Category: Literary Theory

Etymology of Existentialism

The term “existentialism” is derived from the Latin word “existere,” which means “to exist.” It became popular in the mid-20th century to describe a philosophical movement that focuses on the individual’s existence and the associated themes of freedom, choice, and responsibility.

Meanings of Existentialism

Aspect	Meaning
Literal Meaning in Literature	Works exploring existentialist themes, with characters questioning existence, freedom, and meaning.
Literary Movement	A literary movement where authors incorporate existentialist ideas, focusing on individual experience, choice, and the human condition.
Theoretical Interpretation	The use of existentialist philosophy to analyze literature, examining characters’ choices and the absence of inherent meaning in narratives.
Exploration of Human Condition	Depiction of characters confronting life’s absurdity, grappling with existence, and making choices that shape their destinies.
Philosophical Existentialism Influence	Literature influenced by philosophical existentialism, exploring concepts like radical freedom and authenticity.
Representation of Alienation	Frequent portrayal of characters feeling alienated, struggling to find meaning in an apparently indifferent or absurd world.
Thematic Exploration	Encompassing diverse themes, including life’s meaning, authenticity of choices, consequences of existential despair, and individual responsibility.

Definition of Existentialism as a Theoretical Term

Existentialism, as a theoretical term, is a philosophical and literary movement that emphasizes the significance of individual existence and freedom. It contends that human beings are responsible for creating their own meaning in a seemingly indifferent or absurd universe, often by making choices that define their identity and values.

Existentialism rejects absolute or predetermined truths, highlighting the subjective and often anguished nature of human experience.

Existentialism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Existentialism is a philosophical and literary movement associated with several notable theorists, works, and key arguments:

Theorists:

1. Jean-Paul Sartre: A prominent existentialist philosopher, Sartre’s major works include Being and Nothingness. He argued that existence precedes essence, emphasizing human freedom and the concept of “bad faith.”
2. Albert Camus: Known for works like The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus Camus explored the absurdity of life and the search for meaning in an indifferent world.
3. Søren Kierkegaard: Often considered a precursor to existentialism, Kierkegaard focused on the individual’s subjective experience and the leap of faith in his works, such as Fear and Trembling.
4. Friedrich Nietzsche: His philosophical ideas on the will to power, the eternal recurrence, and the Übermensch (Overman) have had a significant influence on existentialist thought.

Key Works:

1. Being and Nothingness by Jean-Paul Sartre: This foundational work explores existentialism’s core ideas, including the concepts of consciousness, freedom, and existential angst.
2. The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus: Camus’s essay presents the idea of the absurd and how individuals can find meaning in a world devoid of inherent purpose.
3. Fear and Trembling by Søren Kierkegaard: Kierkegaard’s exploration of faith, ethics, and the individual’s relationship with the divine contributes to existentialist themes.

Key Arguments:

1. Existence Precedes Essence: Existentialism asserts that individuals exist before they define their essence. This means that people are responsible for creating their own values and meaning in life.
2. Freedom and Responsibility: Existentialists stress human freedom and the responsibility that comes with it. Choices are seen as crucial in shaping one’s identity and determining the course of one’s life.
3. The Absurd: Existentialism often grapples with the idea that life lacks inherent meaning or purpose, leading to a sense of absurdity. The search for meaning in a seemingly indifferent world is a central theme.
4. Authenticity: Authenticity involves living in accordance with one’s own values and choices, rather than conforming to societal expectations or “bad faith,” which is a form of self-deception.
5. Angst (Existential Anxiety): The existentialist concept of “angst” or existential anxiety reflects the inherent anxiety and dread individuals face when confronted with their freedom and the responsibility to make choices in the absence of absolute values or guidelines.

Principals of Existentialism

Principal	Explanation
Existence Precedes Essence	Existentialism asserts that individuals exist before they define their essence, meaning that they are not born with predetermined meanings or purposes; they must create their own through their choices and actions.
Freedom and Responsibility	Existentialists emphasize the profound freedom of individuals to make choices and shape their lives, while recognizing the weight of responsibility that comes with this freedom, as individuals are accountable for their decisions and their consequences.
The Absurd	Existentialism contends that life lacks inherent meaning or purpose, leading to a sense of absurdity. Despite this, individuals are challenged to find their own meaning and significance in an otherwise indifferent or irrational world.
Angst (Existential Anxiety)	Existential anxiety, often referred to as “angst,” is a fundamental aspect of existentialism. It arises from the realization of one’s freedom and responsibility, causing feelings of anxiety and dread when confronted with the uncertainty and ambiguity of existence.
Authenticity	Authenticity is the concept of living in accordance with one’s own values, choices, and beliefs. Existentialists encourage individuals to be true to themselves and resist conformity to societal norms or “bad faith,” a state of self-deception where one avoids their responsibility.
Individuality	Existentialism celebrates the uniqueness and individuality of each person, emphasizing that individuals have their own experiences, perspectives, and ways of being, which should be respected and valued.
Dread of Death	Existentialists often explore the fear of death as a fundamental human concern. The awareness of mortality can intensify existential anxiety and prompt reflection on the meaning of life.
Subjectivity	Existentialism places a strong emphasis on subjective experience, asserting that truth and meaning are ultimately subjective and that individuals must confront and grapple with their own existence.
Rejection of Totalizing Systems	Existentialism rejects the idea of totalizing systems or ideologies that claim to provide absolute truths or moral guidance. Existentialists are skeptical of dogma and encourage critical thinking and questioning.
Emphasis on the Individual’s Choice	The choices individuals make in the face of their existential situation are of paramount importance in existentialism. These choices reflect their values, define their existence, and contribute to the meaning they create in their lives.

Major Works in Existentialism and Arguments

1. Being and Nothingness by Jean-Paul Sartre: Sartre’s work presents the concept that “existence precedes essence,” emphasizing that individuals exist before they define their essence. He argues that humans are condemned to be free, meaning they bear the burden of absolute freedom and responsibility for their choices.
2. The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus: Camus explores the idea of the absurd, suggesting that life lacks inherent meaning or purpose. He argues that despite the inherent absurdity of existence, individuals should embrace their freedom and find their own meaning, symbolized by the myth of Sisyphus.
3. Fear and Trembling by Søren Kierkegaard: Kierkegaard delves into the notion of faith, ethics, and the individual’s relationship with the divine. He presents the concept of the “knight of faith” who makes a leap of faith beyond reason, transcending the ethical and the universal.
4. Thus Spoke Zarathustra by Friedrich Nietzsche: Nietzsche introduces the concept of the Übermensch (Overman or Superman), an individual who creates their own values and transcends conventional morality. He critiques traditional values and morality, advocating for a reevaluation of moral concepts.
5. Nausea by Jean-Paul Sartre: Sartre’s novel embodies the sense of existential nausea, portraying the protagonist’s experience of the absurdity and contingency of existence. It illustrates the existentialist idea that life’s inherent lack of meaning can induce a feeling of nausea or revulsion.
6. Existentialism is a Humanism by Jean-Paul Sartre: In this essay, Sartre defends existentialism as a human-centered philosophy. He argues that existentialism is a philosophy of freedom and choice, emphasizing that individuals must take responsibility for their actions and decisions.
7. The Ethics of Ambiguity by Simone de Beauvoir: De Beauvoir explores the existentialist ethics of ambiguity, suggesting that individuals must embrace their freedom while acknowledging their interdependence with others. She argues for ethical authenticity and rejects the objectification of others.
   1. The Rebel by Albert Camus: Camus delves into the concept of rebellion against oppressive systems and the moral ambiguity of revolutionary actions. He argues for a “metaphysical rebellion” that opposes both the absurdity of existence and unjust authority.

These major works and associated arguments represent the core ideas of existentialism, including the themes of existence, freedom, responsibility, the absurd, and the search for meaning in an often indifferent or irrational world.

Suggested Readings

1. Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus. Vintage, 1991.
2. De Beauvoir, Simone. The Ethics of Ambiguity. Citadel Press, 1998.
3. Kierkegaard, Søren. Fear and Trembling. Penguin Classics, 1986.
4. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Penguin Classics, 1969.
5. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness. Washington Square Press, 1993.
6. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism is a Humanism. Yale University Press, 2007.
7. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Nausea. New Directions, 2007.
8. Camus, Albert. The Rebel. Vintage, 1991.

Introduction: Dramatism Communication Theory in Literature

Developed by Kenneth Burke, dramatism communication theory in literature is a prominent framework in rhetorical and communication studies. It centers on the concept of human motives and communication as symbolic action.

The theory employs the pentad framework, which includes five key elements: act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose, to analyze and understand the motivations behind human actions and communication.

