Category: Literary Theory

Introduction: Theory of Symbolism

The theory of symbolism in literature constitutes a fundamental and pervasive framework within literary analysis. Symbolism, as a literary device, involves the use of symbols—objects, actions, or concepts that carry deeper meanings beyond their literal representation—to convey complex themes, ideas, or emotions in a text.

It serves as a potent tool for writers to infuse layers of meaning and depth into their narratives, inviting readers to engage in a process of interpretation and exploration.

By delving into the intricate interplay of symbols and their significance, scholars and readers alike uncover the rich tapestry of hidden meanings and allegorical messages that lie beneath the surface of literary works, allowing for a profound understanding of the intricate relationship between language, imagination, and the human experience.

Theory of Symbolism in Literature: Origin, Major Theorists, Key Works, and Arguments

Origin:

The theory of symbolism in literature has ancient roots but gained prominence in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly with the Symbolist movement in France. Symbolism can be traced back to the symbolic meanings ascribed to words, images, and objects in religious, mythological, and philosophical traditions across cultures.

Major Theorists:

1. Charles Baudelaire: As a precursor to Symbolism, Baudelaire’s poetry, particularly in Les Fleurs du Mal, introduced the concept of correspondences between the physical world and the spiritual realm, laying the foundation for Symbolist thought.
2. Stéphane Mallarmé: Mallarmé’s poetry, such as “Un coup de dés jamais n’abolira le hasard,” exemplifies the Symbolist movement. He emphasized the primacy of suggestion and the ambiguity of symbols, challenging conventional linguistic and poetic norms.
3. Arthur Rimbaud: Rimbaud’s works, including A Season in Hell and Illuminations, explored the mystical and transformative power of symbols in poetry, paving the way for later Symbolist poets.
4. Ferdinand de Saussure: Although primarily a linguist, Saussure’s structuralist theories on language and signs influenced Symbolist thought by highlighting the arbitrariness of linguistic symbols and the importance of semiotics.

Key Works and Arguments:

1. The Symbolist Manifesto: Published in 1886 by Jean Moréas, this manifesto articulated the Symbolist movement’s rejection of realism and its emphasis on the ideal, the subjective, and the symbolic in art.
2. Symbolism in Painting by Jean Moréas: In this essay, Moréas discussed the role of symbols in visual art, drawing parallels with literature. He argued that symbols could convey profound emotions and ideas beyond mere representation.
3. The Symbolist Movement in Literature by Arthur Symons: This influential book, published in 1899, offered a comprehensive analysis of Symbolism, exploring its origins, key figures, and its impact on literature and art.
4. The Necessity of the Symbol by Paul Valéry: Valéry’s essay, written in 1919, delved into the nature of symbols and their essential role in human thought and expression. He contended that symbols were indispensable for conveying complex concepts and emotions.

Symbolism in literature posits that symbols serve as a bridge between the tangible and the intangible, allowing writers to explore abstract ideas, emotions, and spiritual dimensions. It emphasizes the reader’s role in interpreting symbols, as their meanings often transcend conventional linguistic boundaries, inviting a deeper engagement with the text. Symbolism continues to influence literary analysis, contributing to the understanding of the intricate relationship between language, imagination, and the human experience.

Principles of Theory of Symbolism

Principle	Explanation
Symbols as Conduits of Meaning	Symbols are integral elements of literature that serve as conduits, conveying intricate meanings, emotions, and ideas beyond their literal representation.
Subjective Interpretation	Symbolism recognizes the subjectivity of interpretation, where the reader’s personal experiences and perspectives play a pivotal role in decoding symbols.
Multilayered Significance	Symbols possess multilayered significance, often carrying both universal and culturally-specific meanings, contributing to the depth of literary works.
Connection to the Subconscious	Symbolism delves into the connection between symbols and the subconscious mind, tapping into the realm of dreams, archetypes, and deeper human emotions.
Transcending Linguistic Boundaries	Symbols possess the unique power to transcend linguistic boundaries, enabling writers to effectively communicate abstract concepts and emotions.
Interaction of Symbols	In literature, symbols often interact with one another, creating intricate webs of meaning and enhancing the richness of the narrative.
Reader Engagement	Symbolism encourages active reader engagement, as deciphering symbols necessitates readers to immerse themselves in the text and participate in the interpretation process.
Influence on Theme and Atmosphere	Symbols wield significant influence over a work’s themes and atmosphere, adding layers of complexity and resonance to the narrative.
Cultural and Historical Context	The interpretation of symbols is influenced by the cultural and historical context in which a work is created, contributing to the evolving nature of symbolism in literature.
Artistic Expression	Symbolism serves as a potent tool for writers and artists to express abstract and profound ideas, giving rise to enduring works that invite exploration and analysis.

Suggested Readings

1. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
2. Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Basic Books, 2010.
3. Jung, Carl Gustav. Man and His Symbols. Doubleday, 1964.
4. Scholes, Robert. Structuralism in Literature: An Introduction. Yale University Press, 1974.
5. Schoenberg, Arnold. Theory of Harmony. Translated by Roy E. Carter, University of California Press, 1983.
6. Schwab, Gabriele. The Mirror and the Killer-Queen: Otherness in Literary Language. Indiana University Press, 1996.
7. Steiner, George. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. Oxford University Press, 1975.
8. Wagner, Richard. Opera and Drama. Translated by William Ashton Ellis, Princeton University Press, 1995.

Introduction: Reception Theory in Literature

Reception theory in literature is a prominent framework that challenges traditional notions of literary meaning. It asserts that the significance of a literary work is not solely determined by the author’s intentions or the text itself but is actively constructed by the reader’s interpretation.

Central to reception theory is the recognition of the active role of the reader. Readers’ understanding is influenced by their unique cultural, historical, and social context, encapsulated in their horizon of expectations. This perspective highlights the dynamic and subjective nature of literary interpretation, where readers contribute to ongoing dialogues between texts and audiences.

However, the question what is reception theory in literature could be answered that it has significantly enriched our comprehension of how literature is received, emphasizing the importance of recognizing the multifaceted and diverse interpretations that readers bring to literary works. This theoretical approach underscores the complex and interactive relationship between texts and their readers, offering valuable insights into the intricacies of literary reception.

Criticism Against Reception Theory in Literature

1. Subjectivity and Relativism: Critics argue that the application of reception theory in literature can lead to extreme subjectivity and relativism, where any interpretation is considered valid, potentially undermining the pursuit of objective literary analysis.
2. Neglect of Authorial Intent: One of the primary criticisms of reception theory in the context of literature is that its strong emphasis on the reader’s role may sideline other essential elements of literary analysis, such as textual analysis and historical context. This, in turn, can lead to the neglect of authorial intent.
3. Overemphasis on Reader: Detractors contend that reception theory in literature places an undue emphasis on the reader, potentially diminishing the significance of authorial intent and the importance of understanding a text in its original context.
4. Lack of Methodological Clarity: Critics argue that reception theory in literary studies lacks a clear and standardized methodology, making it challenging to apply consistently in scholarly research. This lack of methodological clarity can lead to ambiguity in interpretation.
5. Difficulty in Evaluating Interpretations: Some scholars suggest that within the framework of reception theory in literature, it can be challenging to evaluate the validity or quality of various reader interpretations. This raises questions about the reliability of this approach for rigorous literary analysis.

These criticisms reflect ongoing debates within the field of literary studies regarding the strengths and limitations of reception theory as applied to the interpretation of literary works.

