicology, anthropology, and media studies, the etymology of “Sound Studies” reflects an interdisciplinary approach to understanding sound beyond mere auditory perception. The word “sound” itself originates from the Old English “sund,” meaning “a noise, a sound,” which is related to the Proto-Germanic “sundaz” and the Proto-Indo-European root “swonos.” This etymological lineage emphasizes the primordial and universal nature of sound as a fundamental human experience. The addition of “studies” signifies a systematic investigation and scholarly endeavor, indicating that Sound Studies encompass not only the analysis of sound as a physical phenomenon but also its impact on society, culture, and individual consciousness. This evolving academic field thus aims to bridge the gap between the scientific and the humanistic perspectives on sound, offering a comprehensive understanding of its multifaceted role in human life.

Concept in Literature

Concept	Details
Sound as a Narrative Device	Sound is used to enhance storytelling, create atmosphere, and convey emotions. Example: The use of sound in James Joyce’s “Ulysses.”
Soundscapes in Fiction	The depiction of auditory environments to build immersive worlds. Example: The detailed soundscape in William Faulkner’s “The Sound and the Fury.”
Acoustic Ecology	Exploration of the relationship between characters and their sonic environment. Example: The sounds of nature in Virginia Woolf’s “The Waves.”
Phonocentrism vs. Logocentrism	The debate over the primacy of spoken versus written word. Example: Jacques Derrida’s critique in “Of Grammatology.”
Sonic Symbolism	Use of sound to symbolize themes and motifs. Example: The recurring motif of bells in Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude.”
Voice and Identity	Representation of voice as a marker of identity and power. Example: The distinct narrative voices in Toni Morrison’s “Beloved.”
Sound and Memory	The role of sound in triggering and preserving memories. Example: The evocative sounds in Marcel Proust’s “In Search of Lost Time.”
Audiotexts	Texts that incorporate audio elements or are designed to be read aloud. Example: The performance aspect of Allen Ginsberg’s “Howl.”
Technological Mediation	The influence of sound recording and reproduction technologies on literature. Example: The impact of the phonograph in Thomas Pynchon’s “Vineland.”

Sound Studies: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Sound Studies: Key Principals

Principle	Explanation	Literary Example
Soundscape	The holistic sonic environment, encompassing both natural and human-made sounds.	In Ulysses, the “Wandering Rocks” episode captures the cacophony of Dublin’s streets, blending voices, horse hooves, and the ambient hum of the city into a vibrant sonic tapestry.
Acoustic Ecology	The study of the relationship between living beings (including humans) and their sonic environment. Emphasizes the interconnectedness of sound, ecology, and well-being.	Silent Spring highlights the ecological consequences of pesticide use, including the silencing of birdsong, demonstrating the profound impact of sound on the environment.
Audio-Vision	The interplay between sound and image in media like film and television. Sound can complement, contradict, or even transcend the visual elements of a narrative.	In Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho, the screeching violins in the shower scene heighten the horror and suspense beyond what the visuals alone could convey, showcasing the power of audio-visual synergy.
Sonic Warfare	The use of sound as a weapon or tool of control, encompassing everything from psychological torture to military sonic booms.	In 1984, the Thought Police use constant surveillance and propaganda broadcasts to create a sonic environment of fear and paranoia, demonstrating sound’s potential for manipulation and oppression.
Deep Listening	A practice of attentive listening that involves both focused attention on external sounds and internal awareness. Promotes a holistic experience of sound and its impact on the listener’s physical, emotional, and mental state.	In Siddhartha, the protagonist learns the art of deep listening from the river, gaining wisdom and enlightenment through attentive engagement with the natural world’s sonic expressions.
Sonic Branding	The use of sound to create a unique identity for a brand or product. This can involve jingles, sonic logos, or even a specific soundscape associated with a brand’s image.	The Intel “Bong” is a prime example of sonic branding, as the five-note chime has become instantly recognizable and synonymous with the company’s technological innovation.
Bioacoustics	The study of the sounds produced by animals and their role in communication, navigation, and survival.	In Moby Dick, descriptions of whale songs highlight the importance of bioacoustics in understanding marine life and the complex communication systems of animals.
Acoustic Ecology	The study of the relationship between living beings (including humans) and their sonic environment. Emphasizes the interconnectedness of sound, ecology, and well-being.	White Noise explores the anxieties of modern life through a constant barrage of media sounds, consumerism, and technological noise, illustrating the impact of our sonic environment on mental and emotional well-being.

Sound Studies and Literary Theories

1. Interdisciplinary Approaches:
   • Sound Studies integrates concepts from musicology, anthropology, media studies, and cultural studies, enriching literary analysis by providing a multi-sensory perspective.
   • It emphasizes the auditory dimension of texts, exploring how sound and silence contribute to narrative structure, character development, and thematic depth.
2. Narrative Techniques:
   • Examines how authors use sound as a narrative device, including dialogue, internal monologue, and environmental sounds to create mood and atmosphere.
   • Investigates the role of soundscapes in fiction, understanding how sonic environments shape the reader’s experience and perception of the narrative world.
3. Cultural and Historical Contexts:
   • Analyzes how historical and cultural contexts influence the representation of sound in literature, reflecting societal attitudes towards noise, silence, music, and orality.
   • Explores the relationship between sound and power, identity, and resistance, particularly in postcolonial and feminist literary theories.
4. Technological Impact:
   • Investigates the impact of sound recording and reproduction technologies on literature, such as the influence of the phonograph, radio, and digital media.
   • Examines how these technologies have changed the way literature is produced, consumed, and interpreted, leading to new forms of audiotexts and performance literature.
5. Phonocentrism and Logocentrism:
   • Engages with the philosophical debates surrounding phonocentrism (the privileging of speech over writing) and logocentrism (the privileging of written text), particularly in the works of theorists like Jacques Derrida.
   • Explores how literature negotiates these tensions, using sound to challenge traditional hierarchies of meaning and representation.
6. Memory and Temporality:
   • Studies the relationship between sound, memory, and temporality in literature, understanding how auditory experiences evoke past events and shape narrative time.
   • Analyzes the use of sound motifs and acoustic memory in creating connections between different temporal layers of a narrative.
7. Embodiment and Subjectivity:
   • Investigates how sound contributes to the embodied experience of reading, influencing the reader’s sensory engagement with the text.
   • Explores the role of voice and vocalization in constructing subjectivity and agency, particularly in marginalized and subaltern voices.