Dramatism emphasizes the power of language and symbols in shaping human behavior, fostering identification, and exploring the persuasive use of rhetoric in various contexts, making it a valuable tool for dissecting communication and motives.

Criticism Against Dramatism Communication Theory in Literature

1. Overemphasis on Language: Critics argue that dramatism theory in literature places an excessive emphasis on language as the primary tool of communication, neglecting non-verbal communication and other important factors.
2. Simplistic Pentad Structure: Some critics find the pentad framework oversimplified, suggesting that it may not adequately capture the complexities of human motives and communication.
3. Limited Predictive Power: Critics contend that dramatism theory is better suited for analyzing past communication events than predicting future actions or behaviors.
4. Neglect of Non-Human Agents: The theory primarily focuses on human agents, ignoring the role of non-human agents and technological influences in contemporary communication.
5. Underestimation of Context: Critics argue that dramatism’s focus on the pentad elements might lead to an underestimation of the importance of context in shaping motives and communication.
6. Cultural and Contextual Bias: The theory’s origins in Western culture may limit its applicability to non-Western contexts, leading to potential cultural and contextual bias.
7. Lack of Empirical Research: Some critics assert that dramatism theory lacks a substantial body of empirical research to support its claims and principles.
8. Difficulty in Application: Applying dramatism theory to real-world communication situations can be challenging and subjective, leading to varying interpretations and analyses.
9. Inadequate for Mass Media Analysis: Critics argue that dramatism may not be the most suitable theory for analyzing mass media, where motives are often complex and multifaceted.
10. Limited Integration with Other Theories: Some critics contend that dramatism communication theory in literature operates in relative isolation, making it challenging to integrate with other communication theories and approaches.

Examples of Dramatism Communication Theory in Literature

Work	Critique
William Shakespeare’s “Macbeth”	– Pentad Analysis: Applying the pentad to “Macbeth” reveals that the act of Macbeth’s ambition, set in the scene of a power-hungry Scotland, driven by the agent Macbeth and Lady Macbeth’s manipulative agency, serves the purpose of seizing the throne. The analysis highlights the tragic consequences of unchecked ambition. – Identification: The language in “Macbeth” fosters identification with characters, such as Macbeth and Lady Macbeth, and their shared ambition for power. The use of soliloquies and asides allows the audience to connect with their internal struggles. – Rhetoric and Persuasion: Shakespeare’s use of persuasive language, particularly in Lady Macbeth’s speeches, showcases the power of rhetoric in manipulating Macbeth’s actions and the unfolding tragedy. – Contextual Analysis: Understanding the historical and political context of Shakespeare’s time is essential for interpreting the play’s motives and messages. The play resonated with themes of ambition and power struggles of the era.
George Orwell’s 1984	– Pentad Analysis: In “1984,” the act of resistance to totalitarianism occurs in the scene of a dystopian society, where the agent Winston Smith employs the agency of thought and rebellion with the purpose of challenging the oppressive regime. The analysis highlights the consequences of rebellion in a repressive context. – Identification: The language used by Winston and other characters in “1984” creates identification with the struggle for individuality and freedom, making readers empathize with the characters’ motives. – Rhetoric and Persuasion: The novel illustrates the power of state propaganda and manipulation through language to control the thoughts and actions of the citizens in Oceania. – Theoretical Flexibility: Applying Dramatism to “1984” allows for an interdisciplinary critique encompassing literature, politics, and sociology, demonstrating the flexibility of the theory in analyzing complex works.
Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech	– Pentad Analysis: Dr. King’s speech involves the act of advocating for civil rights, set in the scene of the Civil Rights Movement, with Dr. King as the agent using peaceful protest as the agency to achieve the purpose of racial equality. The analysis highlights the moral imperative of the civil rights struggle. – Identification: Dr. King’s powerful language fosters identification with the dream of racial equality, creating a shared purpose among the audience and civil rights activists. – Rhetoric and Persuasion: The speech showcases Dr. King’s masterful use of rhetoric, employing persuasive techniques to inspire and mobilize a nation to support the civil rights movement. – Dramatistic Criticism: Applying Dramatism to this speech allows for a closer examination of the rhetorical strategies employed to persuade the audience and achieve the intended purpose.
Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice	– Pentad Analysis: In “Pride and Prejudice,” the act of romantic courtship occurs in the scene of the British landed gentry, with characters like Elizabeth Bennet as agents and societal norms as the agency, all with the purpose of securing advantageous marriages. The analysis sheds light on the societal pressures of the Regency era. – Identification: Austen’s language creates identification with the characters’ desire for love and marriage, allowing readers to empathize with their motives and societal constraints. – Rhetoric and Persuasion: The novel subtly employs rhetorical devices through dialogues and character interactions to convey the characters’ desires and societal expectations. – Language as a Key Tool: The language in “Pride and Prejudice” serves as a tool for conveying social norms and expectations, highlighting the significance of language as symbolic action.

Keywords in Dramatism Communication Theory in Literature

1. Pentad: The fundamental framework in dramatism theory comprising five elements – act, scene, agent, agency, and purpose – used to analyze motives and communication.
2. Identification: The process of using language and symbols to create a sense of shared identity, bridging gaps between the communicator and the audience.
3. Rhetoric: The art of persuasive communication, exploring how language is employed to influence and convey motives.
4. Symbolic Action: The idea that language is not just a means of communication but an action in itself, shaping individuals’ understanding and interaction with the world.
5. Motives: The underlying reasons and intentions behind human communication and actions, which dramatism seeks to uncover and analyze.
6. Dramatistic Criticism: A method for analyzing texts and speeches by examining the pentad elements to reveal the motives and persuasive techniques in communication.
7. Language: An essential tool in dramatism theory, serving as the medium for conveying motives and influencing human behavior.
8. Contextual Analysis: The examination of the circumstances and environment in which communication takes place, including the scene, agent, and agency, to decipher motives.
9. Theoretical Flexibility: The adaptability of dramatism communication theory in literature, allowing it to be applied to various disciplines and contexts, making it a versatile framework for understanding human motives and communication.
10. Identification Through Language: The process of using language to create connections and shared understanding among individuals, facilitating the acceptance of motives and ideas.

Suggested Readings

1. Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. University of California Press, 1969.
2. Brummett, Barry. Kenneth Burke’s Dramatism and Popular Arts. Sage Publications, 1994.
3. Condit, Celeste Michelle, and John Louis Lucaites. Crafting Equality: America’s Anglo-African Word. University of Chicago Press, 1993.
4. Foss, Sonja K., and Karen A. Foss. Inviting Transformation: Presentational Speaking for a Changing World. Waveland Press, 2007.

Introduction: Theory of Modern Tragedy

The Theory of Modern Tragedy, within the realm of literary and dramatic studies, delves into the evolution of tragic narratives in the context of contemporary society. In this paradigm, the traditional notions of tragedy, characterized by the fall of a great hero, are redefined to encompass a broader spectrum of characters and circumstances.

Modern tragedy often explores the individual’s struggle against societal or existential forces, challenging established norms and values. It engages with the complexities of the human condition in the modern world, incorporating elements of moral ambiguity, existential angst, and the questioning of traditional hierarchies.

This theory serves as a lens through which to analyze and understand how tragic narratives have adapted to reflect the intricacies of the contemporary human experience.

Theory of Modern Tragedy: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists	Works	Arguments
Friedrich Nietzsche	The Birth of Tragedy (1872)	Emphasized the duality of Apollonian and Dionysian forces in tragedy, highlighting the role of suffering and the reconciliation of opposing elements in tragic art.
Arthur Miller	Death of a Salesman (1949)	Challenged traditional notions of tragic heroes by introducing the concept of the “common man” as a tragic figure. Explored the tragedy of ordinary individuals in materialistic society.
Jean-Paul Sartre	No Exit (1944), Dirty Hands (1948)	Examined existentialist themes of individual responsibility and moral choices within the context of modern tragedy. absurdity of human existence and the consequences of free will.
Samuel Beckett	Waiting for Godot (1953)	Represented the futility and meaninglessness of human existence through the Theater of the Absurd, often portraying characters in absurd and hopeless situations.
Albert Camus	The Stranger (1942), The Myth of Sisyphus (1942)	Explored the concept of the absurdity of life and the confrontation with an indifferent universe, forming the basis for his views on modern tragedy.
Tennessee Williams	A Streetcar Named Desire (1947)	Explored the tragic downfall of the central character, Blanche DuBois, and often focused on the decay of Southern aristocracy and the destructive forces in American society.
Edward Albee	Who’s Afraid of Virginia Woolf? (1962)	Explored psychological and emotional tragedy within a marriage and frequently dealt with the breakdown of human relationships and the darker aspects of domestic life.
Raymond Williams	Modern Tragedy (1966)	Investigated the evolution of the tragic form in modern literature, drama, and society. Explored how modern tragic narratives adapt to changing cultural and social contexts.
Antonin Artaud	The Theatre and Its Double (1938)	Pioneered the Theatre of Cruelty, emphasizing visceral, non-linear, and chaotic aspects of human existence. Challenged traditional narrative structures.
Bertolt Brecht	Mother Courage and Her Children (1939)	Developed epic theater, emphasizing social and political themes. Brecht’s approach sought to provoke critical thinking and emotional detachment from characters to stimulate social change.
August Wilson	Fences (1985), The Piano Lesson (1987)	Focused on African American experiences, particularly within the context of the Pittsburgh cycle. Explored themes of race, family, and identity in the modern world.

