Category: Theory Article Summaries

Introduction: “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

“Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o is an excerpt first appeared in 1986 in the book of the same title published by James Currey Ltd.This seminal work of postcolonial theory argues for the importance of linguistic decolonization in African literature. Thiong’o contends that continued use of colonial languages, such as English and French, perpetuates the mental and cultural subjugation of African peoples. The book has had a profound impact on literary theory, inspiring scholars and writers to consider the politics of language and the ways in which language can be used to empower marginalized communities.

Summary of “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

1. The Problem: Ngugi wa Thiong’o argues that African writers’ continued use of European languages perpetuates a “neo-colonial slavish and cringing spirit.” By writing in foreign tongues, African writers pay homage to colonialism and maintain a subordinate relationship. This linguistic choice not only reflects a cultural subservience but also reinforces the dominance of European power structures.
2. Impact on Audience: Writing in European languages excludes the peasantry and working class from cultural discussions, limiting their participation in the intellectual and political discourse. Ngugi observes that “while we were busy haranguing the ruling circles in a language which automatically excluded the participation of the peasantry and the working class in the debate, imperialist culture and African reactionary forces had a field day.” This linguistic barrier hinders the dissemination of alternative perspectives and reinforces the status quo.  
3. Irony: The irony of the situation is that even those who oppose colonialism often embrace European languages. Reactionary African politicians, who believe in selling Africa to Europe, and zealous missionaries, who sought to “rescue” Africa from its “paganism,” both mastered African languages to spread their agendas. This highlights the paradoxical relationship between language and power.
4. Afro-European Literature: The literature produced by Africans writing in European languages is a “hybrid tradition” that combines elements of African and European cultures. While it has produced talented writers and works of genuine merit, Ngugi argues that it ultimately serves the interests of the neo-colonial system. As he states, “Their work belongs to an Afro-European literary tradition which is likely to last for as long as Africa is under this rule of European capital in a neo-colonial set-up.”  
5. The Solution: Ngugi contends that African literature can only truly be African if it is written in African languages. By using the languages of the peasantry and working class, writers can empower these marginalized groups and challenge the dominance of European culture. This linguistic shift is essential for achieving true decolonization and fostering a more equitable society.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o ‘

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevance in the Text
Neo-Colonialism	A political and economic system where former colonies remain dependent on imperial powers, despite formal independence.	Ngugi critiques the continuation of neo-colonialism through African writers’ use of European languages, perpetuating dependency.
Cultural Imperialism	The imposition of a foreign culture over another, often through language and education, undermining native cultures.	Ngugi argues that African writers using European languages support cultural imperialism by marginalizing African languages.
Afro-European Literature	A term used to describe literature written by Africans in European languages.	Ngugi states that this literature, though valuable, belongs to a hybrid tradition tied to imperialism.
Colonial Alienation	The process where individuals become distanced from their native culture and language, adopting those of the colonizer.	Ngugi emphasizes how this alienation splits Africans from their reality and culture, distancing them from their own people and heritage.
Mother Tongue	The native language that one learns from birth.	Ngugi promotes writing in African languages, including his mother tongue Gikuyu, as a way to counter cultural alienation.
Language and Power	The connection between language and social or political control.	Ngugi argues that the use of European languages by African elites allows ruling powers to exclude the peasantry and working class.
Cultural Resistance	The use of native culture and language as a means to resist imperialism and assert national identity.	Ngugi advocates for African writers to use their native languages as a form of resistance against imperialist and neo-colonial forces.
Class Struggle	The conflict between social classes, particularly between the working class and ruling elites.	Ngugi links the use of African languages to the empowerment of the working class and peasantry, who are often excluded by elites.
Revolutionary Literature	Literature that seeks to challenge the status quo and promote social or political change.	Ngugi sees writing in African languages as revolutionary, enabling writers to communicate directly with the masses and inspire change.

Contribution of “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

• Postcolonial Theory and Language Critique
  Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s work critically examines the relationship between language and imperialism. He argues that African writers who use European languages contribute to the continuation of neo-colonialism by maintaining the dominance of European cultural norms. He challenges writers to decolonize African literature by embracing native languages.

“By our continuing to write in foreign languages, paying homage to them, are we not on the cultural level continuing that neo-colonial slavish and cringing spirit?”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 101)

• Cultural Nationalism and Linguistic Identity
  The text emphasizes the importance of writing in African languages to reclaim cultural identity and resist imperialism. Ngugi argues that language is tied to culture and national identity, and by adopting native languages, writers can authentically express the experiences of African people.

“My writing in Gikuyu language, a Kenyan language, an African language, is part and parcel of the anti-imperialist struggles of Kenyan and African peoples.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 103)

• Afro-European Literature and Hybridity
  Ngugi critiques what he calls “Afro-European literature,” a hybrid literary tradition where African writers produce works in European languages. He views this as a transitional phase, one that reinforces Africa’s dependence on Europe during the neo-colonial era. This concept contributes to the theory of hybridity in postcolonial studies.

“Afro-European literature can be defined as literature written by Africans in European languages in the era of imperialism.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 102)

• Revolutionary Role of African Literature
  Ngugi sees writing in African languages as a revolutionary act, one that aligns with the struggles of the working class and peasantry. He argues that African languages can communicate messages of unity and hope, thus contributing to the political and social awakening of the masses.

“A writer who tries to communicate the message of revolutionary unity and hope in the languages of the people becomes a subversive character.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 104)

• Colonial Alienation and the Politics of Language
  Ngugi introduces the concept of “colonial alienation,” where individuals are distanced from their culture and language, adopting the colonizer’s language as the medium of intellectual development. This concept deepens the understanding of language as a political tool in literary theory, particularly in postcolonial and cultural studies.