Examples of Reception Theory in Literature

1. The Nightingale by Kristin Hannah: A Reception Analysis

Reception Theory in literature can unveil the diverse interpretations of The Nightingale by Kristin Hannah. Readers from different backgrounds may emphasize various themes such as female resilience, sisterhood, or wartime resistance. This approach enables us to appreciate how the text engages with readers’ distinct horizons of expectations, resulting in multifaceted interpretations.

• The Hill We Climb by Amanda Gorman: An Examination through Reception Theory

Amanda Gorman’s poem, The Hill We Climb, invites a Reception Theory analysis in literature to reveal how readers from different generations and cultural contexts interpret her powerful words. Some may emphasize the poem’s call for unity and hope, while others might focus on its socio-political commentary. Reception Theory in literature facilitates a nuanced understanding of the poem’s impact and significance.

• The Vanishing Half by Brit Bennett: A Reception-Centered Critique

By applying Reception Theory in literature to The Vanishing Half by Brit Bennett, we gain insights into how readers engage with the novel’s exploration of racial identity, passing, and family dynamics. Different readers may highlight societal expectations, identity, or character choices, showcasing the diversity of interpretations.

• When You Speak by Joy Harjo: A Reception Analysis of Indigenous Perspective

Joy Harjo’s poem, When You Speak, readily lends itself to Reception Theory in literature analysis, allowing us to understand how readers with varying cultural backgrounds interpret her Indigenous perspective and poetic style. Some readers may focus on the poem’s connection to nature and spirituality, while others may explore its themes of oral tradition and storytelling. Reception Theory in literature highlights the multiplicity of meanings derived by readers.

• The Water Dancer by Ta-Nehisi Coates: A Reception-Centric Critique

Reception Theory in literature can be applied to The Water Dancer to examine how readers interpret the novel’s blend of historical fiction and magical realism. Some readers may emphasize the narrative’s exploration of memory and trauma, while others might focus on its social and political commentary. Reception Theory in literature underscores the richness of reader responses and their contribution to the novel’s overall significance.

Keywords in Reception Theory in Literature

1. Reception Theory: A literary framework that focuses on how readers actively engage with and interpret texts, emphasizing the role of the reader in shaping meaning.
2. Horizon of Expectations: The set of cultural, social, and historical assumptions and norms that readers bring to a text, influencing their interpretation.
3. Implied Reader: A hypothetical reader constructed by the text itself, representing the expected responses and reactions of readers.
4. Gaps and Ambiguities: Elements in a text that are intentionally left open to interpretation, encouraging readers to actively engage in the meaning-making process.
5. Encoding and Decoding: The process by which texts are encoded with meaning by authors or creators and subsequently decoded differently by readers or audiences.
6. Interpretation: The act of making sense of a text through the lens of one’s own perspective, experiences, and cultural context.
7. Subjectivity: The idea that interpretations of a text can vary among different readers due to their individual backgrounds and perspectives.
8. Historical Context: The societal and cultural conditions that existed at the time a text was created, which can influence its meaning and reception.
9. Cultural Context: The cultural milieu in which a text is situated, including the traditions, beliefs, and values of a particular society or community.
10. Intertextuality: The interconnectedness of texts, where one text may refer to, borrow from, or respond to other texts, influencing how readers interpret it.
11. Reader Response: The critical approach that focuses on readers’ reactions and interpretations of a text as a valuable source of understanding its meaning.
12. Dialogical Relationship: The dynamic interaction between texts and readers, where both influence and shape each other’s meanings and interpretations.

Suggested Readings

1. Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
2. Jauss, Hans Robert. Toward an Aesthetic of Reception. University of Minnesota Press, 1982.
3. Radway, Janice A. Reading the Romance: Women, Patriarchy, and Popular Literature. University of North Carolina Press, 1991.
4. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1980.
5. Hall, Stuart. Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse. Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, University of Birmingham, 1973.
6. Holland, Norman N. 5 Readers Reading. Yale University Press, 1991.
7. Iser, Wolfgang. The Fictive and the Imaginary: Charting Literary Anthropology. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
8. Rosenblatt, Louise M. The Reader, the Text, the Poem: The Transactional Theory of the Literary Work. Southern Illinois University Press, 1994.
9. Eco, Umberto. The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts. Indiana University Press, 1979.
10. Booth, Wayne C. The Company We Keep: An Ethics of Fiction. University of California Press, 1988.

Etymology of Reception Theory

Reception theory, in the field of literary and cultural studies, derives its etymology from the German term “Rezeptionsästhetik,” which emerged in the mid-20th century.

This theory is rooted in the works of scholars like Hans Robert Jauss, Wolfgang Iser, and Umberto Eco, who were influential in developing the concept. Reception theory focuses on the active role of the reader or audience in interpreting and giving meaning to literary and cultural texts.

It posits that the interpretation of the text is not solely determined by the author’s intentions but is shaped by the reader’s individual experiences, cultural context, and social background. Reception theory emphasizes the dynamic and interactive nature of communication, challenging traditional notions of fixed and objective meanings in texts.

Meanings of Reception Theory

Aspect	Meaning
Reader-Centered Interpretation	Reception theory centers on the reader’s role in interpreting and understanding literary texts, emphasizing the subjective nature of reading experiences.
Hermeneutic Process	It views the act of interpretation as a hermeneutic process, where readers actively engage with texts, bringing their own perspectives, cultural backgrounds, and emotions into the reading experience.
Variability of Interpretation	Reception theory highlights that multiple interpretations of a text are possible, as different readers will perceive and respond to the same text in diverse ways.
Historical Context	It considers the historical and cultural context in which a text is received, recognizing that interpretations may change over time as societal values and norms evolve.
Active Role of the Audience	Reception theory challenges the notion of passive audiences and acknowledges that readers play an active role in constructing meaning from texts.
Interplay of Text and Reader	It explores the complex interplay between the text and the reader’s individual consciousness, suggesting that meaning is co-created through this interaction.
Impact on Literary Criticism	Reception theory has influenced literary criticism by shifting the focus from authorial intent to the reception and interpretation of texts, leading to new approaches in analyzing literature.
Cultural and Social Factors	It underscores the significance of cultural and social factors in shaping readers’ interpretations, demonstrating that readings are influenced by the broader cultural milieu.
Dialogic Nature	Reception theory promotes the idea of a dialogic relationship between the text and its readers, where interpretations are in constant dialogue with the text’s content and other readers’ perspectives.

Reception Theory: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin: Reception theory has its roots in the work of several scholars and can be traced back to the mid-20th century. However, it gained prominence as a distinct field of study in the 1960s and 1970s. It was influenced by various intellectual movements, including hermeneutics, structuralism, and post-structuralism.

Major Theorists:

• Hans Robert Jauss: A German literary scholar, Jauss is often considered one of the founders of reception theory. His work, particularly the essay Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory, laid the groundwork for reception theory by emphasizing the role of the reader in shaping literary meaning.
• Wolfgang Iser: Another influential German theorist, Iser expanded on Jauss’s ideas. His work, such as The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response, explored how readers fill in gaps in texts through their interpretations and imaginings.
• Stuart Hall: A British cultural theorist, Hall contributed to reception theory by focusing on the reception of media and popular culture. His work on encoding/decoding and audience reception is significant in the field of media studies.