Examples in Literary Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory:
   • Analyzes how colonial and postcolonial texts use sound to represent cultural hybridity, resistance, and identity formation.
   • Example: Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart” uses traditional Igbo songs and oral storytelling to highlight cultural resilience.
2. Feminist Theory:
   • Examines the representation of women’s voices and the politics of silence in literature, challenging patriarchal structures.
   • Example: Margaret Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale” explores the suppression and subversion of female voices in a dystopian society.
3. Psychoanalytic Theory:
   • Investigates the unconscious dimensions of sound in literature, such as the auditory hallucinations and acousmatic sounds that reveal hidden desires and fears.
   • Example: The eerie soundscapes in Edgar Allan Poe’s works reflect the psychological turmoil of his characters.
4. Ecocriticism:
   • Explores the relationship between sound and the natural environment, highlighting ecological awareness and the impact of human activity on natural soundscapes.
   • Example: Henry David Thoreau’s “Walden” presents detailed descriptions of natural sounds, fostering a deep connection with the environment.

Sound Studies: Criticism Against It

• Western-centric Focus: Early sound studies scholarship was predominantly focused on Western perspectives, neglecting the diverse sonic practices and cultural understandings of sound found in non-Western societies.
• Overemphasis on Technology: Some critics argue that sound studies has overly emphasized the role of technology in shaping sonic experiences, neglecting the social, cultural, and political dimensions of sound.
• Neglect of Embodied Experience: Sound studies has been criticized for not adequately addressing the embodied experience of sound, including the physical and emotional responses to sound that are shaped by individual bodies and identities.
• Lack of Intersectionality: Critics argue that sound studies has not fully embraced an intersectional approach, failing to adequately consider how sound interacts with issues of race, gender, class, and other social categories.
• Theoretical Obscurity: Some critics find sound studies scholarship to be overly theoretical and jargon-laden, making it inaccessible to broader audiences and limiting its practical applications.
• Limited Scope: Despite its interdisciplinary nature, sound studies has been criticized for having a limited scope, neglecting certain areas of sonic inquiry, such as the study of music and the relationship between sound and language.
• Overemphasis on the Negative: Some critics argue that sound studies has focused too much on negative aspects of sound, such as noise pollution and sonic warfare, neglecting the positive and therapeutic uses of sound.

Sound Studies: Key Terms

Term	Definition
Acousmatic Sound	Sound that is heard without an identifiable source, creating a sense of mystery or ambiguity.
Soundscape	The acoustic environment as perceived by humans, including natural, human, and technological sounds.
Phonocentrism	The privileging of spoken language over written text in cultural and philosophical contexts.
Acoustic Ecology	The study of the relationship between living beings and their sonic environment.
Sonic Boom	A sudden and powerful sound effect used to signify a dramatic or impactful event.
Auditory Icon	A sound that is easily recognizable and conveys a specific meaning or context.
Audiotexts	Literary works designed to be performed or consumed through listening rather than reading.
Voice	The use of spoken language in literature, emphasizing individuality, identity, and expression.
Silence	The intentional use of absence of sound to create meaning, tension, or highlight particular moments.
Echo	The reflection of sound, often used in literature to symbolize memory, repetition, or haunting presence.

Sound Studies: Suggested Readings

• Chion, Michel. Audio-Vision: Sound on Screen. Translated by Claudia Gorbman, Columbia University Press, 1994.
• Goodman, Steve. Sonic Warfare: Sound, Affect, and the Ecology of Fear. MIT Press, 2010.
• LaBelle, Brandon. Acoustic Territories: Sound Culture and Everyday Life. Continuum, 2010.
• Oliveros, Pauline. Deep Listening: A Composer’s Sound Practice. Deep Listening Publications, 2005.
• Schafer, R. Murray. The Tuning of the World. Knopf, 1977.
• Sterne, Jonathan. The Audible Past: Cultural Origins of Sound Reproduction. Duke University Press, 2003.
• Thompson, Emily. The Soundscape of Modernity: Architectural Acoustics and the Culture of Listening in America, 1900-1933. MIT Press, 2002.
• Voegelin, Salomé. Listening to Noise and Silence: Towards a Philosophy of Sound Art. Continuum, 2010.

Relevant Organizations & Publications

• The World Forum for Acoustic Ecology (WFAE): https://wfae.net/
• The Journal of Sonic Studies: https://sonicstudies.org/
• Sound Studies Lab: https://soundstudieslab.org/

Gender Studies: Etymology and Concept

Aspect	Description
Etymologے	The term “gender studies” emerged in academia during the late 20th century, branching out from the established field of women’s studies. The word “gender” itself derives from the Middle English “gendre,” initially denoting grammatical categories. However, its meaning evolved to encompass the social and cultural dimensions of identity distinct from biological sex, marking a crucial shift that propelled the development of gender studies as an independent discipline.
Conceptual Framework in Literary Analysis	* Representational Scrutiny: Gender studies in literature meticulously examines the portrayal of gender within texts, analyzing stereotypes, power dynamics, and the construction of masculinity and femininity.

• Feminist Critical Lens: This approach challenges conventional interpretations by highlighting the marginalization of women and amplifying female perspectives.
• Queer Theoretical Inquiry: This lens scrutinizes non-normative sexualities and gender identities, questioning the binary paradigm of male/female and heterosexual/homosexual.
• Intersectional Considerations: Gender studies recognizes that gender intersects with other social categories such as race, class, and disability, shaping multifaceted experiences and perspectives. |

Gender Studies: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Work	Main Arguments
John Stuart Mill	The Subjection of Women (1869)	Advocates for equality between the sexes and critiques legal and social inequalities imposed on women.
Virginia Woolf	A Room of One’s Own (1929)	Explores the need for financial independence and personal space for women writers to create literature.
Simone de Beauvoir	The Second Sex (1949)	Asserts that women have been historically relegated to the role of “the Other” and calls for women’s liberation.
Betty Friedan	The Feminine Mystique (1963)	Criticizes the idealized image of domestic womanhood and highlights the dissatisfaction of many housewives.
Kate Millett	Sexual Politics (1970)	Analyzes the power dynamics of sex and patriarchal structures embedded in literature and society.
Shulamith Firestone	The Dialectic of Sex (1970)	Proposes that gender inequality is rooted in biological reproduction and advocates for technological advancements.
Judith Butler	Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990)	Introduces the concept of gender performativity, suggesting that gender is constructed through repeated performances.
bell hooks	Ain’t I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism (1981)	Examines the intersections of race, gender, and class, emphasizing the unique struggles of Black women.
Donna Haraway	A Cyborg Manifesto (1985)	Discusses the blurring lines between humans and machines, proposing a post-gender world.
Raewyn Connell	Masculinities (1995)	Explores the social construction of masculinities and their interaction with power structures.
Sara Ahmed	The Cultural Politics of Emotion (2004)	Investigates how emotions play a role in the formation of identities and social bonds.
Judith Halberstam	The Queer Art of Failure (2011)	Challenges conventional success-oriented narratives and explores alternative ways of being through queer theory.
Jack Halberstam	Trans: A Quick and Quirky Account of Gender Variability* (2018)	Offers an accessible introduction to the complexity and fluidity of gender, emphasizing the diversity of experiences.