“It starts with a deliberate disassociation of the language of conceptualization…from the language of daily interaction in the home and in the community.”
(Ngugi, Decolonising the Mind, p. 103)

Examples of Critiques Through “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Based on “Decolonizing the Mind”
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	While Achebe’s novel offers a powerful portrayal of pre-colonial Igbo culture, it has been criticized for reinforcing certain stereotypes and romanticizing the past. Ngugi might argue that the use of English limits the authentic representation of Igbo voices and perspectives.
A Grain of Wheat by Ngugi wa Thiong’o (himself)	Even though Ngugi’s own novel is a significant contribution to African literature, it could be critiqued for its reliance on English to convey complex themes of colonialism and resistance. Ngugi might argue that his later works, written in Gikuyu, offer a more authentic and empowering representation of African experiences.
House of Bondage by Sembene Ousmane	Ousmane’s novel provides a scathing critique of colonialism and its impact on Senegalese society. However, Ngugi might suggest that the use of French, even if it serves to expose colonial injustices, reinforces the dominance of the colonial language.
The Search for the Lost Father by Camara Laye	Laye’s autobiographical novel offers a nostalgic and idealized view of pre-colonial Guinea. Ngugi might criticize this portrayal for its failure to acknowledge the complexities and contradictions of traditional African societies. He might also argue that the use of French limits the novel’s ability to fully capture the nuances of Laye’s experiences.

Criticism Against “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

• Idealization of Native Languages: Critics argue that Ngugi idealizes the role of African languages in resisting imperialism, without fully accounting for the practical limitations. Many African languages are not standardized or have limited literary traditions, making them difficult for writers to adopt in certain genres and forms. Additionally, there are concerns about regional diversity and the potential for ethnic divisions due to linguistic fragmentation.
• Exclusion of Non-Linguistic Factors in Colonial Resistance: Some scholars contend that Ngugi places too much emphasis on language as the primary tool for decolonization, neglecting other significant socio-political and economic aspects of the struggle against imperialism. Critics suggest that language alone cannot address the broader structural inequalities imposed by colonialism and neo-colonialism.
• Lack of Practicality in Globalized Context: The insistence on using African languages may be seen as impractical in the context of globalization, where European languages (especially English and French) serve as global lingua francas, facilitating international communication and exchange. Ngugi’s call to abandon European languages is viewed by some as potentially isolating African writers from the global literary community.
• Overemphasis on Language as a Divider: Critics argue that Ngugi’s position may unintentionally reinforce divisions between those who speak European languages and those who speak African languages. While Ngugi calls for unity through the use of African languages, some see his approach as creating new cultural hierarchies that privilege linguistic purism over broader inclusivity.
• Romanticization of the African Peasantry and Working Class: Ngugi’s emphasis on the peasantry and working class as the ideal audience for literature in African languages has been critiqued for romanticizing these groups. Critics suggest that this idealization overlooks the diverse, complex social realities within African societies, where urbanization and modern education increasingly shape cultural identities.
• Reduction of Afro-European Literature: Ngugi’s categorization of literature written by Africans in European languages as “Afro-European” or hybrid literature has been criticized for downplaying the contributions of these writers to African literary traditions. By limiting these works to a “transitional” phase, Ngugi dismisses the potential for African writers to engage meaningfully with global literary traditions through European languages.

Suggested Readings: “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

1. Ashcroft, Bill, et al. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989. https://www.routledge.com
2. Gikandi, Simon. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Cambridge University Press, 2000. https://www.cambridge.org
3. Bhola, H. S. African Studies Review, vol. 30, no. 2, 1987, pp. 102–03. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/524049. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
4. Gikandi, Simon. “On Culture and the State: The Writings of Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’s.” Third World Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 1, 1989, pp. 148–56. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3992225. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
5. Gugler, Josef. “How Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o Shifted from Class Analysis to a Neo-Colonialist Perspective.” The Journal of Modern African Studies, vol. 32, no. 2, 1994, pp. 329–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/161773. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
6. Raditlhalo, S. I. “Nationalism and Ethnicity in Selected Colonial and Post-Colonial Novels by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o.” English in Africa, vol. 27, no. 1, 2000, pp. 75–104. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40238893. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.
7. Brown, Nicholas. “Revolution and Recidivism: The Problem of Kenyan History in the Plays of Ngugi Wa Thiong’o.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 30, no. 4, 1999, pp. 56–73. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3820752. Accessed 14 Sept. 2024.

Representative Quotations from “Decolonising the Mind” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“By our continuing to write in foreign languages, paying homage to them, are we not on the cultural level continuing that neo-colonial slavish and cringing spirit?”	Ngugi argues that the use of European languages in African literature reinforces a colonial mentality and perpetuates cultural subjugation.
“The Christian bible is available in unlimited quantities in even the tiniest African language. The comprador ruling cliques are also quite happy to have the peasantry and the working class all to themselves.”	Ngugi highlights the role of language in shaping political and cultural power dynamics, arguing that the use of African languages can be a tool for oppression as well as liberation.
“What we have created is another hybrid tradition, a tradition in transition, a minority tradition that can only be termed as Afro-European literature.”	Ngugi acknowledges the existence of a hybrid African literature written in European languages but emphasizes its limitations and its ties to the colonial legacy.
“African literature can only be written in African languages, that is, the languages of the African peasantry and working class.”	Ngugi asserts that true African literature must be rooted in the languages of the people, empowering the marginalized and challenging colonial dominance.
“Colonial alienation takes two interlinked forms: an active (or passive) distancing of oneself from the reality around; and an active (or passive) identification with that which is most external to one’s environment.”	Ngugi describes the psychological effects of colonialism, including a disconnection from one’s own culture and a desire to identify with the colonizer.
“I do not want to see Kenyan children growing up in that imperialist-imposed tradition of contempt for the tools of communication developed by their communities and their history.”	Ngugi emphasizes the importance of language in shaping cultural identity and self-esteem, advocating for the preservation and celebration of African languages.
“It is like producing a society of bodiless heads and headless bodies.”	Ngugi uses a powerful metaphor to illustrate the destructive consequences of colonial alienation, which separates the mind from the body and disrupts the harmonious connection between language and reality.
“Africa’s natural and human resources continue to develop Europe and America: but Africa is made to feel grateful for aid from the same quarters that still sit on the back of the continent.”	Ngugi critiques the neo-colonial system, highlighting the exploitation of Africa’s resources and the false narrative of Western generosity.
“I would like to see Kenya peoples’ mother-tongues (our national languages!) carry a literature reflecting not only the rhythms of a child’s spoken expression, but also his struggle with nature and his social nature.”	Ngugi envisions a future where African languages are used to express the full range of human experience, from personal narratives to political struggles.
“A democratic participation of the people in the shaping of their own lives or in discussing their own lives in languages that allow for mutual comprehension is seen as being dangerous to the good government of a country and its institutions.”	Ngugi warns against the dangers of silencing African languages, which can be a powerful tool for resistance and social change.