Key Works and Arguments:

• Hans Robert Jauss argued that literary history should be understood as a dialogue between texts and readers. He introduced the concept of the “horizon of expectations,” which represents the set of assumptions and cultural norms that readers bring to a text. The text’s meaning is constructed when it intersects with this horizon of expectations.
• Wolfgang Iser developed the idea of the “implied reader,” a hypothetical reader constructed by the text itself. He argued that readers engage with texts by continuously filling in gaps and ambiguities in the text, thus making it a dynamic process.
• Stuart Hall‘s encoding/decoding model highlighted how media messages are encoded with dominant cultural meanings but can be decoded differently by different audiences. He identified three positions of decoding: dominant, negotiated, and oppositional, depending on how audiences interpret and resist media messages.

Reception theory has since evolved and diversified, with scholars from various disciplines applying its principles to a wide range of cultural artifacts, including literature, film, television, and advertising. It continues to be a valuable framework for understanding the complex relationship between texts, audiences, and meaning in contemporary culture.

Principles of Reception Theory

Principle	Explanation	Example
Active Role of the Reader	Reception theory emphasizes that readers actively construct meaning from a text.	When analyzing a poem, readers bring their unique experiences and emotions, shaping their interpretation.
Reader’s Horizon of Expectations	The reader’s interpretation is influenced by their cultural, social, and historical context.	A reader from a different culture may interpret a novel’s symbolism differently due to their background.
Implied Reader	The text constructs an implied reader, a hypothetical reader whose reactions are anticipated by the text.	A political satire assumes an implied reader who understands current events and political humor.
Gaps and Ambiguities	Readers engage with texts by filling in gaps and ambiguities, making interpretation interactive.	In a detective novel, readers piece together clues to solve the mystery, actively participating in the story.
Contextual Interpretation	The meaning of a text varies depending on the reader’s context and perspective.	A historical novel may evoke different emotions for readers with knowledge of the era depicted.
Media and Cultural Reception	Reception theory extends to media and popular culture, exploring how audiences engage with these forms.	The interpretation of a film can vary widely among viewers based on their cultural backgrounds.
Encoding and Decoding	In media studies, the theory explores how media messages are encoded by producers and decoded by audiences.	A political speech may be interpreted differently by supporters and critics, illustrating encoding and decoding.
Multiple Interpretations	Different readers or audiences can have diverse interpretations of the same text, highlighting subjectivity.	A classic novel can be interpreted as a love story by one reader and as a social critique by another.
Dialogical Relationship	Reception theory views literary history as a dialogue between texts and readers, with each influencing the other.	Literary movements respond to and influence the cultural and societal changes of their time.
Cultural and Historical Context	Understanding the historical and cultural context is essential for interpreting texts from different time periods and cultures.	Analyzing Shakespearean plays requires knowledge of Elizabethan England’s social norms and language.

Suggested Readings

1. Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
2. Jauss, Hans Robert. Toward an Aesthetic of Reception. University of Minnesota Press, 1982.
3. Jauss, Hans Robert. “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory.” In New Literary History, vol. 2, no. 1, 1970, pp. 7-37.
4. Radway, Janice A. Reading the Romance: Women, Patriarchy, and Popular Literature. University of North Carolina Press, 1991.
5. Stuart Hall. Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse. Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, University of Birmingham, 1973.

Introduction: Oral Tradition Theory in Literature

Oral Tradition Theory in literature, a fundamental framework in literary studies, investigates the intricate dynamics of cultural transmission through spoken language and storytelling.

Rooted in the recognition of the paramount importance of orality in preliterate societies and its enduring influence in literate cultures, this theory probes the multifaceted aspects of narratives, myths, and knowledge passed down orally across generations.

Central to Oral Tradition Theory in literature is the notion of variability and flexibility, wherein stories evolve and adapt within the constraints of the tradition, fostering creativity and adaptation.

By delving into the mnemonic devices, communal memory, and performance contexts inherent in oral traditions, scholars unravel the profound impact of orality on the preservation and interpretation of cultural heritage in literary and cultural studies.

Criticism Against Oral Tradition in Literature

1. Lack of Authenticity: Critics argue that oral traditions may be susceptible to distortion and modification over time, leading to potential inaccuracies or changes in the original narratives.
2. Fragmentation and Loss: Oral transmission can result in the fragmentation or partial loss of cultural knowledge and stories, hindering the preservation of complete narratives.
3. Difficulty in Verification: Unlike written texts, which offer a tangible record, oral traditions may be challenging to verify or authenticate, making them susceptible to embellishment or manipulation.
4. Exclusivity: Critics contend that oral traditions can be exclusive, as access to these narratives may be limited to specific communities or individuals, potentially excluding broader audiences.
5. Vulnerability to Extinction: In the face of modernization and globalization, oral traditions are often at risk of fading away, as they may struggle to adapt to changing cultural contexts.
6. Influence of External Factors: External influences, such as colonialism and cultural assimilation, can impact oral traditions negatively, leading to the loss of indigenous knowledge and languages.
7. Dependence on Memory: Oral traditions heavily rely on memory, which can be fallible, and this reliance may result in variations or inconsistencies in the retelling of narratives.
8. Lack of Standardization: The absence of standardized forms of oral traditions can make it challenging to study and compare narratives across different cultures or regions.
9. Marginalization of Written Literature: Some argue that the emphasis on oral traditions may marginalize the value of written literature and disregard the richness of literary texts.
10. Difficulty in Documentation: Documenting oral traditions can be complex, as the nuances of performance, intonation, and non-verbal elements may not be fully captured in written transcripts.

Examples of Oral Tradition Theory in Literature

1. The Epic of Gilgamesh:
   • This ancient Mesopotamian epic, one of the earliest known works of literature, embodies the principles of Oral Tradition Theory in literature. Passed down orally for generations, it showcases the variability and adaptability of narratives within an oral tradition. The epic’s formulaic composition, repetition of phrases, and mnemonic devices aid in its memorization and transmission.
2. The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer:
   • The works of Homer, particularly “The Iliad” and “The Odyssey,” exemplify Oral Tradition Theory. These epic poems were originally transmitted orally before being transcribed in written form. The formulaic nature of these narratives, featuring recurring epithets and phrases, reflects the hallmarks of oral tradition, where storytellers rely on memory and performance.
3. Beowulf:
   • The Old English epic poem “Beowulf” is another prime example of Oral Tradition Theory in literature. Composed orally and later transcribed, it demonstrates the flexibility and adaptability of oral narratives. The use of formulaic language, alliteration, and the emphasis on communal memory within the text align with oral tradition principles.
4. The Mahabharata:
   • “The Mahabharata,” an Indian epic, is an extensive oral tradition that encompasses a rich tapestry of stories, legends, and philosophical discourse. It illustrates the role of communal memory in preserving cultural and historical knowledge. Within its narrative, mnemonic devices and performance contexts play significant roles in its transmission.

Keywords in Oral Tradition Theory in Literature

1. Oral Tradition: The transmission of cultural knowledge, stories, and literature through spoken language and memorization rather than written texts.
2. Variability: The inherent flexibility and adaptability within oral traditions, allowing for variations in narratives across different retellings.
3. Formulaic Composition: The use of recurring patterns, stock phrases, and formulas in the creation of oral narratives, aiding in their memorization and transmission.
4. Communal Memory: The collective cultural memory within a community or culture, where stories, knowledge, and traditions are shared and preserved orally.
5. Mnemonic Devices: Techniques such as rhyme, rhythm, and repetition used to aid memory and facilitate the oral transmission of complex narratives.
6. Performance Context: The specific settings and occasions in which oral traditions are performed, often featuring skilled storytellers or performers.
7. Dynamic Nature: The adaptability and evolution of oral traditions over time in response to changing cultural, social, and historical circumstances.
8. Oral-Literate Interface: The study of the interaction and influence between oral and written forms of communication within a culture.
9. Contextual Interpretation: The understanding and interpretation of oral narratives based on the context in which they are performed, with listeners actively engaged in the meaning-making process.
10. Cultural Preservation: The role of oral traditions in preserving a culture’s history, values, beliefs, and identity across generations through spoken narratives.