Gender Studies: Principles

Principle	Definition	Literary Example
Social Construction of Gender	Gender is not solely determined by biology (sex) but is shaped by social, cultural, and historical forces. Norms and expectations vary across time and societies.	In Shakespeare’s “Twelfth Night,” Viola’s successful navigation of male social circles as Cesario challenges rigid Elizabethan gender roles.
Intersectionality	Gender identity intersects with other aspects of identity, such as race, class, sexuality, and disability, creating unique experiences of privilege and oppression.	Toni Morrison’s “Beloved” explores the intersecting oppressions faced by Sethe, a formerly enslaved black woman, whose trauma and resilience are shaped by her race, gender, and historical context.
Challenging Binaries	Gender studies questions the traditional binary understanding of gender (male/female) and sexuality (heterosexual/homosexual), recognizing a spectrum of identities.	Virginia Woolf’s “Orlando” features a protagonist who lives for centuries, transitioning between male and female identities, blurring the lines of gender and challenging societal norms.
Feminist Perspectives	Feminist theory, central to gender studies, advocates for gender equality, challenges patriarchy, and amplifies marginalized voices. It examines gendered power imbalances in various domains.	Margaret Atwood’s “The Handmaid’s Tale” offers a feminist critique of a dystopian society where women are stripped of their rights, serving as a cautionary tale about patriarchal oppression.
Queer Theory	Queer theory critiques heteronormativity and challenges assumptions about fixed gender and sexual identities. It explores the fluidity and diversity of human experiences and celebrates queerness as resistance.	Oscar Wilde’s “The Picture of Dorian Gray” subverts Victorian norms by exploring homoerotic themes and the complexities of desire, challenging the era’s strict moral codes.

Gender Studies: Relevance to Literary Theories

Gender Studies: Major Poetcs and Fiction Writers

Poets

Fiction Writers

Gender Studies: Criticism Against It

• Lack of Scientific Rigor: Some critics argue that gender studies lacks empirical evidence and relies too heavily on subjective interpretations and theoretical frameworks. They claim that its findings are not always replicable or generalizable.
• Promotion of a Political Agenda: Critics often accuse gender studies of being overly politicized and ideological, promoting a feminist or progressive agenda rather than seeking objective knowledge.
• Rejection of Biological Differences: Some argue that gender studies downplays or denies the biological differences between men and women, leading to an overly social constructivist view of gender.
• Limited Focus: Critics suggest that gender studies focuses too narrowly on issues of gender and sexuality, neglecting other important social factors like race, class, and ethnicity.
• Academic Isolation: Some critics argue that gender studies has become isolated within academia, failing to engage with other disciplines and perspectives, leading to a lack of intellectual diversity.
• Promotion of Victimhood: Some critics claim that gender studies promotes a victim mentality among women and other marginalized groups, hindering their empowerment and agency.
• Undermining Traditional Values: Some critics view gender studies as a threat to traditional family structures and gender roles, arguing that it promotes radical and disruptive social change.

Gender Studies: Key Terms

Term	Definition
Patriarchy	A social system in which men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege, and control of property.
Feminism	A range of social movements, political movements, and ideologies that aim to define, establish, and achieve political, economic, personal, and social equality of sexes.
Gender Performativity	The concept that gender is not an inherent trait but something we do or perform through our actions, dress, and behaviors.
Intersectionality	The interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, class, and gender as they apply to a given individual or group, creating overlapping and interdependent systems of discrimination or disadvantage.
Heteronormativity	The belief that heterosexuality is the default or normal sexual orientation, and that gender roles are complementary and innate.
Queer Theory	A field of critical theory that challenges traditional notions of gender and sexuality, emphasizing the fluidity and diversity of identity.
Gender Essentialism	The idea that men and women have inherent, biologically determined characteristics and abilities that distinguish them from each other.
Gender Policing	The enforcement of normative gender expressions on an individual who is perceived as not adequately performing, through appearance or behavior, the sex that was assigned to them at birth.
Hegemonic Masculinity	The dominant form of masculinity in a given society, which often promotes aggression, competition, and emotional stoicism.
Cisgender	A term for people whose gender identity matches the sex that they were assigned at birth.

Gender Studies: Suggested Readings

• Books
• Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
• Crenshaw, Kimberlé. On Intersectionality: Essential Writings. The New Press, 2017.
• de Beauvoir, Simone. The Second Sex. Translated by Constance Borde and Sheila Malovany-Chevalier, Vintage Books, 2011.
• Halberstam, Judith. Female Masculinity. Duke University Press, 1998.
• hooks, bell. Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center. South End Press, 2000.
• Articles
• Ahmed, Sara. “Feminist Killjoys (And Other Willful Subjects).” The Scholar and Feminist Online, vol. 8, no. 3, 2010.
• Butler, Judith. “Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory.” Theatre Journal, vol. 40, no. 4, 1988, pp. 519-531.
• Crenshaw, Kimberlé. “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color.” Stanford Law Review, vol. 43, no. 6, 1991, pp. 1241-1299.
• Web Resources
• National Women’s Studies Association: https://nwsa.org/
• The Feminist Wire: https://thefeministwire.com/
• Gender & Society (Journal): https://journals.sagepub.com/home/gas

Film Studies: Etymology, Term and Concept

Etymology of Film Studies

The term “Film Studies” is a compound noun composed of two words: “film” and “studies” derived from the Old English word “filmen” meaning “membrane” or “skin,” originally referred to the thin layer of light-sensitive emulsion used in photography and cinematography. “Studies,” from the Latin word “studium” meaning “eagerness” or “application,” denotes a systematic examination and analysis of a particular subject. Thus, “Film Studies” signifies the academic discipline dedicated to the rigorous investigation and interpretation of film as an art form, cultural product, and technological phenomenon.

Film Studies – Term and Concept

Term	Concept
Film	A motion picture, created by recording a series of images and projecting them rapidly to create the illusion of movement.
Study	The systematic examination and analysis of a particular subject, often involving research, interpretation, and critical evaluation.
Film Studies	The academic discipline focused on the historical, aesthetic, technological, economic, and cultural dimensions of film.
Film Theory	The body of ideas and concepts used to analyze and interpret films, including approaches such as formalism, structuralism, semiotics, psychoanalysis, feminism, and postcolonialism.
Film Criticism	The practice of evaluating and analyzing films, often published in reviews, essays, or books.
Film History	The study of the development and evolution of film as an art form and industry, tracing its origins, major movements, and influential figures.
Film Genre	A category of films sharing common narrative conventions, thematic concerns, and stylistic elements, such as westerns, musicals, science fiction, or horror.
Film Production	The process of creating a film, including pre-production (planning and development), production (shooting and recording), and post-production (editing and sound mixing).
Film Exhibition	The presentation of films to audiences, traditionally in theaters but also through other platforms like television, streaming services, or home video.