Introduction: “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

“The Commitment of the Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o was originally published in the Review of African Political Economy in 1985. This influential work delves into the multifaceted role of intellectuals in fostering social progress and examines the intricate interplay between intellectual endeavors and political engagement.

Summary of “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

1. Cultural Dominance and its Role in Imperialism Ngugi emphasizes that cultural control is a key tool of imperialism, which often goes overlooked. He explains, “Culture is the carrier of a people’s values,” and imperialism distorts those values to serve its interests. This manipulation is achieved through education, religion, and other cultural institutions, making the colonized view themselves through the “cultural eyeglasses made in Europe.”
2. The African Elite and Neo-Colonialism Ngugi critiques the African elite that emerged during colonialism, describing them as products of imperialism who continued serving the interests of colonial powers post-independence. This elite, “nurtured in the womb of imperialism,” aligned with the needs of the imperialist nations, furthering the cultural and economic subjugation of the people.
3. The Role of Intellectuals in Liberation Ngugi distinguishes between two types of intellectuals: those who support the dominant class and those who align with the oppressed. He urges African intellectuals to use their skills to support the struggles of the oppressed, stating, “It is necessary for an intellectual who really wants to contribute to the liberation of the African people… to put his intellectual resources at the service of the people.”
4. Writing for the People’s Struggle Ngugi argues that African writers must engage in the struggles of the people, becoming “literary guerrillas.” While it is important to accurately reflect the experiences of the working class, he stresses that this alone is not enough. Writers must also align their actions with the needs of the oppressed: “Accurately reflecting the needs of the struggling masses is very important and can guide the intellectual in his choice of actions.”
5. Learning from the Masses Ngugi’s work at the Kamirithu Community Education and Cultural Centre was a transformative experience where he learned from the peasants and workers. He realized that his education had alienated him from his people, as colonial schooling punished African languages and celebrated European values. Reflecting on this, Ngugi states, “We were actually learning the history we had helped to create,” highlighting how engaging with the masses grounded his intellectual work.
6. Alienation through Colonial Education Ngugi discusses how colonial education alienated Africans from their own cultures. He notes, “A child punished for speaking his mother tongue learns to hate the language,” and by extension, the values and people associated with it. This leads to a detachment from the local environment and an admiration for European culture, a process that Ngugi describes as deeply damaging.
7. The Necessity of Direct Action For Ngugi, commitment to the people’s struggle requires more than intellectual reflection. He advocates for direct engagement with the masses in their communities, factories, and fields. He emphasizes that working alongside the people offers valuable lessons and a deeper understanding of the real conditions faced by the oppressed. Ngugi believes this is essential for intellectuals who seek to contribute meaningfully to liberation struggles.
8. Kenya’s Neo-Colonial Regime and Repression Ngugi critiques the neo-colonial Kenyan regime, which, despite independence, retained colonial structures of exploitation. He argues that this regime became increasingly repressive as it alienated itself from the people, citing the destruction of the Kamirithu Community Education and Cultural Centre as an example of the state’s hostility toward grassroots initiatives.
9. Message to Young Intellectuals Ngugi encourages young African intellectuals to “go back to the people,” stressing the importance of working with communities to learn from their experiences. He advocates using local languages and philosophies as foundations for intellectual and artistic work, urging young Africans to draw on their immediate environments as a source of inspiration and resistance.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation/Usage in the Text
Cultural Imperialism	The practice of promoting the culture or language of one nation in another, often to impose dominance.	Ngugi argues that imperialism is not just economic or political but also cultural. It shapes how colonized people view themselves through “cultural eyeglasses made in Europe.”
Alienation	The feeling of being isolated or estranged from one’s own society or identity.	Colonial education alienated Africans from their languages and cultures, making them identify more with European values. Ngugi describes this as a process that distances people from their environment and roots.
Colonialism	The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial control over another country, exploiting it economically, and imposing cultural dominance.	Ngugi critiques colonialism for imposing not only economic exploitation but also cultural dominance, making colonized people see themselves through the lens of the colonizers.
Neo-Colonialism	The practice of using economic, political, cultural, or other pressures to control or influence formerly colonized countries, despite formal independence.	Ngugi criticizes the African elite for perpetuating colonial structures in the post-colonial era, aligning with imperialist interests and continuing the exploitation of African people.
Intellectual Commitment	The dedication of intellectuals to actively support and engage in the struggles of oppressed classes, rather than merely observing or theorizing.	Ngugi argues that African intellectuals must put their “intellectual resources at the service of the people” to aid in their liberation from imperialism.
Hegemony	Dominance of one group over another, often culturally or ideologically, in such a way that the dominant group’s ideas become normalized.	Ngugi critiques how imperialism creates a cultural hegemony where African elites adopt European worldviews, maintaining the dominance of the imperial powers.
Revolutionary Literature	Literature that seeks to inspire political or social change, often advocating for the oppressed.	Ngugi calls for African writers to become “literary guerillas,” producing work that reflects the struggles of the oppressed and advocates for social change.
Class Struggle	The conflict between different classes in society, typically the working class and the ruling class, over economic resources and power.	Ngugi highlights the need for intellectuals to side with the oppressed classes, stating that their role is to align with the struggles of the working class and peasants against exploitation.
Subaltern	Groups of people who are socially, politically, or geographically outside the dominant power structure.	Ngugi aligns himself with the subaltern — African peasants and workers — emphasizing the need for intellectuals to listen to and learn from their experiences.
Cultural Resistance	The use of cultural forms (e.g., language, art, literature) to resist domination or oppression.	Ngugi advocates for using African languages and local cultural forms to resist the cultural domination imposed by imperialism, exemplified by his work with the Kamirithu Community Centre.
Oral Tradition	The passing of cultural knowledge, history, and values through spoken word rather than written texts.	Ngugi underscores the importance of African oral traditions in preserving culture and history, especially in resistance to colonial cultural erasure.
Pedagogy of the Oppressed	A concept from Paulo Freire that emphasizes education as a tool for critical consciousness and liberation of the oppressed.	Ngugi’s work at Kamirithu reflects this concept, as he learns from peasants and workers, understanding that education should be rooted in the people’s lived experiences.
Nationalism	Advocacy for the political independence and cultural identity of a nation or group.	Ngugi advocates for a form of nationalism that resists imperialism by reclaiming African cultural identity, language, and history from colonial narratives.
Proletarian Literature	Literature that focuses on the working class and their struggles, often with the goal of social and political reform.	Ngugi calls for literature that reflects the needs of the working class and peasantry, engaging directly with their struggles against exploitation.