Suggested Readings

1. Bauman, Richard. Verbal Art as Performance. Longman, 1977.
2. Finnegan, Ruth. Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significance, and Social Context. Indiana University Press, 1992.
3. Foley, John Miles. Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography. Garland Publishing, 1985.
4. Goody, Jack, and Ian Watt. The Consequences of Literacy. Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 5, no. 3, 1963, pp. 304–345.
5. Havelock, Eric A. The Muse Learns to Write: Reflections on Orality and Literacy from Antiquity to the Present. Yale University Press, 1986.
6. Lord, Albert B. The Singer of Tales. Harvard University Press, 2000.
7. Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 2002.
8. Parry, Milman. The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry. Oxford University Press, 1987.

Introduction: Oral Tradition Theory

Oral Tradition Theory, rooted in the etymology of “oral” and “tradition,” is a scholarly framework employed in the study of cultural transmission. The term “oral” derives from the Latin word “os,” signifying “mouth,” highlighting the central role of spoken language in this theory. “Tradition,” originating from the Latin “traditio,” refers to the act of handing down customs, beliefs, narratives, and knowledge from one generation to the next.

As a theoretical construct, Oral Tradition Theory elucidates the dynamics of preserving and conveying cultural expressions through verbal communication across societies and epochs. It delves into the mechanics of memory, the adaptability of narratives, and the communal aspects of oral transmission, thus offering a comprehensive lens through which to explore the interplay between orality and cultural continuity in various human societies.

Oral Tradition Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin:

• Oral Tradition Theory has its roots in the early 20th century, primarily emerging as a response to the prevailing view that literature and culture were solely reliant on written texts. Scholars like Milman Parry and Albert Lord laid the groundwork for the theory by examining oral epic poetry, such as the works of Homer, and identifying patterns of oral composition.

Theorists:

• Milman Parry (1902-1935): Milman Parry is considered one of the founding figures of Oral Tradition Theory. He conducted extensive research on the oral composition of ancient epic poetry, particularly the Iliad and the Odyssey, highlighting the formulaic nature of these texts and the role of oral traditions in their creation.
• Albert Lord (1912-1991): Building on Parry’s work, Albert Lord expanded and refined the theory. His book The Singer of Tales (1960) further elucidated the oral-formulaic nature of epic poetry and proposed the concept of “oral tradition” as a dynamic and flexible means of cultural transmission.
• Walter J. Ong (1912-2003): Ong explored the characteristics of oral cultures in contrast to literate ones. His work, Orality and Literacy (1982), delved into how oral traditions shape thought, communication, and memory.

Key Works:

• Milman Parry’s The Making of Homeric Verse (1971): This posthumous publication encapsulates Parry’s research on the oral composition of Homeric epics and its implications for understanding the transmission of ancient literature.
• Albert Lord’s The Singer of Tales (1960): Lord’s seminal work outlines the principles of Oral Tradition Theory and provides extensive examples from various cultures to support his arguments.
• Walter J. Ong’s Orality and Literacy (1982): Ong’s book offers a comprehensive exploration of the characteristics of oral cultures, the transition to literate societies, and the impact of these shifts on human cognition and communication.

Key Arguments:

• Central to Oral Tradition Theory is the idea that oral cultures rely on spoken language, memory, and mnemonic devices for the transmission of knowledge, stories, and cultural traditions.
• The theory posits that oral traditions are not fixed, but rather flexible and adaptable, allowing for variations and creativity within the retelling of narratives.
• Scholars in this field argue that oral traditions have played a crucial role in preserving cultural heritage, fostering a sense of community, and transmitting knowledge across generations, challenging the notion that written texts are the sole repository of culture and knowledge.

Principles of Oral Tradition Theory

Principal	Explanation	Example
Oral Transmission	Emphasizes spoken language as the primary mode of cultural transmission, distinct from written texts.	Indigenous tribes passing down creation stories through oral storytelling.
Variability and Flexibility	Highlights the adaptability of oral traditions, allowing for creative variations in the retelling of narratives.	Different versions of a folk tale evolving across generations.
Formulaic Composition	Recognizes the use of formulas, patterns, and stock phrases in oral narratives, aiding storytellers in structuring their tales.	Epic poetry with recurring phrases in Homer’s works.
Communal Memory	Relies on collective memory within a community or culture for preserving stories, knowledge, and cultural heritage.	Legends and myths shared and remembered by an indigenous tribe.
Mnemonic Devices	Employs mnemonic techniques like rhyme, rhythm, and repetition to aid memory and facilitate the transmission of complex narratives.	Traditional chants used to remember tribal histories.
Cultural Preservation	Plays a vital role in preserving a culture’s history, values, beliefs, and identity, passing them down through generations.	Oral traditions preserving indigenous cultural practices.
Performance Context	Often performed in specific contexts, featuring skilled storytellers or performers who enhance the impact of the oral transmission.	Griots recounting tribal history through storytelling and music.
Dynamic Nature	Acknowledges the evolution of oral traditions over time, adapting to changes in cultural, social, and historical contexts.	Folklore adapting to reflect contemporary societal concerns.
Oral-Literate Interface	Explores the interplay between oral and written communication forms, considering their influence on each other within a culture.	Folk tales recorded in written form without losing their oral essence.
Contextual Interpretation	Relies on the performance context, with listeners actively engaging in the interpretation of oral narratives to derive meaning.	Audience participation in interpreting local legends during ceremonies.

Suggested Readings

1. Bauman, Richard. Verbal Art as Performance. Longman, 1977.
2. Finnegan, Ruth. Oral Poetry: Its Nature, Significance, and Social Context. Indiana University Press, 1992.
3. Foley, John Miles. Oral-Formulaic Theory and Research: An Introduction and Annotated Bibliography. Garland Publishing, 1985.
4. Goody, Jack, and Ian Watt. The Consequences of Literacy. Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 5, no. 3, 1963, pp. 304–345.
5. Havelock, Eric A. The Muse Learns to Write: Reflections on Orality and Literacy from Antiquity to the Present. Yale University Press, 1986.
6. Lord, Albert B. The Singer of Tales. Harvard University Press, 2000.
7. Ong, Walter J. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. Routledge, 2002.
8. Parry, Milman. The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers of Milman Parry. Oxford University Press, 1987.
9. Tedlock, Dennis. Finding the Center: Narrative Poetry of the Zuni Indians. Bison Books, 1972.
10. Vansina, Jan. Oral Tradition: A Study in Historical Methodology. Routledge, 1965.

Introduction: Ontological Criticism in Literature

Ontological criticism in literature, deeply rooted in existential philosophy, engages with profound questions concerning the essence of human existence and the pivotal choices individuals make within the context of literary narratives.

This critical approach prioritizes the exploration of existential themes, such as the fundamental inquiries into the nature of being, the exercise of freedom, and the pursuit of authenticity.

Moreover, it rigorously examines the authenticity of characters’ choices, often within the framework of societal norms, thereby illuminating their inner conflicts related to identity and the quest for meaning.