Film Studies: Theorist, Works and Arguments

Early Film Theorists (1890s-1920s)

Silent Film Era (1920s)

Classical Hollywood and Realism (1930s-1940s)

Post-War and Auteur Theory (1950s-1960s)

Structuralism and Semiotics (1960s-1970s)

Feminist and Psychoanalytic Film Theory (1970s-1980s)

Postmodernism and Cultural Studies (1980s-Present)

Film Studies: Principles

Principle	Description	Film Example	Perspective & Critique
Cinematography	The art of photography and camera work in filmmaking.	Blade Runner 2049	Visual Perspective: The film uses lighting and shadow to create a moody, futuristic atmosphere. The critique often highlights the innovative use of color and framing to convey the story’s themes.
Editing	The process of selecting and combining shots into sequences to shape the narrative.	Whiplash	Rhythmic Perspective: Critics note how the editing mirrors the intense rhythms of the drumming protagonist, enhancing the viewer’s emotional engagement and tension.
Sound Design	The creation and integration of the audio elements in a film.	Dunkirk	Immersive Perspective: The film’s sound design is often praised for its immersive quality, using a ticking clock and escalating soundscapes to heighten the sense of urgency and realism.
Narrative Structure	The structural framework that outlines the sequence of events in a film.	Pulp Fiction	Non-linear Perspective: The fragmented narrative structure challenges traditional storytelling, which is critiqued for both its innovation and its potential to confuse viewers.
Themes & Symbolism	The underlying messages and symbols used throughout the film to convey deeper meanings.	Pan’s Labyrinth	Symbolic Perspective: The film uses fantasy elements as symbols of historical and personal trauma. Critics explore how these symbols contrast with the brutal reality of war.
Character Development	The arc of transformation or growth that characters undergo over the course of a film.	The Godfather	Evolutionary Perspective: Michael Corleone’s transformation from reluctant outsider to ruthless leader is critically examined as a commentary on power and corruption.
Genre	The category of film that influences the style and elements used based on established conventions.	Get Out	Genre-blending Perspective: Critiques focus on how the film blends horror with social satire, subverting traditional genre expectations to address complex themes of race and identity.
Mise-en-scène	The arrangement of everything that appears in the framing – actors, lighting, décor, props, etc.	Amélie	Stylized Perspective: Critics appreciate how the film’s whimsical mise-en-scène complements the protagonist’s inner world, using vibrant colors and intricate details to reflect her imaginative and quirky nature.

Film Studies and Literary Theories: Interdisciplinary Connections

Film Studies, while a distinct discipline, shares significant connections with literary theories due to the shared interest in narrative, representation, and cultural meaning. Many literary theories have been adapted and applied to film analysis, enriching the understanding of cinematic texts. The table below illustrates the relevance of literary theories to Film Studies with specific examples:

Literary Theory	Relevance to Film Studies	Example
Formalism/Structuralism	Focus on the formal elements of film, such as editing, cinematography, mise-en-scène, and narrative structure, to understand how they create meaning.	Analyzing the use of montage in Sergei Eisenstein’s “Battleship Potemkin” to create emotional impact and political commentary.
Semiotics	Examines how signs and symbols in film, such as visual imagery, dialogue, and sound, convey meaning and contribute to the film’s overall message.	Analyzing the symbolism of color in “The Wizard of Oz,” where the transition from black and white to color represents Dorothy’s journey into a fantastical world.
Psychoanalysis	Explores the unconscious desires and motivations of characters in film, as well as the potential psychological effects of film on viewers.	Analyzing the dream sequences in Alfred Hitchcock’s “Spellbound” to understand the protagonist’s repressed memories and anxieties.
Feminism	Examines the representation of gender in film, challenging traditional stereotypes and exploring the experiences of women both on and off screen.	Analyzing the portrayal of female characters in “Thelma and Louise” as a subversion of traditional gender roles and a celebration of female empowerment.
Postcolonialism	Analyzes the representation of colonized peoples and cultures in film, challenging Eurocentric perspectives and exploring the complexities of cultural identity.	Analyzing the depiction of cultural conflict and identity in Satyajit Ray’s “Apu Trilogy,” set in post-colonial India.
Marxism	Examines the social and economic structures that shape the production and reception of film, as well as the ideological messages embedded in films.	Analyzing the representation of class struggle and social inequality in Fritz Lang’s “Metropolis,” a dystopian vision of a capitalist society.
Queer Theory	Examines the representation of sexuality and gender identity in film, challenging heteronormative assumptions and exploring the diversity of queer experiences.	Analyzing the depiction of queer desire and identity in Todd Haynes’ “Carol,” a love story between two women in the 1950s.

Film Studies: Major Elements of Film Critiques with Examples

• Plot and Narrative Structure: Evaluates how the story is structured and unfolds.
  Example: In Memento, the reverse chronological order serves to immerse the audience into the protagonist’s experience of memory loss, often highlighted in critiques for its innovative storytelling technique.
• Character Development: Discusses the evolution of characters throughout the film and how well these arcs are portrayed.
  Example: Silver Linings Playbook features detailed critiques on the authentic development of its characters dealing with mental health issues, emphasizing the performances that bring depth to their personal growth.
• Themes and Underlying Messages: Analyzes the themes the film explores and what messages it conveys to the audience.
  Example: Critiques of The Matrix often explore its philosophical themes, including the nature of reality and freedom vs. control, highlighting its depth beyond the action-packed surface.
• Direction: Focuses on the director’s vision and execution.
  Example: In Birdman, the direction by Alejandro González Iñárritu is often lauded for its seamless appearance of being filmed in a single shot, creating a continuous narrative flow.
• Cinematography: Examines the visual presentation of the film, including camera work and lighting.
  Example: La La Land is frequently praised in critiques for its vibrant cinematography and dynamic use of color, which enhance its nostalgic yet contemporary take on classic Hollywood musicals.
• Editing: Looks at how the film is put together, including the rhythm and pace set by the editing style.
  Example: Mad Max: Fury Road is often highlighted for its fast-paced editing that contributes to the intense, chaotic atmosphere of the film, keeping viewers engaged and on edge.
• Soundtrack and Sound Design: Reviews the effectiveness and integration of music and sound in the film.
  Example: Inception uses its soundtrack, especially the iconic use of deep, reverberating horn sounds, to enhance the dramatic tension and underline the layers of the dream within a dream setup.
• Set Design and Mise-en-scène: Considers how the visual styling, set design, and overall scene composition contribute to the storytelling.
  Example: The Grand Budapest Hotel receives extensive praise for its meticulously crafted set designs and a detailed mise-en-scène that perfectly complements the whimsical and colorful narrative style of Wes Anderson.
• Impact and Cultural Relevance: Assesses the film’s influence on culture and its relevance to contemporary issues.
  Example: Black Panther is critically acclaimed not just for its storytelling and production quality but also for its cultural significance and positive impact in representing African cultures and addressing themes of identity and heritage.