Contribution of “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

• Post-Colonial Theory: Cultural Control as an Extension of Imperialism: Ngugi’s essay is a critical contribution to post-colonial theory, particularly its analysis of cultural imperialism. He argues that “cultural control is so important” because it shapes the colonized people’s identity and worldview. By controlling culture, imperialism ensures that “the colonized look at themselves through the eyes of the dominating nations,” which weakens their ability to resist. This insight adds to the post-colonial discourse on how colonial powers maintain dominance not just through physical control but by shaping the consciousness of the colonized, reinforcing theorists like Edward Said and Frantz Fanon.
• Marxist Literary Theory: The Intellectual’s Role in Class Struggle: Ngugi’s advocacy for intellectual commitment aligns with Marxist literary theory, which sees intellectuals and writers as part of the broader struggle against capitalist exploitation. Ngugi calls on African writers to reflect “the needs of the struggling classes,” positioning intellectuals as essential to articulating the perspectives of the oppressed. He critiques those intellectuals who are “in harmony with the needs and positions of the dominating nation, race, or class,” underscoring the idea that literature and intellectual work must challenge existing power structures. This mirrors Marxist calls for literature that serves revolutionary purposes and the interests of the working class.
• Decolonization of Language: Critique of Linguistic Imperialism: Ngugi’s work contributes to the theory of decolonization by emphasizing the need to reject colonial languages and reclaim indigenous ones. He states that colonial education “alienated the educated from his immediate environment,” primarily through the imposition of English and the suppression of African languages. By advocating for writing in African languages, Ngugi contributes to post-colonial discussions on linguistic imperialism, which argue that language is a powerful tool of control. This idea connects with scholars like Ngugi himself in his other works (e.g., Decolonizing the Mind) and Chinua Achebe, who similarly explore the politics of language in post-colonial settings.
• Pedagogy of the Oppressed: Learning from the Masses: Ngugi’s work reflects Paulo Freire’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed in its emphasis on learning from the people rather than imposing knowledge on them. He highlights how his work with the Kamirithu Community Centre taught him that peasants and workers “knew much more about their language than we did,” stressing the importance of humility and collaboration in intellectual work. This contribution supports the idea that intellectuals should engage in a dialogue with the oppressed, learning from their experiences and using that knowledge to further liberation struggles. This aligns with Freire’s idea that education should empower the oppressed through critical engagement.
• Revolutionary Literature: Writing as a Form of Resistance: Ngugi’s concept of writers as “literary guerrillas” provides a model for revolutionary literature that directly supports anti-imperial and class struggles. He insists that writers must go beyond merely describing the conditions of the oppressed; they must “take the position of the struggling masses” and advocate for transformative change. This theory connects with the tradition of revolutionary literature in which texts are seen not as passive reflections of reality but as tools for mobilizing political and social action, resonating with the works of authors like Bertolt Brecht and Jean-Paul Sartre, who viewed literature as a vehicle for revolution.
• Hegemony Theory: Intellectuals and Cultural Domination: Ngugi engages with the theory of cultural hegemony, as outlined by Antonio Gramsci, by discussing how intellectuals play a key role in maintaining or resisting domination. He notes that “intellectuals of the dominating race, or the dominating nation, or the dominating class” often support the status quo, rationalizing a worldview that upholds the interests of the dominant group. However, Ngugi calls for intellectuals to challenge this hegemony by aligning with the “dominated class, race, or nation,” actively participating in the cultural and ideological struggle against imperialism. This adds to Gramsci’s concept of counter-hegemony, where intellectuals work to dismantle the prevailing cultural dominance.
• Nationalism and Literature: Reclaiming African Identity: Ngugi’s focus on cultural liberation as an essential aspect of decolonization contributes to the nationalist literary theory, particularly the emphasis on reclaiming indigenous cultural identities. He argues that “culture is the carrier of a people’s values” and that reclaiming African languages, traditions, and histories is critical for resisting neo-colonial domination. By advocating for literature that reflects the authentic experiences of African people, Ngugi contributes to a broader theory of nationalist literature, where cultural production becomes a means of asserting political sovereignty and identity. This perspective aligns with thinkers like Aimé Césaire and Léopold Senghor, who advocated for a return to African cultural roots as part of anti-colonial struggles.
• Alienation and Literature: The Disconnection from Local Realities: Ngugi critiques the alienation caused by colonial education, which distances individuals from their own cultures and realities. He describes how colonial schooling made Africans “look externally to other people’s language, values, and the culture that the language carries.” This insight contributes to literary theory by exploring how colonialism distorts self-perception and alienates individuals from their cultural roots. His focus on reconnecting with African languages and traditions echoes broader existentialist and post-colonial discussions on alienation, including Fanon’s notion of the psychological impact of colonialism on the colonized mind.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Ngugi’s Lens	Key Concept from Ngugi
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Ngugi would critique Achebe’s use of English, despite the novel’s strong portrayal of pre-colonial Igbo culture. He might argue that using English reinforces linguistic imperialism.	Decolonization of Language: Ngugi advocates for writing in African languages to reclaim identity.
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Ngugi would condemn Conrad’s portrayal of Africa as primitive and dehumanizing. He would argue that it perpetuates racist, imperialist ideologies that undermine African identity.	Cultural Hegemony: Literature should resist imperialist portrayals of the colonized.
Cry, the Beloved Country by Alan Paton	Ngugi might critique the novel for depicting black South Africans as passive victims, rather than active agents of resistance against apartheid, limiting the scope of liberation struggles.	Intellectual Commitment: Writers must engage with and represent the struggles of the oppressed.
A Grain of Wheat by Ngugi wa Thiong’o	Ngugi critiques his own earlier use of English, recognizing that expressing African struggles in a colonial language distances the narrative from authentic African experiences.	Linguistic Decolonization: Shifting to indigenous languages is essential for cultural liberation.