Ontological criticism underscores the nuanced portrayal of the human experience, emphasizing emotions of alienation, isolation, and the relentless pursuit of significance. By adeptly applying a philosophical lens to literary analysis, this approach reveals profound philosophical implications within the narratives it scrutinizes, ultimately urging a critical reflection on the intricate tapestry of existence woven throughout literature.

Criticism Against Ontological Criticism

1. Overemphasis on Philosophy: Detractors assert that ontological criticism in literature places an excessive emphasis on philosophy, sometimes at the expense of the literary aspects of a work. This approach often prioritizes abstract philosophical concepts over the narrative, character development, and other literary elements.
2. Simplification of Literature: Some contend that ontological criticism in literature tends to oversimplify the complexities of literary texts by reducing them to existential themes. This reductionist approach may overlook the rich layers of meaning and symbolism present in literature.
3. Neglect of Cultural and Historical Context: Critics argue that ontological criticism in literature often neglects the cultural and historical context in which a literary work is situated. Focusing solely on existential themes can lead to a narrow interpretation that disregards the broader social, political, and cultural influences on the text.
4. One-Size-Fits-All Approach: Ontological criticism in literature relies heavily on existential philosophy, which may not be suitable for all types of literature. Critics assert that this approach may not effectively analyze works from diverse genres and cultural backgrounds, as not all literature is concerned with existential questions.
5. Neglect of Authorial Intent: Some argue that ontological criticism in literature does not adequately consider the author’s intent when interpreting a text. Critics claim that this approach may impose philosophical interpretations on works that the author did not intend or may have had different thematic goals in mind.
6. Potential for Overlooking Alternative Interpretations: Critics contend that ontological criticism in literature may limit the range of possible interpretations by focusing narrowly on existential themes. This could lead to the neglect of alternative interpretations that consider different literary and thematic dimensions.
7. Lack of Practical Application: Detractors argue that ontological criticism in literature can be overly theoretical and may not offer practical insights or contribute significantly to understanding a literary work’s cultural or societal relevance.
8. Difficulty in Accessibility: Some critics suggest that ontological criticism in literature’s heavy reliance on philosophical concepts and terminology can make it inaccessible to a broader readership and limit its applicability in educational settings.

Examples of Ontological Criticism

1. The Road by Cormac McCarthy (2006):
   • In this post-apocalyptic novel, a father and his young son traverse a desolate, ashen landscape stripped of humanity. Ontological criticism examines their harrowing journey as they confront the bleakness of existence while seeking survival. The father’s unwavering determination and the boy’s innocence in the face of a grim world become focal points for existential analysis.
2. The Stranger by Harlan Coben (2015):
   • In this contemporary thriller, the protagonist, a detective named Adam Price, becomes embroiled in a complex mystery when he learns a disturbing secret about his wife. Ontological criticism analyzes Adam’s quest for truth, the unraveling of his identity as a husband and father, and the moral dilemmas he faces as he dives deeper into the enigma that challenges the very core of his existence.
3. The Buried Giant by Kazuo Ishiguro (2015):
   • Set in a mythical, post-Arthurian Britain, this novel follows an elderly couple, Axl and Beatrice, who embark on a journey to visit their estranged son. Ontological criticism delves into the couple’s relationship, their hazy memories, and the collective amnesia that shrouds the land. The story becomes a canvas for exploring the nature of memory, identity, and the existential implications of a society that forgets its past.
4. Lincoln in the Bardo by George Saunders (2017):
   • This experimental novel unfolds in a cemetery where the spirit of Abraham Lincoln’s deceased son, Willie, resides in the “bardo,” a transitional state between life and afterlife. Ontological criticism examines the spectral characters’ experiences in this liminal space, their existential crises, and how their existence challenges conventional perceptions of life, death, and the afterlife. The novel offers a unique perspective on the existential journey of these otherworldly beings.
5. The Memory Police by Yoko Ogawa (2019):
   • In a dystopian society, a novelist and her editor grapple with the oppressive regime’s mandate to forget certain objects and concepts. Ontological criticism applies to this world of enforced oblivion, where characters confront the erosion of memory and identity. The novel raises profound questions about the nature of existence, individuality, and the power of memory in shaping one’s sense of self.

Keywords in Ontological Criticism in Literature

1. Existentialism: A philosophical movement that emphasizes the individual’s experience and freedom in an inherently meaningless or absurd world.
2. Authenticity: The quality of being true to one’s own nature, values, and beliefs; often explored in literature through characters’ actions and choices.
3. Absurdity: The concept that human existence lacks inherent meaning or purpose, often explored in literature to convey the sense of life’s futility.
4. Freedom: The capacity for individuals to make choices independently of external influences, a central theme in existential literature.
5. Identity: The distinctive characteristics and sense of self that define an individual; often examined in literature in relation to characters’ struggles with self-discovery.
6. Alienation: A feeling of isolation or estrangement from oneself, others, or society, frequently explored in literature to depict characters’ disconnection from the world.
7. Responsibility: The moral obligation of individuals to make choices and take actions in an existence devoid of predetermined meaning; a recurring theme in existentialist literature.
8. Individualism: The emphasis on the uniqueness and autonomy of the individual, often examined in literature to portray characters who challenge societal norms.
9. Communication: The process of conveying thoughts, ideas, and emotions, often examined in literature to highlight the limitations of language in expressing existential experiences.
10. Nihilism: The belief that life lacks inherent value or meaning, often explored in literature to depict characters who grapple with nihilistic perspectives.

Suggested Readings

1. Barthes, Roland. Mythologies. Translated by Annette Lavers, Hill and Wang, 2013.
2. Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus and Other Essays. Translated by Justin O’Brien, Vintage International, 1991.
3. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson, Harper & Row, 1962.
4. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Penguin Classics, 1978.
5. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism is a Humanism. Translated by Carol Macomber, Yale University Press, 2007.
6. Sartre, Jean-Paul. No Exit and Three Other Plays. Translated by Stuart Gilbert, Vintage, 1989.
7. Saunders, George. Lincoln in the Bardo. Random House, 2017.
8. Woolf, Virginia. To the Lighthouse. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981.

Introduction: Ontological Criticism

Ontological criticism, also known as ontological literary criticism, is a type of literary theory that focuses on the question of being and existence as it pertains to literature.

The term “ontological” is derived from the Greek word “ontos,” which means “being.” Ontological criticism attempts to understand how literature and language function as forms of being and existence in the world, rather than simply as representations or reflections of reality. It is concerned with how literature and language create, shape, and reveal different kinds of realities, and how they interact with the human experience of existence.

Ontological criticism is based on the belief that literary works are not simply linguistic constructs, but are instead complex, dynamic entities that have their own being and existence. This approach emphasizes the importance of understanding the fundamental nature of literary works, including their ontology to fully appreciate their meaning and significance. It also emphasizes the importance of examining how literature and language create and reflect different aspects of reality, and how they relate to the human experience of existence.

Ontological Criticism: Origin, Theorists, Work and Arguments

Origin of Ontological Criticism:

• Emerged in the mid-20th century as a branch of literary criticism.
• Developed as a response to structuralism and formalism.
• Rooted in philosophical ontology, which deals with the nature of being and existence.