Theory of Modern Tragedy and Literary Theories

1. Existentialism:
   • Modern tragedy often explores existential themes, such as the absurdity of life, the freedom of choice, and the search for meaning. Existentialist theories, as articulated by thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, can be applied to analyze the existential dilemmas in modern tragic literature.
2. Feminist Literary Theory:
   • Feminist perspectives can shed light on how gender roles and representations impact modern tragic narratives. Analyzing works through a feminist lens can reveal how issues related to gender, power, and oppression are portrayed in modern tragic literature.
3. Postcolonial Theory:
   • Modern tragic works frequently engage with postcolonial themes, particularly in the context of the legacy of colonialism and its impact on individuals and societies. Postcolonial theory can help analyze the representation of identity, cultural conflicts, and colonial legacies in modern tragedy.
4. Marxist Literary Criticism:
   • Marxist theory can be relevant when examining the socio-economic and class-related aspects of modern tragedy. It allows for an exploration of how issues of class struggle, inequality, and exploitation are portrayed in modern tragic narratives.
5. Structuralism and Semiotics:
   • Modern tragic texts can be analyzed through structuralism and semiotics to uncover underlying patterns, symbols, and signifiers that contribute to the overall meaning of the work. This approach can help reveal hidden themes and relationships within modern tragedy.
6. Psychoanalytic Theory:
   • Psychoanalytic perspectives, as developed by Sigmund Freud and others, can provide insight into the psychological dimensions of characters in modern tragedy. Analysis can delve into the unconscious motives, desires, and conflicts that drive their actions.
7. Deconstruction:
   • Deconstructionist theory, developed by Jacques Derrida, can be applied to modern tragedy to examine the instability of meaning and the complexities of language within the text. It can uncover the contradictions and paradoxes within tragic narratives.
8. Narrative Theory:
   • Analyzing modern tragic narratives through narrative theory allows for an exploration of narrative structures, storytelling techniques, and how the narrative shapes the tragic experience for the reader or audience.
9. Cultural Studies:
   • Cultural studies perspectives can be relevant to understand how modern tragic literature reflects and comments on specific cultural contexts, norms, and societal changes. It can uncover the interplay between culture and tragedy.
10. Reader-Response Theory:
    • Reader-response theory examines how readers or audiences engage with and interpret modern tragedy. It focuses on the subjective experiences, emotions, and reactions of individuals in response to tragic texts.

Theory of Modern Tragedy and Literary Criticism

Work	Theory of Modern Tragedy Perspective	Critique
“Death of a Salesman” by Arthur Miller	Death of a Salesman can be analyzed through the lens of the Theory of Modern Tragedy. The play challenges traditional notions of tragic heroes by presenting Willy Loman, an ordinary salesman, as the tragic figure. His struggle against the materialistic and impersonal world reflects the modern tragic theme of the individual’s conflict with society.	From a modern tragedy perspective, Willy’s tragic flaw is not a character trait like pride or ambition but his inability to reconcile his dreams with reality. His demise symbolizes the disillusionment and alienation that individuals can experience in a post-industrial society. The play effectively highlights the complexities of modern life and the loss of personal identity in the pursuit of the American Dream.
“Waiting for Godot” by Samuel Beckett	Waiting for Godot aligns with the Theory of Modern Tragedy through its representation of the futility and meaninglessness of human existence. The characters, Vladimir and Estragon, are caught in an absurd and seemingly endless cycle of waiting, reflecting the modern tragic theme of existential despair.	In this modern tragic play, there is no clear resolution or catharsis, a departure from traditional tragic structure. The play forces the audience to confront the absurdity of existence and the human condition. It raises questions about the purpose of life and the search for meaning, making it a powerful example of modern tragic literature.
“The Stranger” by Albert Camus	The Stranger can be seen as a modern tragedy, particularly when examined through Albert Camus’s concept of the absurd. The novel’s protagonist, Meursault, embodies the absurdity of life and confronts an indifferent universe, resulting in a tragic and senseless outcome.	The Theory of Modern Tragedy helps us understand that Meursault’s detachment and indifference reflect the absurdity of existence, leading to his ultimate downfall. The novel’s exploration of moral and philosophical themes aligns with modern tragedy’s emphasis on the individual’s struggle to find meaning and identity in a seemingly meaningless world.
“One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel García Márquez	In One Hundred Years of Solitude, the Theory of Modern Tragedy can be applied to interpret the cyclic and inescapable patterns of violence, loss, and isolation experienced by the Buendía family across generations. This novel portrays the tragedy of repeating historical and personal mistakes.	The novel emphasizes the modern tragic idea that individuals and societies are often doomed to relive their past errors and conflicts. The Theory of Modern Tragedy enhances our understanding of how the characters’ struggles and their destiny are intricately tied to the complex tapestry of Latin American history, reflecting the cyclical nature of tragic narratives.

Suggested Readings

Books:

1. Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. Vintage, 1991.
2. DeJong, Meindert. A Horse Came Running. HarperCollins, 1973.
3. Miller, Arthur. Death of a Salesman. Penguin Books, 1976.
4. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy. Dover Publications, 1995.
5. Sartre, Jean-Paul. No Exit and Three Other Plays. Vintage, 1989.
6. Williams, Raymond. Modern Tragedy. Chatto & Windus, 1966.

Critical Works:

• Eagleton, Terry. Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic. Blackwell, 2003.
• Kott, Jan. The Eating of the Gods: An Interpretation of Greek Tragedy. Northwestern University Press, 1992.
• Puchner, Martin. The Drama of Ideas: Platonic Provocations in Theater and Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 2010.
• Segal, Erich. The Death of Tragedy. Yale University Press, 2013.
• Steiner, George. The Death of Tragedy. Faber & Faber, 2008.
• Wood, Michael. On Empson. Princeton University Press, 2018.

Introduction: Theory of Tragedy

The theory of tragedy, a cornerstone of literary and dramatic studies, is an enduring concept that examines the fundamental elements and structure of tragic narratives. Rooted in classical antiquity, the theory of tragedy has evolved over centuries, shaped by contributions from Aristotle to contemporary scholars. At its core, it explores the cathartic experience of an audience as they witness the fall of a protagonist due to a tragic flaw or external circumstances. Tragedy delves into themes of human suffering, morality, and the complex interplay between fate and free will. This theoretical framework continues to be a vital tool for analyzing and understanding the profound emotional and intellectual impact of tragic narratives in literature, theater, and other storytelling forms.

Theory of Tragedy: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Works	Arguments
Aristotle	Poetics	Aristotle emphasizes the importance of plot, character, and catharsis in tragedy. He introduces the concept of hamartia, the tragic hero’s flaw, as a central element.
Friedrich Nietzsche	The Birth of Tragedy	Nietzsche explores the duality of the Apollonian and Dionysian elements in Greek tragedy and their impact on the art form. He sees tragedy as a fusion of these forces.
Jean-Pierre Vernant	Myth and Tragedy in Ancient Greece	Vernant delves into the reinterpretation of Greek myths in tragic narratives, arguing that tragedy challenges traditional myths and societal norms.
Arthur Miller	Death of a Salesman	Miller redefines tragedy in a modern American context, focusing on the struggles and failures of the common person and the American Dream.
René Girard	Theatre of Envy	Girard’s mimetic theory suggests that tragedy arises from the conflict and rivalry stemming from imitating the desires of others. Tragedy exposes the destructive nature of mimetic desires.