Film Studies: Criticism Against It

• Subjectivity in Analysis:
  Criticism: One common critique is that film studies can be overly subjective. Since film analysis often involves interpreting themes, symbols, and messages, different critics may have vastly different takes on the same film, leading to criticisms that the field lacks objective standards.
  Counterpoint: Advocates argue that the subjective nature of film studies allows for a rich diversity of interpretations and deeper engagement with the material, reflecting the complex, multifaceted nature of human experiences and artistic expression.
• Commercial vs. Artistic Focus:
  Criticism: There is a perceived divide in film studies between focusing on commercially successful blockbusters versus art films. Critics argue that academic attention may skew toward more obscure, “artistic” films at the expense of mainstream cinema, which most audiences consume.
  Counterpoint: Supporters of film studies contend that the field provides critical tools to appreciate all types of cinema, and that studying diverse film types enriches understanding of both popular and niche cinematic expressions.
• Accessibility and Elitism:
  Criticism: Film studies can sometimes be seen as elitist, focusing on esoteric theories and jargon that can be inaccessible to the general public. This can alienate potential audiences who might otherwise be interested in learning about film in a more approachable way.
  Counterpoint: Many in the field are pushing for more inclusive and accessible approaches that bridge academic film study and popular film appreciation, making the insights of film studies more available to a broader audience.
• Practical Relevance:
  Criticism: Critics often question the practical relevance of film studies, particularly in terms of career outcomes. They argue that the field does not provide clear pathways to employment outside academia or the film industry, which can be highly competitive.
  Counterpoint: Proponents argue that film studies develop critical thinking, analytical skills, and cultural awareness, which are valuable in a variety of career paths, including media, education, advertising, and beyond.
• Overemphasis on Theory:
  Criticism: There’s a criticism that film studies may overemphasize theoretical over practical aspects of filmmaking. This leads to a situation where students might understand film theory well but lack the hands-on skills needed in the actual production of films.
  Counterpoint: Many academic programs are now incorporating practical components such as filmmaking workshops, digital media training, and industry internships to provide a balanced education that includes both theory and practice.

Film Studies: How to Do a Film Critique

A film critique is a detailed analysis and evaluation of a film, considering its various elements and their contribution to the overall cinematic experience. Here’s a step-by-step approach to crafting a comprehensive film critique:

Example: Film Critique of “Parasite” (2019)

Aspect	Analysis
Narrative Structure	The film’s narrative unfolds in a series of unexpected twists and turns, subverting genre expectations and keeping the audience engaged.
Character Development	The characters are complex and multifaceted, their motivations driven by social and economic disparities.
Cinematography	The film’s visual style is striking, using framing, composition, and lighting to create a sense of unease and tension.
Editing	The editing is precise and dynamic, contributing to the film’s fast pace and suspenseful atmosphere.
Sound	The sound design is meticulously crafted, using music and sound effects to heighten the emotional impact of key scenes.
Themes	The film explores themes of class struggle, social inequality, and the dark side of the pursuit of wealth.
Overall Evaluation	“Parasite” is a masterful work of cinema, a thought-provoking and entertaining film that challenges viewers to confront uncomfortable truths about society.

This table provides a brief example of how a film critique might be structured, focusing on key aspects of Bong Joon-ho’s “Parasite.” By following this step-by-step approach and tailoring it to your chosen film, you can write a thoughtful and insightful film critique that demonstrates your understanding of the medium and its artistic potential.

Film Studies: Key Terms

Term	Definition
Cinematography	The art of making motion pictures, focusing on visual elements like framing, lighting, and camera angles.
Mise-en-scène	Everything that appears before the camera and its arrangement—includes sets, props, actors, costumes, and lighting.
Montage	A series of short shots edited into a sequence to condense space, time, and information.
Diegesis	The narrative “world” of the film—includes events, characters, objects, settings, and sounds that are part of the story.
Non-diegetic Elements	Elements that do not exist in the film’s “world” but are used to enhance the narrative, such as score music and titles.
Editing	The process by which different shots are pieced together to form a coherent film.
Foley	The reproduction of everyday sound effects added to film, video, and other media in post-production to enhance audio quality.
Genre	A category of film that shares familiar narrative structures, styles, or themes, like horror, comedy, or drama.
Auteur	A filmmaker whose personal influence and artistic control over a movie are so significant that they are regarded as the author of the movie.
Narratology	The study of narrative structure and how it influences our perception and interpretation of a story.

Film Studies: Suggested Readings

African Literary Theory: Etymology and Concept

Etymology

African literary theory encompasses the diverse and evolving interpretations of African literature, rooted in the continent’s rich cultural and historical contexts. The term “African literary theory” draws from the linguistic, philosophical, and artistic traditions of various African societies. It integrates indigenous oral traditions, postcolonial critiques, and modern literary analysis to form a comprehensive framework for understanding African narratives. The evolution of this theory reflects the continent’s struggle for identity, autonomy, and expression in the face of colonization and globalization, making it a dynamic and multifaceted field of study.

Concept

• Cultural Authenticity and Indigenous Narratives
  Emphasizes the importance of African cultural traditions and oral storytelling in literary works.
• Postcolonial Critique and Decolonization
  Analyzes the impact of colonization on African literature and seeks to reclaim indigenous voices and perspectives.
• Intersectionality and Identity
  Examines the intersections of race, gender, class, and ethnicity in African literature.
• Afrofuturism and Speculative Fiction
  Explores futuristic and speculative narratives that envision new possibilities for African societies.
• Diasporic Connections and Global Influence
  Investigates the influence of the African diaspora on literature and the global dissemination of African narratives.
• Resistance and Liberation Themes
  Highlights themes of resistance, liberation, and empowerment in African literary works.
• Language and Translation
  Discusses the role of language, multilingualism, and translation in African literary production and interpretation.
• Ecocriticism and Environmental Concerns
  Focuses on the relationship between literature and the environment, addressing ecological issues pertinent to African contexts.
• Aesthetic Innovations and Literary Forms
  Analyzes the unique stylistic and formal innovations in African literature, including the blend of traditional and modern techniques.