Prominent Theorists of Ontological Criticism:

1. Martin Heidegger:
   • A German philosopher who greatly influenced ontological criticism.
   • His work on existentialism and ontology laid the foundation for this approach in literary criticism.
   • Notable works include Being and Time.
2. Jean-Paul Sartre:
   • A French existentialist philosopher.
   • Applied existentialist ideas to literary analysis, emphasizing human existence and the choices individuals make.
   • Existentialism is a Humanism is one of his influential texts.
3. Albert Camus:
   • An Algerian-French philosopher and writer.
   • Known for his exploration of the absurdity of human existence.
   • Works like The Stranger and The Myth of Sisyphus are central to ontological criticism.
4. Friedrich Nietzsche:
   • A German philosopher who questioned traditional values and morality.
   • His ideas about the will to power and the eternal recurrence influenced existentialist thought.
   • Thus Spoke Zarathustra and Beyond Good and Evil are key texts.
5. Gabriel Marcel:
   • A French existentialist philosopher.
   • Explored the nature of human existence and the importance of interpersonal relationships.
   • Being and Having and The Mystery of Being are relevant to ontological criticism.

Key Works in Ontological Criticism:

1. Being and Time by Martin Heidegger:
   • Central to the development of ontological criticism.
   • Explores the concept of “Dasein” (human being) and its relation to being-in-the-world.
   • Influenced subsequent discussions of existence in literature.
2. The Stranger by Albert Camus:
   • A novel that exemplifies the absurdity of human existence.
   • The protagonist, Meursault, embodies existential themes of indifference and detachment.
3. No Exit by Jean-Paul Sartre:
   • A play that delves into the existential concept of “hell is other people.”
   • Characters confront their actions and their impact on each other, emphasizing the idea of human responsibility.
4. The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus:
   • A philosophical essay that explores the absurdity of life and the concept of the “absurd hero.”
   • Discusses the idea of living authentically in the face of a meaningless universe.
5. Thus Spoke Zarathustra by Friedrich Nietzsche:
   • Nietzsche’s work challenges traditional values and morality.
   • The concept of the “Übermensch” (overman or superman) reflects existentialist themes of individualism and self-creation.

Main Arguments in Ontological Criticism:

1. Existentialism in Literature:
   • Ontological criticism emphasizes the exploration of existential themes in literature.
   • It examines how characters grapple with questions of existence, freedom, and choice.
2. Authenticity and Inauthenticity:
   • Heavily influenced by Heidegger’s ideas, ontological criticism delves into the authenticity of characters and their choices.
   • It explores how characters either embrace their authentic selves or succumb to inauthenticity, often driven by societal norms.
3. Human Experience and Alienation:
   • Ontological criticism analyzes how literature portrays the human experience, including feelings of alienation, isolation, and the search for meaning.
   • It delves into how characters confront the absurdity of existence.
4. Freedom and Responsibility:
   • Building on Sartre’s philosophy, ontological criticism examines the concept of radical freedom.
   • It explores how characters’ choices and actions reveal their sense of responsibility in a world without inherent meaning.
5. Language and Communication:
   • This approach also considers the limitations of language and communication in conveying existential experiences.
   • It looks at how language may fail to capture the depth of human existence.

Principals of Ontological Criticism

Ontological criticism provides a philosophical lens through which literary works are analyzed, emphasizing the fundamental questions of human existence and the choices individuals make in the face of an often uncertain and absurd world.

Principal	Explanation	Example
Existential Exploration	Ontological criticism prioritizes the examination of existential themes in literature, including questions of existence, freedom, and choice.	Analyzing how a character’s choices reflect their existential struggle.
Authenticity and Inauthenticity	The approach delves into the authenticity of characters and their choices, often influenced by societal norms. It assesses whether characters embrace their authentic selves or succumb to inauthenticity.	Examining a character’s decision to conform to societal expectations versus staying true to themselves.
Human Experience Emphasis	Ontological criticism focuses on how literature portrays the human experience, including feelings of alienation, isolation, and the search for meaning.	Analyzing how a protagonist’s sense of isolation shapes their actions and worldview.
Freedom and Responsibility	Building on Sartre’s philosophy, it explores the concept of radical freedom in literary works. It examines how characters’ choices and actions reveal their sense of responsibility in a world without inherent meaning.	Investigating a character’s moral choices when no external rules dictate their behavior.
Language and Communication Limits	This approach considers the limitations of language and communication in conveying existential experiences. It analyzes how language may fall short in capturing the depth of human existence.	Exploring how the inadequacy of words in describing profound experiences can create tension in a story.
Influence of Philosophical Thinkers	Ontological criticism draws heavily from the works of existentialist philosophers like Heidegger, Sartre, Camus, Nietzsche, and Marcel. It applies their philosophical insights to literary analysis.	Identifying traces of existentialist philosophy in a novel’s themes and character development.
Absurdity and Authentic Living	The concept of absurdity in human existence is a key focus. It explores how characters confront the absurdity of life and the possibility of living authentically in a meaningless universe.	Analyzing how a character grapples with the apparent meaninglessness of their actions.
Individualism and Self-Creation	Ontological criticism examines the theme of individualism and self-creation, often associated with Nietzsche’s idea of the Übermensch (overman or superman).	Evaluating how a character’s choices reflect their efforts to transcend societal norms and create their identity.
Interpersonal Relationships	The importance of interpersonal relationships in shaping human existence is considered. It explores how characters’ interactions with others impact their choices and sense of self.	Studying how a character’s relationships influence their decisions and self-discovery.
Critical Reflection on Social Norms	This approach encourages a critical reflection on societal norms and values that may influence characters’ decisions. It assesses the tension between societal expectations and authentic living.	Examining how societal pressure affects a character’s moral dilemmas and choices.
Philosophical Lens in Literary Analysis	Ontological criticism provides a philosophical lens through which literary works are analyzed. It seeks to uncover deeper philosophical meanings within literature.	Interpreting a novel in light of existentialist philosophy to reveal underlying philosophical themes.

Suggested Readings

1. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson, Harper & Row, 1962.
2. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism is a Humanism. Translated by Carol Macomber, Yale University Press, 2007.
3. Camus, Albert. The Myth of Sisyphus. Translated by Justin O’Brien, Vintage, 1991.
4. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Translated by Walter Kaufmann, Penguin Classics, 1978.
5. MacDonald, Paul S., editor. The Existentialist Reader: An Anthology of Key Texts. Routledge, 2000.
6. Camus, Albert. The Stranger. Translated by Matthew Ward, Vintage International, 1989.
7. Sartre, Jean-Paul. No Exit and Three Other Plays. Translated by Stuart Gilbert, Vintage, 1989.
8. Nietzsche, Friedrich. Beyond Good and Evil. Translated by R. J. Hollingdale, Penguin Classics, 2003.

Introduction: Narrative Theory

Narrative Theory is an analytical framework that explores the structural, thematic, and interpretative elements of storytelling within literary works.

It delves into the ways narratives are constructed, the roles of characters and plot development, and how readers engage with and interpret stories. Narrative Theory seeks to uncover the underlying principles that govern the art of storytelling, shedding light on the intricacies of narrative discourse and its impact on the meaning and reception of literary texts.

By examining the interplay between narrative elements, this critical approach enriches our understanding of how narratives function as powerful vehicles for conveying meaning, emotions, and cultural messages in literature.