Theory of Tragedy and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Aristotelian Theory of Tragedy	This theory, as proposed by Aristotle, is foundational to the understanding of tragedy in literature. It provides a structure for evaluating the elements of tragedy, such as plot, character, and catharsis. Various literary works are examined within this framework to determine their adherence to Aristotelian principles.
Feminist Literary Theory	In feminist literary theory, the theory of tragedy can be used to analyze how gender roles and expectations play a role in tragic narratives. It explores how women’s experiences and challenges are represented in tragedy and whether traditional tragic narratives reinforce or challenge patriarchal norms.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	In postcolonial theory, the theory of tragedy is relevant when examining the impact of colonization and its tragic consequences on indigenous cultures. It helps in understanding how colonized societies and individuals are depicted in tragic contexts.
Marxist Literary Theory	Marxist theory can use the theory of tragedy to explore class struggles, social injustices, and the effects of capitalism within tragic narratives. Tragic heroes may represent the working class or marginalized groups in society.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic approaches may employ the theory of tragedy to analyze the psychological aspects of tragic characters. It delves into the inner conflicts, repressed desires, and unconscious motivations that drive the tragic events in literature.
Structuralist and Poststructuralist Literary Theories	Structuralism and poststructuralism may examine the underlying structures and systems that govern tragic narratives. They explore how language and cultural norms shape the tragic experience and meaning within literature.
Narrative Theory	Narrative theory considers how tragic narratives are structured and how they convey meaning to the reader. It explores the storytelling techniques and strategies used in tragic literature to evoke emotional responses.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory takes into account how readers engage with and interpret tragic texts. It examines how different readers may have varying responses to tragic narratives, influenced by their individual experiences and perspectives.

Theory of Tragedy and Literary Criticism

1. “Hamlet” by William Shakespeare:
   • Tragedy Analysis: “Hamlet” is a classic example of Aristotelian tragedy. The protagonist, Hamlet, exhibits a tragic flaw—his indecisiveness. As per Aristotle’s theory, the play evokes catharsis in the audience through the exploration of Hamlet’s internal conflicts and eventual downfall. The theme of revenge and the unraveling of royal family dynamics further contribute to the tragic narrative.
2. “The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
   • Tragedy Analysis: While not a traditional tragedy, “The Great Gatsby” can be examined through the lens of modern American tragedy. The character of Jay Gatsby can be seen as a modern tragic hero, with his unattainable dreams and eventual downfall. The novel critiques the American Dream and its inherent tragic elements, as individuals strive for unattainable goals.
3. “Oedipus Rex” by Sophocles:
   • Tragedy Analysis: This ancient Greek tragedy embodies the essence of Aristotle’s theory. Oedipus’s tragic flaw, his ignorance of his own identity, leads to his downfall. The play explores the inexorable forces of fate and destiny, making it a quintessential example of classical tragedy.
4. “The Crucible” by Arthur Miller:
   • Tragedy Analysis: “The Crucible” can be viewed as a modern tragedy that blends historical events with dramatic elements. The tragic flaw in this context is the mass hysteria and moral hypocrisy of the characters in the Salem witch trials. The play scrutinizes social and religious influences on individuals, resulting in a tragic and thought-provoking narrative.

In each of these works, the theory of tragedy is applied differently, whether in the context of classical, modern, or postmodern literature. The analysis provides insight into the elements of tragedy, the catharsis experienced by the audience, and the moral or social lessons conveyed through the downfall of characters.

Suggested Readings

1. Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by Malcolm Heath, Penguin Classics, 1996.
2. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
3. Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich. Aesthetics: Lectures on Fine Art. Translated by T. M. Knox, Oxford University Press, 1998.
4. Miller, Arthur. Tragedy and the Common Man. Viking Press, 1949.
5. Nietzsche, Friedrich. The Birth of Tragedy. Translated by Douglas Smith, Oxford University Press, 2008.
6. Puchner, Martin. The Drama of Ideas: Platonic Provocations in Theater and Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 2010.
7. Ricoeur, Paul. Time and Narrative, Volume 3. Translated by Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer, University of Chicago Press, 1988.
8. Segal, Erich. The Death of Tragedy. Harvard University Press, 2001.

Introduction: Literary Realism

Literary realism, a pivotal movement in literature that gained prominence in the 19th century, is marked by its unswerving commitment to portraying the world as it is, devoid of idealization or embellishment.

This literary approach is characterized by a meticulous observation of everyday life and a keen focus on the quotidian experiences of ordinary people.

Realism serves as a reflection of societal and individual moralities, providing an unadorned depiction of the complexities of the human condition. Authors of this genre, such as Gustave Flaubert, Leo Tolstoy, and George Eliot, are celebrated for their ability to craft multi-dimensional characters and delve into the psychological motivations driving their actions.

While firmly rooted in the 19th century, the legacy of literary realism endures, offering timeless insights into the intricacies of human existence and society.

Literary Realism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists and Authors:

• Gustave Flaubert: Known for his novel Madame Bovary Flaubert emphasized the need for meticulous observation and detailed description of everyday life.
• Leo Tolstoy: Renowned for his epic “War and Peace,” Tolstoy explored the intricacies of Russian society and the human psyche with a realist lens.
• George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans): Notable for works like Middlemarch George Eliot examined the moral dilemmas and social issues of the Victorian era with a realist perspective.
• Honore de Balzac: Famous for his extensive series of interconnected novels and stories collectively known as La Comedie Humaine Balzac portrayed various aspects of French society in meticulous detail.

Characteristics of Realism:

• Verisimilitude: Realist literature strives for accuracy and truthfulness in its depiction of both external reality and the inner workings of characters’ minds.
• Ordinary Life: Realism focuses on the mundane aspects of life, portraying the everyday experiences of ordinary people.
• Psychological Insight: Realist authors delve into the psychological motivations and complexities of their characters, exploring their inner thoughts and emotions.
• Societal Critique: Realism often serves as a critique of the moral, social, and political issues of the time, shedding light on the constraints and aspirations of individuals within society.

Key Works:

• Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert: This novel tells the story of Emma Bovary, a provincial woman with grandiose romantic dreams, and her descent into disillusionment and despair.
• War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy: Tolstoy’s epic masterpiece delves into the lives of Russian aristocrats and soldiers during the Napoleonic Wars, providing a panoramic view of society.
• Middlemarch by George Eliot: This novel intricately examines the lives and choices of its characters in a provincial English town, offering a critique of the Victorian social milieu.
• La Comedie Humaine by Honore de Balzac: Balzac’s vast collection of novels and stories explores the diverse facets of French society, presenting a comprehensive picture of his contemporary world.

Arguments and Themes:

• Realism vs. Romanticism: Realist literature emerged as a reaction against the idealism and emotionalism of the Romantic movement, seeking to provide a more accurate representation of human life.
• The Individual vs. Society: Many realist works examine the tension between individual desires and societal expectations, often leading to moral dilemmas and conflicts.
• Social Change and Critique: Realism often serves as a critique of the social, moral, and political issues of the time, reflecting the societal changes and challenges of the 19th century.

Literary Realism: Principals

Principal	Explanation	Example
Verisimilitude	Realist literature seeks to depict both the external world and the inner lives of characters with truth and authenticity, avoiding idealization or exaggeration.	In Madame Bovary, Gustave Flaubert accurately portrays the disillusionment of the protagonist, Emma Bovary, in her quest for romantic fulfillment.
Mimesis	Rooted in the concept of mimesis, realism strives to imitate or mimic real life as faithfully as possible, offering readers a genuine reflection of the world.	In Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace, the depiction of the Napoleonic Wars and Russian aristocracy reflects a meticulous imitation of historical events and society.
Ordinary Life	Realist works focus on the ordinary and commonplace aspects of life, highlighting the everyday experiences of regular individuals, in contrast to earlier romantic portrayals.	In George Eliot’s Middlemarch, the novel delves into the lives of ordinary townspeople and their aspirations in a provincial English setting.
Psychological Insight	Realist authors explore the psychological motivations, thoughts, and emotions of characters, providing insights into the complexities of human behavior and inner workings of the mind.	In Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment, the character Raskolnikov’s psychological turmoil and moral conflict are central to the narrative.
Societal Critique	Realism often serves as a critique of moral, social, and political issues of the time, shedding light on the constraints and aspirations of individuals within society, addressing class, gender, and societal norms.	In Hard Times by Charles Dickens, the novel critiques the dehumanizing impact of industrialization and the shortcomings of utilitarianism in society.
Character-Centered Narratives	Realist works are often character-driven, focusing on multi-dimensional characters whose development and interactions are shaped by their environment and experiences, enhancing narrative depth and authenticity.	In Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, the complex characters of Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy drive the narrative, reflecting the influence of society on their actions.
Detailed Observation	Realist literature values meticulous observation of the external world, with authors paying close attention to physical surroundings, settings, and objects, vividly depicting the sense of place.	In John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath, the detailed descriptions of the Dust Bowl and migrant camps create a vivid sense of the Great Depression-era landscape.
Everyday Language	Realist works use everyday language and dialogue that reflects the natural rhythms of speech, contributing to the authenticity of the narrative and making it relatable to readers.	In Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, the use of regional dialects and colloquial language captures the speech patterns of the characters.
Social Context	Realist literature is often deeply embedded in its social and historical context, reflecting the cultural, political, and economic realities of the time, offering a window into the society of the period.	In Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle, the novel exposes the harsh conditions of the meatpacking industry in early 20th-century America, reflecting the social issues of the era.
Objective Narration	Realist narration tends to be objective and unobtrusive, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions from character interactions and events, avoiding heavy authorial commentary or moralizing.	In Henry James’s The Portrait of a Lady, the third-person narrative style provides an objective perspective, allowing readers to interpret the characters’ choices and their consequences.