African Literary Theory: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Works	Arguments
Chinua Achebe	Things Fall Apart (1958), “An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness” (1975)	Argued for the decolonization of African literature, criticized Western portrayals of Africa, emphasized the importance of African oral traditions, and championed the use of African languages in literature.
Ngugi wa Thiong’o	Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature (1986)	Advocated for the use of African languages in literature, criticized the dominance of European languages, and emphasized the connection between language and cultural identity.
Frantz Fanon	The Wretched of the Earth (1961), Black Skin, White Masks (1952)	Explored the psychological effects of colonialism, analyzed the relationship between colonizer and colonized, and advocated for radical decolonization.
Wole Soyinka	Myth, Literature and the African World (1976), Death and the King’s Horseman (1975)	Explored the significance of African mythology and rituals, analyzed the clash between African and Western cultures, and emphasized the importance of cultural syncretism.
Lewis Nkosi	Home and Exile (1965)	Examined the experiences of African writers in exile, explored themes of displacement and identity, and critiqued the political and social conditions in South Africa under apartheid.
Buchi Emecheta	The Joys of Motherhood (1979), Second-Class Citizen (1974)	Explored the experiences of African women, challenged patriarchal norms, and addressed issues of gender inequality and social injustice.
Micere Githae Mugo	The Long Illness of Ex-Chief Kiti (1976)	Examined the legacy of colonialism in Kenya, explored themes of political corruption and social inequality, and celebrated the resilience of African women.
Ama Ata Aidoo	Anowa (1970), The Dilemma of a Ghost (1965)	Explored the complexities of African identity, challenged Western stereotypes, and addressed issues of cultural conflict and social change.

African Literary Theory: Principles

African Literary Theory: Examples from Literature

Principle	Example	Explanation
Cultural Authenticity and Indigenous Narratives	Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Achebe portrays the pre-colonial life of the Igbo society with rich detail and respect for its traditions. The novel provides a counter-narrative to colonial depictions of African societies as primitive, emphasizing the vitality and complexity of indigenous cultures.
Postcolonial Critique and Decolonization	A Grain of Wheat by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Thiong’o examines the effects of British colonization on Kenya, portraying the Mau Mau uprising and personal struggles. The novel critiques the colonial legacy and explores themes of resistance and liberation, advocating for the reclamation of indigenous cultures and languages.
Intersectionality and Identity	So Long a Letter by Mariama Bâ	Bâ’s novel addresses gender, culture, and religion in Senegalese society, exploring the challenges faced by women in a patriarchal society. Through the protagonist’s experiences, it sheds light on broader issues of gender inequality and social expectations.
Afrofuturism and Speculative Fiction	Who Fears Death by Nnedi Okorafor	Okorafor blends African cultural elements with speculative fiction to imagine a dystopian future. The novel explores themes of oppression, magic, and transformation in a post-apocalyptic Africa, challenging traditional genre boundaries and addressing contemporary issues.
Diasporic Connections and Global Influence	Americanah by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie	Adichie explores the experiences of the African diaspora, focusing on a Nigerian woman’s life in the United States. The novel addresses themes of identity, race, and belonging, examining how African identities are reshaped and redefined in a global context.
Resistance and Liberation Themes	Half of a Yellow Sun by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie	Adichie delves into the Biafran War and its impact on Nigeria, portraying the struggles of the Igbo people. The novel highlights the resilience and determination of individuals fighting for freedom and survival, illuminating broader political and social upheavals.
Language and Translation	The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born by Ayi Kwei Armah	Armah addresses the complexities of postcolonial Ghana through a mix of English and local idioms. The novel captures the unique voice of its characters and the socio-political realities they face, emphasizing linguistic diversity and the challenges of translation.
Ecocriticism and Environmental Concerns	The Famished Road by Ben Okri	Okri weaves the natural environment into his narrative, following the life of a spirit child in Nigeria. The novel highlights the interconnectedness of humans and nature, addressing ecological issues and advocating for a harmonious relationship with the natural world.
Aesthetic Innovations and Literary Forms	Season of Migration to the North by Tayeb Salih	Salih employs nonlinear narrative structure and a blend of modernist and traditional storytelling techniques. The novel explores themes of identity and cultural conflict, showcasing innovative approaches to form and style that challenge conventional literary norms.

African Literary Theory: Criticism Against It

African Literary Theory: Key Terms

Key Term	Definition
Decolonization	The process of dismantling colonial structures and ideologies in literature, reclaiming African narratives and perspectives.
Orality	The significance of oral traditions, storytelling, and folklore in shaping African literary forms and themes.
Negritude	A literary and philosophical movement celebrating Black consciousness, cultural heritage, and resistance against colonialism.
Afrocentricity	A critical framework that centers African perspectives, values, and experiences in the analysis and interpretation of literature.
Postcolonialism	The exploration of the ongoing effects of colonialism on African societies and cultures, including issues of identity, power, and resistance.
Hybridity	The blending of African and European cultural elements in literature, reflecting the complex and dynamic nature of African identities.
Womanism	A Black feminist perspective that addresses the unique experiences and concerns of African women, challenging both sexism and racism.
Pan-Africanism	A movement advocating for the unity and solidarity of people of African descent worldwide, often reflected in themes of liberation and unity.
Diaspora	The dispersion of Africans across the globe due to slavery and colonialism, and the resulting cultural exchange and hybridity.
African Renaissance	A cultural and intellectual movement promoting the revitalization of African arts, literature, and thought.

 

Post-Apocalyptic Literature: Etymology and Concept

Etymology of “Post-Apocalyptic” in Literature

The term “post-apocalyptic” in Post-Apocalyptic Literature is a compound word with Latin and Greek roots. “Post” is derived from the Latin word meaning “after” or “subsequent.” “Apocalyptic” stems from the Greek word “apokalypsis,” meaning “unveiling” or “revelation.” In a literary context, “post-apocalyptic” refers to works set in a period after a catastrophic event—often a global disaster—that drastically alters society and the environment. The term encompasses a broad range of subgenres, from bleak dystopias to stories of survival and resilience. The etymology of the term underscores the dual nature of the post-apocalyptic genre, as it explores both the destruction and potential for renewal inherent in the aftermath of catastrophe.

Concept of Post-Apocalyptic Literature

Aspect	Description
Setting	A world significantly transformed by a catastrophic event (e.g., war, plague, natural disaster).
Themes	Survival, societal collapse, loss, resilience, hope, rebuilding, the human condition.
Characters	Often survivors struggling to adapt to a new reality, facing physical and psychological challenges.
Plot	Typically centered on the characters’ efforts to survive, find meaning, and possibly rebuild a new society.
Subgenres	Dystopia, survival horror, post-apocalyptic science fiction, eco-fiction.