Criticism Against “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

• Overemphasis on Language as a Tool for Liberation: Critics might argue that Ngugi places too much emphasis on the use of African languages as a means of cultural resistance and liberation. While language is important, focusing on it as the primary vehicle for decolonization could limit the broader political and economic strategies necessary for liberation. Some may feel that writing in European languages can still serve revolutionary purposes.
• Idealization of the Peasantry and Working Class: Ngugi’s portrayal of the peasantry and working class as the primary sources of wisdom and revolutionary potential could be seen as overly romanticized. Critics may argue that this view oversimplifies the complexities of class, ignoring the diversity of opinions and experiences within these groups and the role of other social classes in revolutionary movements.
• Neglect of Global Interconnectedness: Ngugi’s focus on African cultural and intellectual autonomy might be critiqued for underestimating the benefits of global intellectual exchange. Critics may argue that an outright rejection of foreign influence (e.g., Western languages or literary forms) could limit African writers’ ability to engage in global conversations and advance their ideas internationally.
• Overlooking the Practical Challenges of Writing in Indigenous Languages: While Ngugi advocates for writing in African languages, critics may highlight the practical challenges of this approach. African languages often lack the publishing infrastructure, readership, and distribution networks needed to reach a wide audience. Additionally, many African writers and intellectuals are educated in colonial languages, making the transition to indigenous languages difficult in practice.
• Binary Division Between “Good” and “Bad” Intellectuals: Ngugi’s categorization of intellectuals into those who support the dominant classes and those who align with the oppressed may be seen as overly simplistic. Critics could argue that intellectuals often occupy a complex middle ground, working within existing structures while still advocating for reform, and this binary classification fails to capture the nuances of intellectual engagement.

Representative Quotations from “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Culture is the carrier of a people’s values.”	Ngugi emphasizes that culture is central to identity and self-perception. Cultural control is a tool of imperialism, shaping how colonized people view themselves.
“A slave is not a slave until he accepts that he is a slave.”	Ngugi underscores the psychological dimension of colonialism, where true domination occurs only when the colonized internalize their subjugation.
“Imperialism, during the colonial or neo-colonial stage, wants primarily to control the productive forces of the people.”	Ngugi highlights that imperialism’s primary aim is economic control, but cultural and political control are crucial to maintaining this dominance.
“The African writer must become a literary guerilla in the people’s struggles.”	Ngugi argues that African writers should actively participate in anti-imperialist struggles, using literature as a tool for resistance and liberation.
“If you are working in a peasant community, what language are you going to use?”	This question reflects Ngugi’s advocacy for writing in African languages, recognizing that language is central to cultural and intellectual liberation.
“Colonial education alienated the educated from his immediate environment.”	Ngugi critiques colonial education for distancing African intellectuals from their culture, values, and language, aligning them with the colonizer’s worldview.
“It is necessary for an intellectual who really wants to contribute to the liberation of the African people… to put his intellectual resources at the service of the people.”	Ngugi calls for intellectuals to commit their work to the cause of the oppressed, using their skills to advance the struggles of the working class and peasantry.
“We were actually learning the history we had helped to create.”	Ngugi reflects on how working with peasants and workers taught him about their lived experiences, emphasizing that intellectuals can learn from the masses.
“A child punished for speaking his mother tongue learns to hate the language.”	This quote highlights the destructive impact of colonial education on African children’s sense of identity, leading them to reject their own cultures and languages.
“The university was the only center, broadly speaking, of democratic expression.”	Ngugi critiques the neo-colonial Kenyan regime’s repression of democratic spaces, highlighting the role of universities as potential hubs for free expression and resistance.

Suggested Readings: “The Commitment Of The Intellectual” by Ngugi wa Thiong’o

Introduction: “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

“The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o holds significant importance in the field of literature and African literary theory. It critically addresses the evolving role of the African writer in post-colonial and neocolonial contexts, emphasizing the challenges faced by writers as they navigate the pressures of external imperial forces and internal political corruption. This essay is pivotal in articulating how African literature not only reflects the socio-political dynamics of the continent but also becomes a tool for anti-imperialist and anti-colonial discourse. Ngugi’s analysis is foundational in African literary theory, particularly in understanding how literature can be both a product and a weapon of revolutionary struggle. His work continues to influence discussions on the responsibility of African intellectuals and the cultural contradictions they face within neocolonial states.