Literary Realism: Examples

1. Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert:

• Realism in Characterization: Flaubert’s meticulous attention to the psychological complexities of the characters, particularly the protagonist Emma Bovary, stands out. He portrays Emma’s discontent with provincial life and her pursuit of romantic fulfillment with unflinching realism. Her character embodies the ordinary aspirations and disillusionments of individuals.
• Detailed Observation: Flaubert’s vivid descriptions of the rural French landscape and society, as well as the material possessions and surroundings of the characters, provide a tangible sense of place. This attention to detail contributes to the authenticity of the narrative.

2. War and Peace by Leo Tolstoy:

• Societal Critique: Tolstoy’s epic work serves as a critique of Russian society during the Napoleonic Wars. Through its extensive character portrayals, the novel reveals the intricate interplay of individual aspirations and societal constraints. Realism is evident in the depiction of both aristocratic salons and the brutal realities of war.
• Character-Centered Narratives: Tolstoy’s characters, from the aristocratic Pierre Bezukhov to the soldier Andrei Bolkonsky, are multi-dimensional and evolve over time. Their interactions with society and one another are a hallmark of the novel’s realism.

3. Middlemarch by George Eliot (Mary Ann Evans):

• Ordinary Life: George Eliot’s focus on the everyday lives and concerns of the characters in a provincial English town exemplifies the realist principle of ordinary life. The novel delves into the aspirations, failures, and moral dilemmas of individuals in a relatable setting.
• Psychological Insight: The depth of psychological insight into characters like Dorothea Brooke and Tertius Lydgate reveals their inner struggles and motivations. George Eliot explores the complexities of human behavior and relationships in a highly realistic manner.

4. The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck:

• Societal Critique: Steinbeck’s novel is a stark critique of the social and economic hardships faced by the Joad family and other Dust Bowl migrants during the Great Depression. It depicts the harsh realities of poverty, labor exploitation, and the struggle for survival with unflinching realism.
• Detailed Observation: Steinbeck’s descriptions of the Dust Bowl and the migrant camps, along with the Joad family’s journey, offer a detailed and vivid portrayal of the era. The meticulous observation of the physical and social environment contributes to the novel’s authenticity.

In these four literary works, the principles of literary realism are vividly manifested. They provide a window into the complexities of human life, societal dynamics, and the ordinary experiences of individuals, portraying these aspects with authenticity and truthfulness. The authors’ focus on detail, psychological insight, and societal critique showcases the power of realism in literature.

Literary Realism: Keywords

1. Mimesis: The imitation or representation of reality in literature, where writers strive to depict life and human experiences as they truly are, rather than idealized or romanticized versions.
2. Naturalism: An extension of literary realism, naturalism focuses on the influence of environment and heredity on characters’ behavior, often portraying them as victims of circumstance.
3. Verisimilitude: The quality of being true to life or reality in literature, ensuring that the events and characters in a work of fiction are plausible and believable.
4. Psychological Realism: The exploration of characters’ inner thoughts, emotions, and motivations, often delving into their psyche to reveal complex psychological portraits.
5. Everyday Life: Literary realism is concerned with depicting the ordinary and commonplace aspects of everyday existence, avoiding the sensational or fantastical.
6. Objective Narration: A narrative style that presents events and characters without the intrusion of the author’s subjective opinions or judgments, allowing readers to form their own interpretations.
7. Detail-Oriented: Realist authors pay meticulous attention to descriptive details, providing a rich and vivid portrayal of the settings, characters, and actions in their works.
8. Character Depth: Realist literature emphasizes well-developed and multi-dimensional characters with flaws and complexities that reflect the intricacies of real people.
9. Social Commentary: Realist literature often critiques or comments on societal issues and norms, offering insights into the cultural, political, and social contexts of the time.

Literary Realism: Suggested Readings

1. Balzac, Honoré de. Eugénie Grandet. Translated by Katherine Prescott Wormeley, Modern Library, 2000.
2. Flaubert, Gustave. Madame Bovary. Translated by Lydia Davis, Viking, 2010.
3. Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. Signet Classics, 2009.
4. James, Henry. The Portrait of a Lady. Penguin Classics, 2003.
5. Melville, Herman. Moby-Dick. Edited by Hershel Parker and Harrison Hayford, Norton, 2002.
6. Stendhal. The Red and the Black. Translated by Burton Raffel, Modern Library, 2005.
7. Tolstoy, Leo. Anna Karenina. Translated by Richard Pevear and Larissa Volokhonsky, Penguin Classics, 2002.
8. Twain, Mark. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. Edited by Peter Coveney, Oxford University Press, 2009.
9. Wharton, Edith. The Age of Innocence. Scribner, 2008.
10. Zola, Émile. Germinal. Translated by Peter Collier, Oxford World’s Classics, 2008.

Introduction: Bakhtinian Theory

Bakhtinian theory, also known as dialogism, is a literary theory that focuses on the multiple voices and perspectives present in a text.

Developed by Russian philosopher and literary theorist Mikhail Bakhtin, the theory emphasizes the importance of the relationship between the author, the reader, and the text itself. Bakhtin believed that a text is not a static entity, but rather a dynamic process that emerges through the interaction between various voices, contexts, and meanings.

According to Bakhtin, every text contains a multiplicity of voices and perspectives that are in constant dialogue with one another, creating a complex and ever-changing web of meanings and interpretations.

Thus, Bakhtinian theory emphasizes the importance of understanding the social and historical contexts in which a text is produced, as well as the ways in which it is interpreted by its readers.

Bakhtinian Theory: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Mikhail Bakhtin was a Russian literary theorist and philosopher known for his contributions to the fields of linguistics, semiotics, and literary theory. His work has had a significant impact on various disciplines, particularly in the study of language, literature, and culture.

Here are some key aspects of Bakhtinian theory, along with notable theorists, works, and arguments associated with it:

1. Mikhail Bakhtin:
   • Notable Works:
     • “Rabelais and His World” (1965): In this influential work, Bakhtin discusses the French Renaissance writer François Rabelais and his use of carnival and grotesque elements in literature.
     • “The Dialogic Imagination” (1981): A collection of Bakhtin’s essays on topics such as dialogism, polyphony, and the novel.
     • “Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics” (1929): Examines the writings of Fyodor Dostoevsky and introduces concepts like the “polyphonic novel.”
2. Dialogism and Heteroglossia:
   • Bakhtin’s theories emphasize the idea of dialogism, which is the dynamic and interactive nature of language. He argues that all language is inherently dialogical, involving a multiplicity of voices and perspectives.
   • Heteroglossia is the coexistence of diverse voices and languages within a single text or discourse. This concept is central to Bakhtin’s understanding of how meaning is constructed in communication.
3. Carnival and the Grotesque:
   • Bakhtin’s theory of carnival emphasizes the festive and subversive aspects of culture. He sees the carnival as a space where hierarchies are temporarily overturned, and various voices and perspectives are allowed to emerge.
   • The grotesque, in Bakhtin’s view, is a literary and cultural mode that challenges established norms and conventions through exaggerated and transgressive representations of the body and bodily functions.
4. Polyphony and the Novel:
   • Bakhtin’s ideas on the novel emphasize its “polyphonic” nature, where multiple voices and perspectives interact within the narrative. He contrasts this with the “monologic” nature of other literary forms.
   • The polyphonic novel presents a diversity of voices and worldviews, allowing for a more complex and open-ended exploration of truth and meaning.
5. Bakhtinian Theorists:
   • Several scholars have developed and extended Bakhtin’s ideas. Notable Bakhtinian theorists include Julia Kristeva, Tzvetan Todorov, and Mikhail Epstein, among others.
6. Key Arguments and Contributions:
   • Bakhtin’s work challenges structuralist and formalist approaches to literature and language by emphasizing the social and historical context of communication.
   • He argues that meaning is not fixed but emerges through dialogue, interaction, and the interplay of diverse voices.
   • Bakhtin’s ideas have been influential in the study of literature, rhetoric, cultural studies, and linguistics, providing a foundation for the analysis of language, discourse, and cultural phenomena.