Post-Apocalyptic Literature: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Post-Apocalyptic Literature: Principles

Principle	Description	Example(s)
Catastrophic Event	The narrative begins after a large-scale disaster that has drastically altered the world.	The Road by Cormac McCarthy, A Canticle for Leibowitz by Walter M. Miller Jr.
Survival and Adaptation	Characters struggle to survive in a harsh and unfamiliar environment, often facing physical and psychological challenges.	The Stand by Stephen King, Oryx and Crake by Margaret Atwood
Social Collapse and Reconstruction	The breakdown of societal norms and institutions leads to new forms of social organization, or attempts to rebuild the old.	Lord of the Flies by William Golding, Station Eleven by Emily St. John Mandel
Loss and Trauma	Characters grapple with the loss of loved ones, homes, and familiar ways of life.	The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood, Never Let Me Go by Kazuo Ishiguro
Hope and Resilience	Despite the bleak circumstances, the narrative often explores the enduring human spirit and the possibility of renewal.	Parable of the Sower by Octavia Butler, Wool by Hugh Howey
Moral and Philosophical Questions	The post-apocalyptic setting allows for exploration of fundamental questions about human nature, morality, and the meaning of life.	The Children of Men by P.D. James, The Postman by David Brin
Environmental Commentary	The genre often critiques human actions that have led to environmental degradation and explores the consequences of ecological collapse.	The Windup Girl by Paolo Bacigalupi, The Wall by John Lanchester

Post-Apocalyptic Literature: How to Use in Critiques

Post-Apocalyptic Literature: Criticism Against It

Post-Apocalyptic Literature: Suggested Readings

Politeness Theory: Etymology and Concept      

Etymology of Politeness Theory

Politeness theory, a cornerstone of pragmatics, emerged in the late 20th century, primarily attributed to the seminal work of Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson in 1978 and 1987. The term “politeness” itself, derived from the Latin “politus” meaning “refined” or “smoothed,” has a long history in social and linguistic discourse. However, Brown and Levinson’s framework solidified it as a theoretical construct, exploring the intricate ways individuals navigate social interactions to maintain face, a concept borrowed from Erving Goffman. The theory’s etymology thus reflects a convergence of linguistic, sociological, and psychological perspectives, highlighting its interdisciplinary nature.

Concept of Politeness Theory

Key Concepts	Description
Face	The public self-image that individuals strive to maintain. It has two aspects: positive and negative face.
Positive Face	The desire to be liked, appreciated, and approved of by others.
Negative Face	The desire for autonomy, freedom from imposition, and the ability to act according to one’s own will.
Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs)	Actions that potentially harm or threaten an individual’s positive or negative face.
Politeness Strategies	Verbal and nonverbal tactics employed to mitigate or redress FTAs, thus maintaining social harmony.
Positive Politeness Strategies	Strategies that emphasize solidarity, friendliness, and appreciation of the other person.
Negative Politeness Strategies	Strategies that respect the other person’s autonomy and avoid imposing on them.
Bald On-Record Strategy	Direct and unambiguous communication, often used in situations where efficiency is prioritized over politeness.
Off-Record Strategy	Indirect communication, often used to avoid directly threatening someone’s face.
Factors Influencing Politeness Strategy Choice	Social distance, power relations, and the degree of imposition of the FTA all influence the choice of strategy.

Politeness Theory: Theorists, Works and Arguments

• Erving Goffman (1955, 1967)
  • Works: On Face-Work: An Analysis of Ritual Elements in Social Interaction (1955), Interaction Ritual (1967)
  • Argument: Introduced the foundational concept of “face” as the desired self-image presented in social interactions. Argued that individuals engage in “face-work” to manage their own and others’ face, maintaining a smooth flow of interaction and avoiding embarrassment or conflict.
• Robin Lakoff (1973, 1975)
  • Works: Language and Woman’s Place (1973), Language and Woman’s Place: Text and Commentaries (1975)
  • Argument: While not explicitly focused on politeness theory, Lakoff’s work on language and gender laid the groundwork for understanding the role of politeness in social interactions. She argued that women are socialized to use more polite language than men, reflecting and reinforcing power imbalances.
• Penelope Brown and Stephen Levinson (1978, 1987)
  • Work: Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage (1987)
  • Argument: Developed the most influential framework for politeness theory, introducing the concepts of face-threatening acts (FTAs) and politeness strategies. They proposed that politeness is a universal phenomenon with cross-cultural variations and that individuals use different strategies to mitigate FTAs depending on social distance, power relations, and the degree of imposition.
• Geoffrey Leech (1983)
  • Work: Principles of Pragmatics (1983)
  • Argument: Integrated politeness into a broader framework of pragmatics, proposing the Politeness Principle as a fundamental conversational maxim. He argued that politeness operates alongside Grice’s Cooperative Principle, guiding speakers to maintain social harmony and avoid conflict.
• Shoshana Blum-Kulka (1987)
  • Work: “Indirectness and Politeness in Requests: Same or Different?” (1987)
  • Argument: Conducted cross-cultural research on politeness, challenging the universality claims of Brown and Levinson. She argued that politeness norms and strategies vary significantly across cultures, emphasizing the need to consider cultural context in understanding politeness phenomena.
• Richard Watts (2003)
  • Work: Politeness (2003)
  • Argument: Critiqued the individualistic and rationalistic assumptions of traditional politeness theory. He proposed a more social and contextualized approach, emphasizing the dynamic nature of politeness and its role in constructing social identities and relationships.
• Jonathan Culpeper (1996, 2011)
  • Works: “Towards an Anatomy of Impoliteness” (1996), Impoliteness: Using Language to Cause Offence (2011)
  • Argument: Expanded the scope of politeness theory by focusing on its opposite: impoliteness. He argued that impoliteness is not simply the absence of politeness but a strategic use of language to achieve specific social goals, such as challenging authority, expressing disapproval, or creating humor.

Politeness Theory: Principles

Principle	Definition	Literary Example
Concept of Face	The public self-image every individual strives to maintain.	Mr. Darcy in Pride and Prejudice (“I certainly have not the talent…of conversing easily with those I have never seen before.”) – Desire for negative face (autonomy, freedom from imposition).
	* Positive Face: The desire to be liked, appreciated, and approved of.
	* Negative Face: The desire to be autonomous and free from imposition.
Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs)	Speech acts that potentially harm or threaten another person’s face (positive or negative).	Hamlet’s insult to Ophelia in Hamlet (“Get thee to a nunnery…”) – Threatens Ophelia’s positive face (desire to be liked).
Politeness Strategies	Redressive actions taken to counterbalance the disruptive effect of FTAs.
	* Positive Politeness: Showing solidarity, emphasizing common ground, using in-group markers.	Tom Sawyer’s invitation to Huck in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (“Say, Huck—maybe you’d like to go with us, hey?”)
	* Negative Politeness: Being indirect, using hedges, minimizing imposition.	Gatsby’s cautious inquiry in The Great Gatsby (“I thought you might be here. I wondered if you wouldn’t mind…”)
	* Bald On-record: Direct speech acts without any attempt to minimize the FTA.	Iago’s accusation in Othello (“Look to your wife; observe her well with Cassio.”)
	* Off-record (indirect): Indirect speech acts where the intent is not explicitly stated.	Alice’s self-deprecating remark in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland (“But that’s just the trouble with me. I give myself very good advice, but I very seldom follow it.”)
Factors Influencing Strategy Choice	The choice of politeness strategy depends on:
	* Social distance between the speaker and hearer.
	* Relative power of the speaker and hearer.
	* Absolute ranking of impositions in a particular culture.	Jane Eyre’s use of “sir” when addressing Mr. Rochester in Jane Eyre – Reflects the power differential and social distance between them.