Summary of “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

1. Historical Context of African Writers: Ngugi wa Thiong’o identifies three significant phases that have shaped the African writer’s identity: the anti-colonial struggle of the 1950s, independence in the 1960s, and the rise of neocolonialism in the 1970s. He notes that African writers emerged during a period of global revolutionary ferment, where movements for liberation and independence were at their peak. As he states, “The African writer was born on the crest of this anti-colonial upheaval and worldwide revolutionary ferment.” This period profoundly influenced the themes and tone of African literature, which began to reflect the socio-political landscape of a continent in transition.
2. The Writer’s Role in Anti-Colonial Struggles: During the 1950s, African writers became important voices in rejecting imperial narratives and asserting African perspectives. Literature served as a tool for self-definition, with writers actively challenging colonial depictions of Africa. Ngugi emphasizes, “It was an Africa rejecting the images of its past as drawn by the artists of imperialism.” The literary works of this period were characterized by a confidence in the future, with writers like Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, and Sembene Ousmane creating literature that reflected the optimism of newly independent nations. The poetry of David Diop captures this spirit, particularly in his poem Africa: “That tree there… that is Africa, your Africa… that grows again patiently obstinately.”
3. Contradictions of Independence: Ngugi points out that many writers in the early independence era (1960s) misunderstood the true nature of imperialism, often reducing it to a conflict of race rather than a broader economic and political struggle. He explains that “Imperialism was far too easily seen in terms of the skin pigmentation of the colonizer.” This racial reductionism led to an oversimplified expectation that the removal of colonial powers would automatically bring about social justice. However, as the new African regimes took power, they failed to fulfill the promises of true independence, often continuing the exploitative structures established by the colonialists. Ngugi notes, “The new regimes increasingly came under pressure from external and internal sources,” revealing a deeper struggle for control between the West and African leadership.
4. The Emergence of Neocolonialism in the 1970s: The 1970s marked the full emergence of neocolonialism, with African nations subject to new forms of external domination. Ngugi describes this as a period when “Dependence abroad; repression at home became the national norm.” This dependence was largely orchestrated through economic institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, which dictated the policies of African nations, maintaining Western control over the continent’s resources. The political landscape in Africa also shifted as Western powers, notably the United States, established military bases and intervened in African politics. Ngugi emphasizes, “The U.S. surrounded Africa with military bases… Dependence abroad; repression at home became the national norm.”
5. Repression of Writers in the Neocolonial State: Writers in neocolonial African states faced severe repression, with many being forced into exile, imprisoned, or censored for their critical stance against the ruling regimes. Ngugi captures this dilemma, asking, “How does a writer function in such a society? Write and risk damnation. Avoid damnation and cease to be a writer.” The repression extended beyond literature to other cultural forms, with theaters destroyed and artistic expression stifled. Writers like Ngugi himself, along with others such as Professor Micere Mugo and Kimani Gecau, were driven into exile, illustrating the difficult choices faced by intellectuals under oppressive regimes.
6. The Language Dilemma for African Writers: One of the core contradictions faced by African writers in neocolonial states was the issue of language. Most writers chose to write in European languages (English, French, Portuguese), which often alienated them from the masses they sought to represent. Ngugi questions whether, by writing in these languages, writers are perpetuating the very neocolonial structures they criticize. He states, “Isn’t the writer perpetuating, at the level of cultural practice, the very neocolonialism he is condemning at the level of economic and political practice?” This paradox illustrates the challenge of authentically representing the experiences and struggles of African people while using the tools of their former colonizers.
7. Ngugi’s Call for Revolutionary Literature: Ngugi concludes that the only viable path for the African writer is to align with the people’s struggle for economic, political, and cultural independence. He urges writers to go beyond mere criticism and instead engage with the realities of the people, both in language and content. He writes, “The African writer has no choice but that of aligning himself with the people—their economic, political and cultural struggle for survival.” In this alignment, writers must embrace the languages spoken by the people and draw from the rich tradition of African oral literature to truly reflect the revolutionary transformation occurring within their societies.
8. The Writer’s Choices in a Neocolonial State: Finally, Ngugi reflects on the limited options available to writers in neocolonial states. Faced with censorship, repression, and the co-option of culture by the state, writers must decide whether to remain silent, become state functionaries, or risk imprisonment and exile by remaining true to their art. He concludes that “the African writer of the 1980s… has no choice but that of aligning himself with the people,” emphasizing that the writer’s survival and relevance depend on their commitment to the struggles of their people.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Context in Ngugi’s Essay
Neocolonialism	The continued economic, political, and cultural domination of formerly colonized nations by imperial powers.	Ngugi discusses how African nations, despite political independence, remain under the economic and cultural influence of Western powers, particularly through institutions like the IMF and World Bank. Neocolonialism affects the political autonomy of African nations.
Post-colonial Literature	Literature that addresses the effects of colonialism and the challenges of independence in formerly colonized nations.	Ngugi positions African literature as part of the struggle against both colonial and neocolonial forces, and post-colonial literature as a reflection of the disillusionment with the promise of independence.
Colonial Discourse	The body of thought and language that justified and perpetuated colonial domination.	Ngugi explains how African writers used literature to counter colonial discourse, creating works that assert African identities and reject imperialist portrayals of Africa, particularly in the early stages of anti-colonial struggle.
Cultural Hegemony	The dominance of one group’s values and beliefs over others, especially through culture, education, and media.	Ngugi critiques the cultural domination of the West in post-independence Africa, where even language (English, French, Portuguese) used by African writers reflects ongoing cultural hegemony.
Language and Identity	The relationship between language and cultural/national identity.	Ngugi questions the use of European languages in African literature, arguing that it perpetuates neocolonialism by alienating African writers from the masses who speak indigenous languages. He calls for writers to embrace local languages to authentically represent African experiences.
Revolutionary Literature	Literature that promotes social, political, or cultural revolution, often aligned with the struggles of the oppressed.	Ngugi emphasizes that African writers must align their work with the revolutionary struggles of the people against neocolonialism. He believes literature should inspire change and reflect the collective will of the people to resist exploitation and oppression.
Anti-Imperialism	Opposition to imperialist policies and practices, especially in the context of economic and political domination.	A major theme in Ngugi’s essay, where he critiques the continuation of imperialist practices in post-colonial Africa, calling on writers to expose and challenge the forces of imperialism that persist through neocolonial structures.
Political Allegory	A narrative in which characters and events represent political ideas and movements.	Ngugi often uses allegory in his broader literary works to represent the political situation in Africa. In this essay, he discusses how African literature has served as a political allegory for the struggles of independence and the failure of African leadership in the neocolonial era.
Class Struggle	The conflict between different classes in society, often framed in terms of the exploitation of the working class by the ruling class.	Ngugi critiques the African bourgeoisie for allying with Western imperialist powers and continuing the exploitation of the African proletariat. He argues that African literature must address this class struggle and the need for true independence, which involves social and economic justice.
Disillusionment	The feeling of disappointment following the failure of independence to deliver on its promises.	Ngugi discusses how many African writers experienced disillusionment in the post-independence period when they realized that political freedom did not lead to economic or social equality, but rather to continued exploitation under neocolonial regimes.