Bakhtin’s theories have had a lasting impact on the study of language, literature, and culture, and they continue to be explored and developed by scholars in various fields. His emphasis on the dialogical nature of language and the importance of multiple voices in communication remains relevant in contemporary discussions of semiotics and cultural theory.

Major Principals of Bakhtinian Theory

Principal	Explanation	Example
Dialogism	Bakhtin’s foundational principle emphasizing the dynamic and interactive nature of language, shaped by ongoing exchanges of ideas, perspectives, and voices.	In a conversation, two people express their contrasting views, creating a dialogue where meaning is constructed.
Heteroglossia	The coexistence of multiple voices, languages, and discourses within a single text or cultural context, highlighting the diversity that contributes to meaning.	In a novel like War and Peace by Tolstoy, various characters have their own distinct language, dialect, and perspective.
Polyphony	The concept that the novel, in particular, is a polyphonic genre where multiple characters and viewpoints coexist and interact, leading to complex and open-ended exploration.	In War and Peace by Tolstoy, various characters’ narratives and perspectives interweave to create a multifaceted story.
Carnival and the Grotesque	Bakhtin’s notion of carnival as a cultural phenomenon where established hierarchies are disrupted, allowing for the expression of the grotesque and transgressive elements.	Mardi Gras celebrations with their temporary inversion of social norms, costumes, and playful transgressions.
Chronotope	The concept of time-space configuration in literature, with different genres characterized by distinct chronotopes that shape narrative structure and meaning.	A detective novel might have a specific chronotope of a crime scene with its unique time-space elements.
Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces	Bakhtin’s distinction between centripetal forces centralizing meaning and imposing a single perspective and centrifugal forces encouraging diverse voices and perspectives.	A political debate where one side attempts to steer the discussion toward a single viewpoint (centripetal), while the other side promotes open dialogue with diverse perspectives (centrifugal).
Ideological and Aesthetic Becoming	The dynamic interplay between ideology and aesthetics, where the aesthetic qualities of a work are intertwined with its ideological content, continually evolving through interpretation.	The evolving interpretation of a classic painting as its meaning and cultural context change over time.
Monologism vs. Dialogism	The contrast between monologism, dominated by a single authoritative voice, and dialogism, embracing multiple voices and viewpoints. Dialogism enriches communication, while monologism restricts it.	A propaganda speech delivering a single, unchallenged viewpoint (monologism) vs. an open debate with multiple perspectives (dialogism).

Examples of Bakhtinian Theory

Work	Critique
“Moby-Dick” by Herman Melville	– Dialogism: “Moby-Dick” embodies Bakhtin’s dialogic principle through the diverse voices of the characters, each with their unique perspectives on the white whale, Captain Ahab, and the sea. The novel is a conversation where these voices interact, clash, and reflect different worldviews. – Heteroglossia: The novel is rich in heteroglossia, as it contains diverse discourses related to whaling, philosophy, religion, and nature. Melville’s use of various dialects and jargons among the crew members reflects the coexistence of multiple linguistic voices. – Polyphony: The novel is a prime example of polyphony, with characters like Ishmael, Ahab, and Queequeg contributing to a complex narrative where multiple viewpoints shape the meaning of the story. The open-ended exploration of the truth behind Moby-Dick is central to Bakhtin’s concept of polyphony. – Carnival: “Moby-Dick” incorporates Bakhtinian carnival elements through the chaotic and sometimes grotesque scenes aboard the Pequod. Ahab’s relentless pursuit of the white whale can be seen as a grotesque inversion of the normal order, leading to an ultimate confrontation of opposing forces.
“Ulysses” by James Joyce	– Dialogism: “Ulysses” is a modernist masterpiece that epitomizes dialogism. The novel presents a day in the life of its characters in Dublin, and it captures the various voices, thoughts, and interactions of its characters in a stream of consciousness style. – Heteroglossia: The novel features a rich tapestry of languages, styles, and dialects, reflecting the linguistic diversity of Dublin. Joyce’s use of different registers, from newspaper headlines to inner monologues, showcases a multitude of voices coexisting within the text. – Polyphony: The novel’s polyphonic nature becomes evident as it weaves together the lives and thoughts of its characters, particularly Leopold Bloom and Stephen Dedalus. These characters represent diverse worldviews and experiences, contributing to the overall narrative complexity. – Carnival: The novel challenges traditional narrative structure and societal norms through its fragmented and playful style. It revels in the grotesque and subversive, inviting readers to participate in the carnival-like celebration of everyday life.
“One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel García Márquez	– Dialogism: Márquez’s masterpiece is characterized by dialogism through its portrayal of the Buendía family’s multi-generational saga. The novel engages in a continuous dialogue between past and present, myth and reality, and individual and collective memory.   – Heteroglossia: The novel features the blending of various linguistic and cultural voices, combining the language of magical realism with historical and regional dialects. This heteroglossic approach adds depth and richness to the narrative. – Polyphony: “One Hundred Years of Solitude” is polyphonic in its exploration of time, history, and identity. The various family members and their stories represent a chorus of voices contributing to the understanding of the Buendía family’s destiny. – Carnival: The novel incorporates elements of the grotesque through its magical realism and the absurdity of events, challenging conventional notions of reality and identity. The novel’s narrative structure can be seen as a carnival, where boundaries between the ordinary and the extraordinary blur.
“The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald	– Dialogism: The novel reflects Bakhtin’s dialogic principle through the interactions of its characters, revealing the social and moral complexities of the Jazz Age. The conversations and relationships, particularly between Jay Gatsby and Daisy Buchanan, drive the narrative. – Heteroglossia: The novel juxtaposes different social classes and backgrounds, highlighting the diverse linguistic and cultural voices within the American society of the 1920s. The collision of old money and new money provides a backdrop of heteroglossia. – Polyphony: “The Great Gatsby” explores the American Dream and its disillusionment through multiple characters and their perspectives. The novel offers a chorus of voices that contribute to the understanding of the characters’ motivations and the broader societal context. – Carnival: While the novel may not overtly display the festive elements of carnival, it does expose the hypocrisy and decadence of the Roaring Twenties, which can be seen as a grotesque inversion of traditional values and social norms.

Keywords in Bakhtinian Theory Literary Theory

1. Dialogism: The concept of ongoing, dynamic conversation and interaction of voices, ideas, and perspectives within a text or discourse.
2. Heteroglossia: The coexistence of multiple languages, dialects, and discourses within a single text or cultural context, emphasizing linguistic diversity.
3. Polyphony: The existence of multiple, often conflicting, voices, viewpoints, and characters within a literary work, contributing to a complex and multifaceted narrative.
4. Carnival: A cultural and literary concept that refers to temporary disruptions of social hierarchies and norms, allowing for the expression of the grotesque and subversive.
5. Chronotope: The concept of time-space configuration in a literary work, influencing its narrative structure and meaning.
6. Centripetal Forces: Elements within a text or discourse that centralize meaning and impose a single perspective, often related to authoritative voices.
7. Centrifugal Forces: Elements within a text or discourse that encourage the proliferation of voices and perspectives, promoting diversity and complexity.
8. Ideological Becoming: The dynamic interaction between ideology and aesthetics in literary works, where the ideological content evolves in response to interpretation.
9. Aesthetic Becoming: The concept that the aesthetic qualities of a literary work are inseparable from its ideological content and evolve as the work is interpreted.
10. Monologism: The dominance of a single authoritative voice or perspective within a text or discourse, which limits diversity and dialogue.

Suggested Readings

• Bakhtin, Mikhail. Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics. Edited and translated by Caryl Emerson, University of Minnesota Press, 1984.
• Clark, Katerina, and Michael Holquist. Mikhail Bakhtin. Harvard University Press, 1984.
• Gardiner, Michael. Bakhtin and the Classics. Routledge, 2002.
• Holquist, Michael. Dialogism: Bakhtin and his World. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2002.
• Morson, Gary Saul, and Caryl Emerson. Mikhail Bakhtin: Creation of a Prosaics. Stanford University Press, 1990.
• Stallybrass, Peter, and Allon White. The Politics and Poetics of Transgression. Cornell University Press, 1986.
• Todorov, Tzvetan. Mikhail Bakhtin: The Dialogical Principle. Translated by Wlad Godzich, University of Minnesota Press, 1984.

Introduction: Apparatus Theory in Literature

Apparatus Theory, while primarily associated with film studies, has been adapted and applied to literature to analyze the complex interplay between the narrative, the text itself, and the reader’s experience. In literature, Apparatus Theory explores how the author’s use of narrative devices, textual structure, and language influences the reader’s interpretation and engagement with the text. It underscores the idea that the act of reading is not a passive experience but rather a dynamic process shaped by the literary apparatus.