Principals of Narrative Theory

Principal	Explanation	Example
Narrative Structure	– Examines the organization of stories, including beginnings, middles, and ends. – Analyzes narrative devices like plot, setting, and character development.	In Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, the narrative structure follows the development of the romantic relationship between Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy.
Narrator and Point of View	– Investigates the role of the narrator in shaping the narrative. – Considers the reliability and subjectivity of the narrator.	In The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, the first-person narrator, Holden Caulfield, provides a subjective and unreliable perspective on his experiences.
Character Development	– Explores the growth, evolution, and complexity of characters within the narrative. – Considers how characters contribute to the thematic elements in the narrative theory of literature.	In To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, the character development of Scout Finch reflects her evolving understanding of racial injustice in her society.
Plot Dynamics	– Analyzes the sequence of events and their significance. – Considers the use of narrative techniques like foreshadowing and flashbacks in the narrative theory of literature.	In The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, the plot dynamics revolve around Jay Gatsby’s pursuit of the American Dream and its tragic consequences.
Reader Response	– Acknowledges readers’ role in constructing meaning and interpretations. – Explores emotional and intellectual engagement with the narrative in the narrative theory of literature..	In 1984 by George Orwell, reader response may vary, with some seeing it as a warning about totalitarianism while others view it as a commentary on surveillance.
Intertextuality	– Recognizes the interconnectedness of narratives with other texts and cultural references. – Examines how references enrich the narrative’s meaning.	In The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot, intertextuality is evident through references to various myths, literary works, and historical events, enhancing the poem’s complexity.
Genre and Conventions	– Studies how narratives adhere to or subvert genre conventions. – Considers genre’s impact on narrative choices and reader engagement in the narrative theory of literature.	In Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, the novel blends elements of gothic fiction and science fiction, challenging genre conventions and exploring ethical dilemmas.
Meta-Narratives	– Explores narratives addressing overarching cultural or societal themes and beliefs. – Analyzes how meta-narratives reflect and challenge cultural norms in the narrative theory of literature.	In Brave New World by Aldous Huxley, the novel serves as a meta-narrative critiquing consumerism and conformity in a dystopian society.

Criticism Against Narrative Theory in Literature

1. Overemphasis on Structure: Critics argue that narrative theory places excessive emphasis on the formal structure of a story, potentially neglecting deeper thematic and cultural nuances.
2. Neglect of Authorial Intent: Some scholars contend that narrative theory often sidelines the author’s original intent and creative choices, focusing more on structural analysis.
3. Limited Cultural Scope: Critics suggest that narrative theory can be culturally biased, with a tendency to prioritize Western literary traditions, overlooking the rich narratives of non-Western cultures.
4. Reader-Centric Approach: Some argue that narrative theory’s emphasis on reader interpretation may overlook the author’s role in shaping the narrative and the intended message.
5. Inadequate Consideration of Socio-Political Context: Critics assert that narrative theory may not sufficiently account for the socio-political context in which a narrative is situated, potentially missing important socio-cultural critiques.

Examples of Narrative Theory in Literature (Critique)

1. The Night Circus by Erin Morgenstern (2011):
   • Narrative Structure: The novel employs a non-linear narrative structure, jumping between different timelines and perspectives. This use of narrative theory in literature creates a sense of magic and mystery in the storytelling, aligning with theories of narrative structure.
2. Where the Crawdads Sing by Delia Owens (2018):
   • Character Development: The novel explores the transformation of the protagonist, Kya Clark, from a young, isolated girl into a resilient and independent woman. This character evolution is a key aspect of narrative theory in literature concerning character development.
3. The Silent Patient by Alex Michaelides (2019):
   • Plot Dynamics: The novel uses intricate plot dynamics and unreliable narration to keep readers engaged in solving the mystery. These narrative techniques align with the principles of narrative theory in literature regarding plot construction.
4. The Water Dancer by Ta-Nehisi Coates (2019):
   • Meta-Narratives: Coates’ novel addresses themes of slavery, freedom, and memory within the broader context of African American history. It serves as a meta-narrative that reflects and challenges cultural norms, aligning with narrative theory in literature’s exploration of meta-narratives.

These examples illustrate how narrative theory in literature is applied in recent literature to enhance storytelling, character development, and thematic exploration.

Keywords in Narrative Theory

1. Narrator: The person who tells the story.
2. Point of View: The perspective from which the story is told.
3. Plot: The events that make up the story.
4. Characterization: The way a character is presented and developed in the story.
5. Time: The order and duration of events in the story.
6. Setting: The time and place in which the story takes place.
7. Closure: The sense of completeness or resolution at the end of a story.
8. Focalization: The way the narrator directs the reader’s attention to a particular character or aspect of the story.
9. Frame narrative: A story within a story.
10. Intertextuality: The relationship between a text and other texts, both literary and non-literary.

Suggested Readings

1. Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1961.
2. Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1980.
3. Herman, David. Story Logic: Problems and Possibilities of Narrative. University of Nebraska Press, 2002.
4. Phelan, James, and Peter J. Rabinowitz. Understanding Narrative. Ohio State University Press, 2012.
5. Prince, Gerald. A Dictionary of Narratology. University of Nebraska Press, 2003.

Introduction to Narrative Theory

Narrative Theory, as a literary theory, examines storytelling structures and their significance in English studies. It analyzes plot, character development, point of view, and narrative discourse to understand how narratives shape reader experiences and meanings.

By exploring narrative forms and techniques, Narrative Theory offers valuable insights into the profound impact of storytelling on culture, cognition, and human communication, making it a crucial tool for literary scholars and critics in English studies.

Etymology and Meanings of Narrative Theory

Etymology of Narrative Theory:

• The term “narrative” derives from the Latin word narrativus, meaning “telling of a story” or “account.”
• “Theory” comes from the Greek word theoria, denoting “contemplation” or “speculation.”

Meanings of Narrative Theory:

• Study of Storytelling: It investigates the structures and elements of storytelling in literary works and other forms of communication.
• Narrative Elements: It analyzes plot, characters, point of view, and discourse to understand how narratives create meaning and engage readers.
• Impact on Culture and Cognition: It explores the profound influence of storytelling on human culture, cognition, and communication processes.
• Relevance in English Studies: It is an essential tool for literary scholars and critics, providing valuable insights into the interpretation and analysis of English literature and texts.

Narrative Theory and Narratology

Narrative Theory	Narratology
Concerned with the study of narrative	A subfield of this theory
Examines how stories are constructed	Focuses on the structure and elements of narrative
Explores storytelling and its nuances	Analyzes plot, character, setting, and more
Considers the broader aspects of narratives	Offers a narrower and more specialized perspective
Emphasizes understanding the human experience	Part of narrative theory, complementing its scope

Narrative Theory: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin of Narrative Theory:

• Ancient Roots: It is traced back to ancient cultures where storytelling was an integral part of oral traditions.
• Modern Development: Its formal development and recognition as a field of study began in the 20th century, particularly within literary and film studies.

Major Theorists in Narrative Theory:

• Vladimir Propp: Known for his structural analysis of folktales, Propp identified recurring character functions and narrative patterns.
• Roland Barthes: Introduced concepts like narrative codes and the distinction between story and discourse.
• Tzvetan Todorov: Explored the concept of narrative equilibrium and the dynamics of narrative disruption and restoration.
• Gerard Genette: Contributed to the analysis of narrative voice, focalization, and narrative time.
• Mikhail Bakhtin: Emphasized dialogism and the polyphonic nature of narratives.