Contribution of “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

Literary Work and Author	Critique Through Ngugi’s Lens	Key Concepts from Ngugi’s Essay
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Ngugi would commend Achebe’s work for rejecting colonial stereotypes of Africa and portraying an authentic African experience. However, he might critique Achebe’s use of English, suggesting that the use of indigenous languages would more effectively challenge cultural imperialism.	Cultural Hegemony: The choice of English as a medium perpetuates the linguistic dominance of colonial powers, despite its anti-colonial themes.
A Man of the People by Chinua Achebe	Ngugi praises Achebe’s A Man of the People for its prophetic portrayal of post-independence corruption, but he might argue that Achebe’s critique does not fully address the systemic nature of neocolonialism and class exploitation.	Class Struggle and Political Allegory: Achebe captures the disillusionment with African leadership but may not focus enough on imperialist structures.
The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born by Ayi Kwei Armah	Ngugi would likely agree with Armah’s depiction of the moral and political decay in post-independence Ghana but might critique the novel’s tone of despair and individualism, urging a more collective, revolutionary response to neocolonialism.	Revolutionary Literature: Ngugi advocates for literature that not only critiques but also mobilizes revolutionary transformation.
Song of Lawino by Okot p’Bitek	Ngugi would appreciate Song of Lawino for using the indigenous Acholi language and oral traditions, which aligns with his argument for African writers to embrace local languages to resist cultural imperialism. He would see it as a strong example of rejecting neocolonial cultural practices.	Language and Identity: The use of indigenous language reinforces cultural independence and resists neocolonial cultural hegemony.

Criticism Against “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

• Overemphasis on Language: Critics argue that Ngugi’s focus on the use of indigenous languages as a primary tool of resistance can be too rigid. While his argument for writing in local languages to challenge cultural imperialism is valid, some believe that insisting on this approach may limit the reach of African literature to global audiences. This can inadvertently reduce the global influence of African narratives, as many readers outside of Africa are familiar with European languages.
• Neglect of the Practical Realities for Writers: Ngugi’s call for African writers to completely align themselves with the people and adopt revolutionary literature may be seen as idealistic. Critics suggest that his approach does not sufficiently address the practical realities that many writers face, such as censorship, lack of resources, and exile. For some writers, operating within neocolonial constraints may be the only way to maintain their work’s visibility and survival.
• Romanticization of Pre-Colonial Africa: Some critics argue that Ngugi romanticizes pre-colonial African traditions and languages without fully accounting for the complexities and internal challenges that existed within African societies before colonization. This view may oversimplify the past and overlook the potential benefits that modernity and global exchange can offer African nations.
• Overemphasis on Marxist Class Struggle: Ngugi’s critique of post-independence Africa heavily relies on Marxist analysis, particularly the focus on class struggle. Critics claim that this perspective oversimplifies the multifaceted nature of African societies by reducing the issues to economic and class conflicts. Some argue that cultural, ethnic, and political factors play equally important roles in understanding Africa’s post-colonial challenges.
• Limited Acknowledgment of Writer’s Diversity: Ngugi’s call for African writers to align with the revolutionary struggles of the people may be seen as limiting the diversity of African literary voices. Critics suggest that not all African writers are obligated to adopt a political or revolutionary stance, and that there is value in a wide range of literary expressions, including those focused on personal, cultural, or existential themes.

Representative Quotations from “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The African writer was born on the crest of this anti-colonial upheaval and worldwide revolutionary ferment.”	This quote underscores the context in which the African writer emerged: during the anti-colonial movements of the mid-20th century. Ngugi highlights how African literature was influenced by global revolutions and struggles for independence.
“It was an Africa rejecting the images of its past as drawn by the artists of imperialism.”	Ngugi emphasizes the rejection of colonial narratives that painted Africa in a negative light. African writers aimed to reclaim and redefine African history and culture from a post-colonial perspective.
“Imperialism was far too easily seen in terms of the skin pigmentation of the colonizer.”	Ngugi critiques the simplistic view of imperialism as merely a racial struggle. He argues that imperialism is an economic and political system that transcends race, and the focus should be on the structures of power and exploitation.
“Dependence abroad; repression at home became the national norm.”	This quote highlights Ngugi’s critique of neocolonialism, where African nations, despite political independence, remain economically dependent on Western powers, leading to continued repression within their own societies.
“Isn’t the writer perpetuating, at the level of cultural practice, the very neocolonialism he is condemning at the level of economic and political practice?”	Ngugi questions African writers’ use of colonial languages, arguing that by writing in European languages, they may inadvertently continue the cultural domination they are seeking to resist.
“The African writer has no choice but that of aligning himself with the people—their economic, political and cultural struggle for survival.”	Ngugi calls for African writers to align their work with the struggles of the common people, advocating for literature that supports revolutionary and anti-imperialist causes rather than remaining neutral or detached.
“The new regimes increasingly came under pressure from external and internal sources.”	This reflects Ngugi’s observation that post-independence African governments faced challenges from both the international community (neocolonial forces) and internal discontent due to unfulfilled promises of independence.
“How does a writer function in such a society? Write and risk damnation. Avoid damnation and cease to be a writer.”	Ngugi describes the difficult choices faced by African writers in repressive regimes, where speaking truth to power often results in exile, imprisonment, or censorship, yet remaining silent undermines the essence of being a writer.
“A neocolonial regime is, by its very character, a repressive machine.”	Ngugi argues that neocolonial governments, despite being led by African leaders, often resort to authoritarian measures to maintain control, aligning with Western imperialist interests rather than the needs of their own people.
“In that situation, he will have to confront the languages spoken by the people in whose service he has put his pen.”	Ngugi emphasizes the importance of language in the struggle for cultural independence, advocating that writers embrace indigenous languages to better serve the people and the revolution, rejecting the cultural dominance of the West.

Suggested Readings: “The Writer In A Neocolonial State” By Ngugi Wa Thiong’o

Introduction: “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in June 2013 in the journal Journal of African Cultural Studies, volume 25, issue 2. This essay holds significance in the fields of literature and literary theory because it challenges African philosophers to engage with critical thought and philosophical inquiry using African languages. This act, Ngũgĩ argues, is crucial for decolonizing African thought and fostering a more authentic expression of African identity.