Key Figures in Apparatus Theory in Literature

1. Jean-Louis Baudry:
   • Argument: Baudry’s work emphasizes the cinematic apparatus’s role in creating an illusion of reality in film. He asserts that the viewer’s perception is shaped by the cinematic apparatus, including the projector and screen.
2. Christian Metz:
   • Argument: Metz’s contributions include the exploration of semiotics in cinema, where he examines how cinema constructs meaning through signs and codes. His work focuses on the structural elements of cinematic language, framing, and how the film apparatus structures narrative and visual elements.
3. Jean-Louis Comolli and Jean Narboni:
   • Argument: Comolli and Narboni delve into the ideological dimensions of cinema within the apparatus. They argue that the cinematic apparatus, including techniques like editing and framing, supports ideological constructs and can be used as a tool for critical analysis and deconstruction of dominant ideologies in film.
4. Laura Mulvey:
   • Argument: Mulvey introduced the concept of the “male gaze” in cinema and examined how the cinematic apparatus objectifies women and reinforces gender roles. Her work highlights the patriarchal nature of film narratives and the role of the apparatus in perpetuating power imbalances.

These key figures have primarily contributed to Apparatus Theory within the realm of cinema, but their ideas can be adapted and extended to analyze the relationship between the apparatus and literature, considering how narrative techniques and textual structures influence the reader’s experience and interpretation.

Criticism Against Apparatus Theory in Literature

1. Reductionism: Critics argue that Apparatus Theory can be reductionist in its approach. It may oversimplify complex literary works by focusing primarily on the structural and technical elements of the text while potentially neglecting the richness of literary themes, character development, and symbolism.
2. Neglect of Reader Response: Apparatus Theory tends to emphasize the role of the author and the text itself, often overlooking the reader’s interpretation and engagement with the literary work. Critics contend that this neglects the dynamic and interactive nature of reading.
3. Lack of Adaptation: Critics question the applicability of Apparatus Theory in literature, which was initially developed for analyzing the visual and temporal aspects of film, to the written and static nature of literature. They argue that certain aspects of the theory may not seamlessly translate to literary analysis.
4. Overemphasis on Technology: Apparatus Theory places significant emphasis on the technology and medium through which the narrative is conveyed. Critics argue that this can lead to an excessive focus on the medium, distracting from the deeper meaning and cultural or historical context of the literary work.
5. Limited Historical Perspective: Some critics argue that Apparatus Theory’s focus on the immediate and structural aspects of a text may limit its ability to explore the historical, cultural, and contextual factors that shape literary works.
6. Lack of Attention to Diversity: Apparatus Theory, as originally conceived, may not adequately address issues of diversity, representation, and identity in literature. Critics contend that the theory’s emphasis on the apparatus itself can bypass important discussions of social and cultural context.

Examples of Apparatus Theory in Literature

Work	Critique
Moby-Dick by Herman Melville	In Moby-Dick, the narrative apparatus is complex and multi-layered. Melville employs various devices, including the framing narrative, first-person narration, and extensive technical descriptions, to create a sense of immersion in the whaling world. While these elements contribute to the reader’s engagement with the narrative, they can also be seen as a form of narrative apparatus. The novel’s intricate structure and the extensive use of specialized language contribute to the reader’s perception of the story as a realistic and immersive experience. Apparatus Theory would focus on how Melville’s narrative choices, including the use of different voices and technical descriptions, shape the reader’s understanding and engagement with the text.
One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez	In One Hundred Years of Solitude, the narrative apparatus plays a crucial role in conveying the magical realism that defines the story. The author uses a combination of third-person omniscient narration and a non-linear timeline to create a sense of timelessness and fluidity. The reader’s experience of the text is heavily influenced by the narrative apparatus, which blurs the boundaries between reality and fantasy. Apparatus Theory could examine how García Márquez’s narrative techniques and temporal structure contribute to the reader’s immersion in the magical realist world and influence the interpretation of the novel’s events.
House of Leaves by Mark Z. Danielewski	In House of Leaves, the narrative apparatus is a postmodern novel that pushes the boundaries of narrative apparatus. The novel includes a complex layering of texts, footnotes, and multiple narrators, creating a disorienting and labyrinthine reading experience. Apparatus Theory is particularly relevant in this case, as the novel’s narrative structure and its use of typography, footnotes, and multiple layers of narration all contribute to the reader’s sense of unease and disorientation. The apparatus itself becomes a part of the narrative, reflecting the themes of the novel and influencing how the reader engages with the text.

Keywords in Apparatus Theory in Literature

1. Apparatus: The ensemble of elements, including technical, structural, and narrative components, through which a text is presented to the reader or viewer.
2. Narrative Apparatus: The specific set of tools and techniques employed by an author or filmmaker to convey a story, encompassing elements like point of view, style, and structure.
3. Reader Response: The reactions and interpretations of readers or viewers as they engage with a text through the lens of the narrative apparatus.
4. Semiotics: The study of signs and symbols and their role in communication and meaning-making within the narrative apparatus.
5. Immersive Experience: The sense of being fully absorbed in a narrative created by the apparatus, often achieved through techniques that blur the line between fiction and reality.
6. Narrative Structure: The organization of a text, including its chronological order, temporal shifts, and use of various narrative techniques.
7. Intertextuality: The interaction and referencing of other texts within the apparatus, contributing to layers of meaning and interpretation.
8. Authorial Voice: The unique style and perspective of the author, which shapes the narrative apparatus and influences the reader’s experience.
9. Framing Narrative: The overarching narrative that contains or contextualizes the main narrative, providing a framework for interpretation.
10. Reader Engagement: The level of involvement and interaction that readers or viewers have with the text due to the choices made within the narrative apparatus, impacting their understanding and emotional connection to the story.

Suggested Readings

1. Baudry, Jean-Louis. “The Apparatus: Metapsychological Approaches to the Impression of Reality in Cinema.” Film Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 2, 1974, pp. 39-47.
2. Comolli, Jean-Louis, and Jean Narboni. “Cinema/Ideology/Criticism.” In Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings, edited by Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 751-760.
3. Metz, Christian. Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema. University of Chicago Press, 1991.
4. Metz, Christian. “The Imaginary Signifier: Psychoanalysis and the Cinema.” In Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings, edited by Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 734-750.
5. Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” In Visual and Other Pleasures, Macmillan, 1989, pp. 14-26.

Introduction: Apparatus Theory

Apparatus theory, a prominent concept in film and media studies, offers a critical lens through which to examine the relationship between media, technology, and the viewer’s perception. Originating from the works of Jean-Louis Baudry and Christian Metz, this theory suggests that the apparatus of filmmaking—encompassing the camera, editing techniques, and exhibition methods—plays a pivotal role in shaping the viewer’s experience and interpretation of cinematic content. By emphasizing the influence of the apparatus on the construction of meaning and the power dynamics inherent in media consumption, apparatus theory provides valuable insights into the complex interplay between technology and the audience’s engagement with visual narratives.

Definition of Apparatus Literary Theory

Apparatus literary theory is a critical approach that examines how social and historical contexts shape literary texts. It argues that literary works are influenced by the dominant ideological apparatuses within a particular society, such as education, media, religion, and the state. This theory seeks to uncover the power dynamics and ideological messages conveyed through literary works.

Apparatus Theory: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Work	Argument
Jean-Louis Baudry	– Works: Baudry’s influential essays, including The Apparatus: Metapsychological Approaches to the Impression of Reality in Cinema, are central to the development of apparatus theory.	– Argument: Baudry’s work emphasizes how cinema operates as an apparatus that shapes the viewer’s perception, creating an illusion of reality. He discusses the role of the projector, screen, and the cinematic apparatus in influencing the spectator’s experience.
Christian Metz	– Works: Metz, in his book Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema, contributes to the semiotic aspects of apparatus theory, exploring how cinema constructs meaning through signs and codes.	– Argument: Metz’s work within apparatus theory involves the study of cinematic language, framing, and how the film apparatus structures narrative and visual elements.
Jean-Louis Comolli and Jean Narboni	– Works: In their essay Cinema/Ideology/Criticism, Comolli and Narboni discuss the ideological dimensions of cinema and how the apparatus reinforces dominant ideologies.	– Argument: They argue that the cinematic apparatus, which includes techniques like editing and framing, supports ideological constructs and can be used as a tool for critical analysis and deconstruction.
Laura Mulvey	– Works: In her essay Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, Mulvey introduces the concept of the “male gaze” and explores how the cinematic apparatus objectifies women and reinforces gender roles.	– Argument: Mulvey’s work underscores the role of the apparatus in perpetuating power imbalances, particularly in terms of gender, within the context of film narratives.