Politeness Theory: How to Use in Critiques

1. Identify Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs): Look for instances where characters’ words or actions threaten the positive or negative face of other characters. Pay attention to insults, criticisms, requests, disagreements, or any situation that could cause embarrassment or loss of autonomy.
2. Analyze Politeness Strategies: Examine how characters respond to FTAs. Do they employ positive politeness (showing solidarity, offering compliments), negative politeness (apologizing, being indirect), bald on-record (being direct and blunt), or off-record strategies (using hints or ambiguity)?
3. Consider Contextual Factors: Analyze the relationship between the characters involved in the FTA. Are they friends, enemies, family, or strangers? What is their social status relative to each other? How does the setting and situation influence their communication?
4. Evaluate Effectiveness: Assess how successful the politeness strategies are in mitigating the FTA. Do they restore harmony, escalate conflict, or lead to misunderstandings? Consider the cultural context of the novel and the intended audience.
5. Interpret the Author’s Intent: Based on your analysis, what do you think the author is trying to communicate about the characters, their relationships, or the social norms of the world they inhabit? How does the use of politeness (or lack thereof) contribute to the overall themes and messages of the novel?

Example: Applying Politeness Theory to “Lessons in Chemistry” by Bonnie Garmus (2022)

1. FTA: In a scene, a male colleague undermines Elizabeth Zott’s research by claiming credit for her work. This is a threat to her positive face (professional recognition) and negative face (autonomy over her research).
2. Politeness Strategy: Elizabeth responds with a bald on-record strategy, directly confronting her colleague and asserting her ownership of the research.
3. Contextual Factors: The relationship between Elizabeth and her colleague is one of professional rivalry. The setting is a male-dominated scientific field in the 1960s, where women’s contributions are often dismissed or undervalued.
4. Effectiveness: Elizabeth’s direct confrontation is effective in the short term, as she reclaims credit for her work. However, it also creates tension and potential long-term consequences for her career in a hostile environment.
5. Author’s Intent: Garmus uses this scene to highlight the challenges faced by women in STEM fields and to critique the systemic sexism that often undermines their achievements. Elizabeth’s use of a bald on-record strategy reflects her determination and refusal to be silenced, but it also underscores the risks associated with challenging the status quo.

Politeness Theory: Criticism Against It

• Overemphasis on Individualism: Some critics argue that the theory focuses too much on individual face needs and neglects the role of social and cultural context in shaping politeness norms.
• Universalism vs. Cultural Relativism: The universality of Brown and Levinson’s model has been questioned, with researchers pointing out significant cultural variations in politeness norms and strategies.
• Limited Scope: The theory primarily focuses on linguistic politeness and overlooks other forms of politeness expressed through nonverbal behavior, gestures, and actions.
• Neglect of Power Dynamics: Critics argue that the theory does not adequately address the role of power relations in shaping politeness behavior, particularly in asymmetrical relationships where one party holds more power than the other.
• Oversimplification of “Face”: The concept of face has been criticized for being too simplistic and failing to capture the complex and multifaceted nature of self-image and identity.
• Lack of Empirical Evidence: Some critics argue that the theory lacks sufficient empirical evidence to support its claims, particularly regarding the universality of politeness strategies.
• Neglect of Impoliteness: The traditional focus on politeness has led to a neglect of impoliteness, which is equally important for understanding social interaction and conflict.

Politeness Theory: Key Terms

Term	Definition
Face	The public self-image that individuals strive to maintain. It has two aspects: positive and negative face.
Positive Face	The desire to be liked, appreciated, and approved of by others.
Negative Face	The desire for autonomy, freedom from imposition, and the ability to act according to one’s own will.
Face-Threatening Acts (FTAs)	Actions (verbal or non-verbal) that potentially harm or threaten an individual’s positive or negative face.
Politeness Strategies	Verbal and nonverbal tactics employed to mitigate or redress FTAs, thus maintaining social harmony.
Positive Politeness	Strategies that emphasize solidarity, friendliness, and appreciation of the other person (e.g., compliments, offers).
Negative Politeness	Strategies that respect the other person’s autonomy and avoid imposing on them (e.g., apologies, indirect requests).
Bald On-Record	Direct and unambiguous communication, often used in situations where efficiency is prioritized over politeness (e.g., commands, orders).
Off-Record	Indirect communication, often used to avoid directly threatening someone’s face (e.g., hints, jokes).
Social Distance	The degree of familiarity or intimacy between individuals, which influences the choice of politeness strategies.

Politeness Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, Juliane House, and Gabriele Kasper, eds. Cross-Cultural Pragmatics: Requests and Apologies. Ablex Publishing Corporation, 1989.
2. Brown, Penelope, and Stephen C. Levinson. Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge University Press, 1987.
3. Culpeper, Jonathan. Impoliteness: Using Language to Cause Offence. Cambridge University Press, 2011.
4. Goffman, Erving. Interaction Ritual: Essays on Face-to-Face Behavior. Anchor Books, 1967.
5. Lakoff, Robin Tolmach. Talking Power: The Politics of Language in Our Lives. Basic Books, 1990.
6. Leech, Geoffrey N. Principles of Pragmatics. Longman, 1983.
7. Watts, Richard J. Politeness. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
8. Werkhofer, Konrad T. “Traditional and Modern Views: The Social Constitution and the Power of Politeness.” Journal of Politeness Research, vol. 1, no. 1, 2005, pp. 155-199.

Articles:

1. Brown, Roger, and Albert Gilman. “Politeness Theory and Shakespeare’s Four Major Tragedies.” Language in Society, vol. 18, no. 2, 1989, pp. 159–212. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4168029. Accessed 21 July 2024.
2. HARRIS, SANDRA. “Being Politically Impolite: Extending Politeness Theory to Adversarial Political Discourse.” Discourse & Society, vol. 12, no. 4, 2001, pp. 451–72. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42888379. Accessed 21 July 2024.
3. Park, Jung-ran. “Western Politeness Theory and Non-Western Context.” Discourse as Cultural Struggle, edited by Shi-xu, Hong Kong University Press, 2007, pp. 123–42. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1xwbkz.12. Accessed 21 July 2024.
4. Terkourafi, Marina. “POLITENESS.” Key Ideas in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language, edited by Siobhan Chapman and Christopher Routledge, Edinburgh University Press, 2009, pp. 157–61. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1g09vvm.61. Accessed 21 July 2024.