Key Works in Narrative Theory:

• Morphology of the Folktale by Vladimir Propp (1928): Propp’s work outlined a structural analysis of Russian folktales, identifying 31 functions that characters and events often fulfill in narratives.
• S/Z by Roland Barthes (1970): In this work, Barthes deconstructed a short story by Balzac, emphasizing the multiplicity of meanings within a narrative.
• The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre by Tzvetan Todorov (1970): Todorov explored the structure of fantastic narratives and the moment when the reader questions the supernatural.
• Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method by Gerard Genette (1972): Genette provided a comprehensive framework for analyzing narrative structures and their elements.
• The Dialogic Imagination by Mikhail Bakhtin (1981): Bakhtin’s work highlighted the dialogic nature of language and storytelling, emphasizing the interaction of multiple voices within narratives.

Key Arguments in Narrative Theory:

• Narrative Structure: It examines the organization and structure of stories, including their beginnings, middles, and ends.
• Narrative Voice: It explores the role of narrators and focalization, considering who tells the story and from what perspective.
• Narrative Time: Narrative theory analyzes how time is manipulated in narratives, including the use of flashbacks, foreshadowing, and temporal shifts.
• Narrative Discourse: It focuses on the language and rhetoric of storytelling, considering how narrative techniques influence interpretation.
• Character and Plot: It delves into the development of characters and plot dynamics, including character arcs and narrative conflict.
• Reader Response: It acknowledges the role of the reader in constructing meaning and engaging with narratives.
• Intertextuality: It recognizes how narratives are interconnected with other texts and cultural references.
• Meta-Narratives: Some narratives explore and challenge overarching cultural or societal narratives.

Suggested Readings of Narrative Theory

1. Barthes, Roland. S/Z. Translated by Richard Miller, Hill and Wang, 1974.
2. Bakhtin, Mikhail. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Edited by Michael Holquist, Translated by Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist, University of Texas Press, 1981.
3. Genette, Gerard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1980.
4. Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folktale. Translated by Laurence Scott, University of Texas Press, 1968.
5. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre. Translated by Richard Howard, Cornell University Press, 1975.

Introduction Myth Criticism in Literature

Myth Criticism in literature is a multifaceted analytical approach that explores the intricate relationship between myths and literary works. It involves the examination of how myths, often drawn from various cultural and religious traditions, are interwoven into narratives, characters, and symbols within literature. Myth Criticism provides a lens through which scholars and readers can unearth the layers of meaning, archetypal motifs, and universal themes present in literary texts, enriching our understanding of the human experience and the enduring power of mythic storytelling.

Myth Criticism in literature is also referred to by other names, including:

1. Mythological Critique: This term underscores the critical analysis of myths and their presence in literary works.
2. Mythical Analysis: This variant emphasizes the examination of myths within the context of literature.
3. Mythic Literary Theory: This name highlights the theoretical frameworks used to interpret myths in literature.
4. Myth and Literature Studies: This broader term encompasses the interdisciplinary exploration of myths within the realm of literature and its various genres.

These alternative names are used interchangeably to describe the scholarly investigation of the role of myths in literature and their impact on narrative, symbolism, and cultural significance.

Criticism Against Myth Criticism in Literature

Criticism	Explanation
1. Reductionism	Some scholars argue that myth criticism in literature is reductionist in its interpretation of literary works, reducing complex narratives to archetypal patterns and symbols, potentially oversimplifying the richness of the text.
2. Cultural Bias	Critics contend that myth criticism in literature may favor certain cultural mythologies over others, leading to cultural bias and the neglect of less-known or marginalized mythological traditions.
3. Neglect of Authorial Intent	It is argued that myth criticism in literature often neglects the author’s original intent and artistic creativity by emphasizing universal archetypes and mythic elements, potentially overlooking the unique and personal aspects of a literary work.
4. Lack of Empirical Evidence	Some critics assert that myth criticism in literature relies heavily on interpretation and lacks empirical evidence, making it susceptible to subjective and speculative analyses.
5. Overemphasis on Symbolism	Critics suggest that myth criticism in literature tends to place excessive emphasis on symbolism and archetypal patterns, potentially overshadowing other important aspects of literature, such as historical context and social commentary.
6. Ignoring Diverse Interpretations	Some argue that myth criticism in literature may limit the range of interpretations by focusing primarily on mythic elements, potentially ignoring diverse and alternative readings of literary texts.

Examples of Myth Criticism in Literature

Work	Criticism in Literature
Circe by Madeline Miller (2018)	Myth Criticism in Literature: Reimagines the story of Circe, a character from Greek mythology, exploring her perspective and character development. Delves into the psychological and emotional aspects of Circe’s character, offering a reinterpretation of her role in mythology.
The Song of Achilles by Madeline Miller (2011)	Myth Criticism in Literature: Explores the relationship between Achilles and Patroclus, characters from Greek mythology, delving into their deep bond. Examines the emotional and interpersonal aspects of these mythic characters, shedding light on their complex relationship beyond the epic.
Anansi Boys by Neil Gaiman (2005)	Myth Criticism in Literature: Incorporates African and Caribbean folklore and mythology, particularly the character of Anansi, the spider god. Modernizes and weaves these mythic elements into a contemporary narrative, exploring the impact of these mythological beings on the human world.
Circe by H.D. (1919)	Myth Criticism in Literature: Presents a modernist reinterpretation of the mythological character Circe from Greek mythology. Engages in Myth Criticism by using Circe as a symbol to explore themes of transformation, power, and gender dynamics, offering a new perspective on the ancient myth.
The Myth of Sisyphus by Albert Camus (1942)	Myth Criticism in Literature: Reflects on the existential absurdity of human existence, drawing on the myth of Sisyphus. Employs Myth Criticism to analyze the myth of Sisyphus as a metaphor for the human condition, exploring themes of meaninglessness and the struggle for significance in life.

Keywords in Myth Criticism in Literature

1. Archetypes: Universal symbols or patterns that are present in the collective unconscious, and which appear in literature and other forms of cultural expression.
2. Hero’s Journey: A narrative structure identified by Joseph Campbell, in which a hero embarks on a quest or adventure, overcomes obstacles, and returns home transformed.
3. Monomyth: A term coined by Joseph Campbell to describe the common themes and motifs found in myths and legends from around the world.
4. Mythical Themes: Universal themes and motifs that appear in myths and legends, such as the hero’s journey, the creation myth, and the battle between good and evil.
5. Mythology: The study of myths and legends, and the cultural significance of these stories.
6. Collective Unconscious: A concept developed by Carl Jung, which refers to the shared reservoir of knowledge and experience that is inherited by all human beings.
7. Symbolism: The use of symbols and metaphors to represent deeper meanings and ideas.
8. Cultural Significance: The importance of a literary work within the context of its culture, society, and historical period.
9. Comparative Mythology: The study of the similarities and differences between myths and legends from different cultures and time periods.
10. Allegory: A literary device in which characters, events, and settings are used to represent abstract ideas and moral or political messages.

Suggested Readings

1. Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton University Press, 2008.
2. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 2000.
3. Jung, Carl Gustav. Man and His Symbols. Dell Publishing, 1968.
4. Leeming, David Adams. Mythology: The Voyage of the Hero. Oxford University Press, 2018.
5. Neumann, Erich. The Origins and History of Consciousness. Princeton University Press, 1973.
6. Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folk Tale. University of Texas Press, 1968.
7. Raglan, Lord. The Hero: A Study in Tradition, Myth, and Drama. Dover Publications, 2003.
8. Segal, Robert A. Myth: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2004.
9. Von Franz, Marie-Louise. The Interpretation of Fairy Tales. Shambhala, 1996.
10. Wood, Juliette. The Heroine’s Journey: Woman’s Quest for Wholeness. Rider, 1990.