Principals of Apparatus Theory

Apparatus theory is a critical framework that examines the relationship between media, technology, and the viewer’s perception in the context of film and media studies.

While there is no fixed set of “principles” as in a scientific theory, apparatus theory encompasses several key concepts and ideas that are fundamental to its application. These principles and concepts include:

1. The Cinematic Apparatus: The core idea of apparatus theory is the recognition of the cinematic apparatus itself, including the camera, projector, screen, and other technical elements, as a crucial component that shapes the viewer’s experience and perception.
2. Construction of Reality: Apparatus theory argues that cinema constructs a specific version of reality, rather than simply recording it. This construction is influenced by the apparatus, which determines the framing, editing, and presentation of images.
3. Illusion and Reality: The theory explores how the cinematic apparatus creates an illusion of reality. It highlights the distinction between what is presented on the screen and the actual world, emphasizing the power of the medium to create immersive experiences.
4. Semiotics and Signs: Apparatus theory often delves into semiotics, the study of signs and symbols in cinema. It examines how meaning is constructed through signs and codes within the film, with a focus on visual and narrative elements.
5. Ideological Dimensions: The theory considers the ideological aspects of cinema and media. It suggests that the apparatus can be a tool for reinforcing dominant ideologies or, conversely, for critical analysis and deconstruction of those ideologies.
6. Spectatorship and Gaze: Apparatus theory also examines how viewers engage with the cinematic experience. It includes concepts like the “male gaze” (as introduced by Laura Mulvey) and the power dynamics of spectatorship.
7. The Role of Technology: The impact of technological advancements on cinema and media is a key consideration. Apparatus theory explores how changes in technology influence the cinematic experience and the construction of meaning.
8. Authorship and Control: The theory questions notions of authorship and control within the filmmaking process. It looks at how directors and filmmakers use the apparatus to convey their intended messages and how that control may be subverted or reinforced.

It is a multifaceted framework that encourages critical analysis of the complex interactions between technology, media, and perception. While there may not be a specific set of principles, these key concepts and ideas are central to its application in film and media studies.

Suggested Readings

1. Baudry, Jean-Louis. “The Apparatus: Metapsychological Approaches to the Impression of Reality in Cinema.” Film Quarterly, vol. 28, no. 2, 1974, pp. 39-47.
2. Comolli, Jean-Louis, and Jean Narboni. “Cinema/Ideology/Criticism.” In Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings, edited by Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 751-760.
3. Metz, Christian. Film Language: A Semiotics of the Cinema. University of Chicago Press, 1991.
4. Metz, Christian. “The Imaginary Signifier: Psychoanalysis and the Cinema.” In Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings, edited by Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen, Oxford University Press, 1999, pp. 734-750.
5. Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” In Visual and Other Pleasures, Macmillan, 1989, pp. 14-26.

Introduction: World Literature in English

World Literature in English refers to literary works written in the English language, but not limited to the United Kingdom or the United States. It encompasses a vast array of literature produced in English from diverse regions and cultures worldwide.

This global perspective on English literature includes works from countries such as India, Nigeria, Canada, and Australia, reflecting the voices and experiences of their respective societies.

World Literature in English plays a crucial role in broadening our understanding of global cultures, facilitating cross-cultural exchange, and highlighting the interconnectedness of the English language across borders and continents. It is a testament to the adaptability and universality of English as a medium for expressing the human experience on a global scale.

Representative Works of World Literature in English

1. The Odyssey by Homer (Ancient Greece)
   • This epic poem explores the adventures of Odysseus and is considered one of the foundational works of Western literature.
2. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez (Colombia)
   • A masterpiece of magical realism, this novel weaves a multigenerational tale of the Buendía family in the fictional town of Macondo.
3. Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky (Russia)
   • Dostoevsky’s exploration of morality and guilt in 19th-century St. Petersburg is a classic of Russian literature.
4. The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu (Japan)
   • Often considered the world’s first novel, this work offers a glimpse into the refined court life of Heian Japan.
5. A Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights, Various authors)
   • This collection of Middle Eastern folktales features stories like “Aladdin” and “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves.”
6. The Divine Comedy by Dante Alighieri (Italy)
   • Dante’s journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven is a monumental work of medieval literature.
7. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe (Nigeria)
   • A seminal novel that tells the story of Okonkwo and the impact of colonialism on Igbo society.
8. Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes (Spain)
   • Cervantes’ masterpiece introduces the idealistic and delusional Don Quixote in a satirical exploration of chivalry.
9. The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka (Austria-Hungary)
   • Kafka’s novella tells the surreal tale of Gregor Samsa’s transformation into a giant insect.
10. The Epic of Gilgamesh (Ancient Mesopotamia)
    • This ancient epic, one of the earliest surviving works of literature, follows the adventures of King Gilgamesh.

Criticism Against World Literature in English

1. Cultural Homogenization:
   • Critics argue that the prominence of English in global literature may lead to the homogenization of diverse cultural voices, as non-English-speaking writers may feel pressured to conform to Western literary norms.
2. Language Hierarchy:
   • Some contend that the dominance of English perpetuates a linguistic hierarchy, where works in English receive more attention and recognition, potentially overshadowing literature in other languages.
3. Neocolonialism:
   • Critics point out that the global influence of English can be seen as a form of neocolonialism, with Western literary standards being imposed on non-Western writers and cultures.
4. Eurocentrism:
   • There are concerns that World Literature in English may still prioritize Eurocentric perspectives, despite its global scope, thereby marginalizing non-Western viewpoints.
5. Loss of Cultural Authenticity:
   • Some argue that writers from non-English-speaking regions may face pressure to adapt their narratives to suit Western readers’ tastes, potentially diluting their cultural authenticity.
6. Market-Driven Selection:
   • Critics contend that market forces often drive the selection of works in World Literature in English, potentially favoring commercially successful authors at the expense of lesser-known voices.
7. Translation Challenges:
   • The process of translating non-English works into English can be seen as imperfect, potentially leading to the loss of nuance, cultural context, and linguistic richness.
8. Marginalization of Local Languages:
   • There are concerns that the emphasis on English may lead to the neglect of indigenous or local languages and their literary traditions.

These criticisms reflect ongoing debates about the impact of English’s global dominance in the realm of literature and the need to ensure that World Literature in English remains inclusive, diverse, and culturally sensitive.

World Literature and Literary Theory

Literary Theory	Influence on World Literature
Cross-Cultural Perspectives	Examines how different cultures interpret and engage with narratives.
Postcolonial Theory	Analyzes the impact of colonialism and imperialism on world literature.
Translation Theory	Addresses challenges in translating literary works across cultures.
Globalization and Literature	Studies how globalization affects the creation and reception of literature.
Comparative Literature	Explores relationships between different literary traditions and genres.
Cultural Studies	Analyzes how cultural contexts and identities influence literary narratives.
World Literature as a Literary Theory	Views world literature itself as a theory emphasizing global interconnectedness.
Multilingualism and Multiculturalism	Considers how multilingual and multicultural societies impact literature.
Transnational Narratives	Examines narratives that transcend national boundaries and address global themes.
Literary Canon and Inclusion	Challenges traditional canons, advocating for diverse voices and perspectives.

This table illustrates the diverse range of literary theories that intersect with world literature, enriching the understanding of global narratives and cultural exchange.

Keywords in World Literature in English

1. Transcultural: Relating to the interaction and blending of different cultures in literary works.
2. Postcolonial: Pertaining to literature produced in regions formerly colonized by Western powers.
3. Translation: The process of rendering literary works from one language to another.
4. Globalization: The worldwide exchange of culture, ideas, and literature.
5. Comparative Literature: The study of similarities and differences between literary works from various cultures.
6. Multilingualism: The presence of multiple languages within a literary work or its context.
7. Diaspora: The dispersion of people from their homeland and its reflection in literature.
8. Hybridity: The blending of multiple cultural elements in literary narratives.
9. Postmodernism: A literary and cultural movement characterized by skepticism toward grand narratives.
10. Cross-Cultural Dialogue: The exchange of ideas and narratives between different cultures in literature.

Suggested Readings

1. Apter, Emily. The Translation Zone: A New Comparative Literature. Princeton University Press, 2006.
2. Damrosch, David. What Is World Literature? Princeton University Press, 2003.
3. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. West-East Divan: The Poems, with “Notes and Essays”: Goethe’s Intercultural Dialogues. Edited and translated by Martin Bidney, SUNY Press, 2010.
4. Moretti, Franco. The World Republic of Letters. Harvard University Press, 1999.
5. Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism. Vintage, 1994.
6. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Death of a Discipline. Columbia University Press, 2003.