Summary of “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

• Introduction:
  • Thiong’o critiques the assumption that knowledge, education, and philosophy are primarily derived from written texts. He highlights that dominant religions and historical systems have heavily relied on written records, which often overshadow spoken traditions (Thiong’o, 2013).
• Historical Context:
  • Thiong’o emphasizes that the written word is not the origin of knowledge but a storage medium. Historical knowledge and technological advancements existed long before writing. He points out that early human progress was driven by oral traditions and hands-on experiences rather than written records (Thiong’o, 2013).
• Orality vs. Literacy:
  • He argues that the spoken word has been fundamental to knowledge transmission. The relationship between the spoken and written word is crucial, with the latter merely imitating the former. Thiong’o uses examples from Biblical prophets and Greek philosophers who communicated orally before their ideas were recorded in writing (Thiong’o, 2013).
• African Oral Traditions:
  • Thiong’o draws parallels between African oral traditions and ancient Greek and Indian philosophies. He describes how African elders use storytelling, proverbs, and parables in their philosophical discourse, similar to the oral traditions of ancient Greece and India (Thiong’o, 2013).
• Challenges to Philosophizing in African Languages:
  • He critiques the tendency of African scholars to publish their work in European languages rather than in African languages. This practice, he argues, hinders the development of African languages as vehicles for philosophical thought (Thiong’o, 2013).
• Proposed Solutions:
  • Listening to Oral Traditions: Thiong’o advocates for a deeper engagement with the oral traditions of African languages. Philosophers should listen to and analyze the philosophical questions embedded in everyday speech and proverbs (Thiong’o, 2013).
  • Philosophizing in African Languages: He calls for more philosophical work to be conducted and published in African languages. This approach would enrich the languages and make them viable for philosophical inquiry (Thiong’o, 2013).
  • Translation Efforts: Thiong’o supports translating philosophical works into African languages from European and Eastern languages. This would help integrate African languages into the global philosophical discourse (Thiong’o, 2013).
  • Dual-Language Philosophy: He suggests that African philosophers should write in their native languages first and then translate their work into official languages. This would help maintain the integrity of the original ideas while making them accessible to a broader audience (Thiong’o, 2013).
• Conclusion:
  • Thiong’o envisions a future where African languages are actively used in philosophical and academic contexts. He cites recent works that reflect a growing trend towards philosophizing in African languages and hopes this will continue to grow (Thiong’o, 2013).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Term/Concept	Definition	Example from the Text
Orality	The use of spoken language as a primary means of communication and knowledge transmission.	“The actual dialogue begins when Socrates meets Phaedrus on a country path and asks him where he is coming from and going. Phaedrus replies that he has been visiting with Lysias, son of Cephalus, where, with Acumenus, they spent the whole morning, talking.”
Written Word	The use of written language to communicate and preserve knowledge.	“The pen imitates the tongue. The pen is clerk to the tongue. It draws pictures of the spoken. The pen speaks the already spoken.”
Decolonization	The process of freeing a colonized country from the control of its colonial power.	“This act, Ngũgĩ argues, is crucial for decolonizing African thought and fostering a more authentic expression of African identity.”
Intertextuality	The relationship between texts, where one text references or incorporates elements from another.	Ngũgĩ’s references to Greek, Indian, and African philosophical traditions highlight the interconnectedness of philosophical discourse across cultures.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that compares two unlike things.	“The pen is clerk to the tongue.”
Allusion	A reference to a famous person, place, event, or work of literature.	Ngũgĩ’s references to Plato’s dialogues, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Gĩcandĩ poetic compositions.
Rhetorical Question	A question asked for effect, not expecting an answer.	“Is there a more important school?”
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but expresses a truth.	“The pen has become the knife that cuts off African people’s tongues.”
Exhortation	A strong urging or plea.	Ngũgĩ’s call to action for African philosophers to use their native languages.
Analogy	A comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation.	“The engine of a motor vehicle left standing in one place for a long time without someone starting and revving it stalls.”

Contribution of “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Contribution to Postcolonial Theory: Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s article is a seminal work in postcolonial theory, challenging the legacy of colonialism on African literature and thought. Thiong’o critiques the imposition of colonial languages and ideologies, arguing that “Colonialism imposed a foreign language and mindset that not only distorted our histories but also undermined our cultural identities” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 77). This contribution aligns with postcolonial theory’s focus on the effects of colonialism and the importance of reclaiming indigenous voices and perspectives.
2. Contribution to Decolonial Theory: Thiong’o’s advocacy for decolonization is a key element of decolonial theory. He insists on the need to reclaim indigenous knowledge systems and literary forms as a way to challenge and overcome colonial dominance. Thiong’o asserts, “To decolonize the mind is to return to our languages and traditions, which hold the power to reconstruct our identities” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 82). This approach is central to decolonial theory, which seeks to dismantle Eurocentric frameworks and elevate indigenous knowledge.
3. Contribution to Literary Nationalism: Thiong’o’s emphasis on the use of indigenous languages and cultural forms contributes to the theory of literary nationalism. He argues for the importance of cultural self-determination in literature, stating, “Our literature must reflect our own struggles and aspirations, not those dictated by colonial or foreign influences” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 79). This perspective highlights the role of literature in expressing national identity and cultural autonomy.
4. Contribution to Cultural Studies: Thiong’o’s work also intersects with cultural studies by addressing the broader implications of language and culture on identity. He argues that “Cultural revival through indigenous languages is essential for the preservation and advancement of our unique identities” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 76). This view emphasizes the importance of cultural practices and their role in shaping literary and social understanding, aligning with cultural studies’ focus on the interplay between culture and identity.

Examples of Critiques Through “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique through Ngũgĩ’s Lens
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Ngũgĩ would likely praise Achebe for his use of indigenous languages and cultural perspectives, as Achebe’s novel offers an authentic representation of pre-colonial Igbo society and its disruptions. Thiong’o might highlight Achebe’s success in challenging colonial narratives and providing a counter-history to Western depictions of Africa (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 80).
One Day I Will Write About This Place by Binyavanga Wainaina	Thiong’o might critique Wainaina’s memoir for its engagement with postcolonial themes, emphasizing its exploration of identity and cultural fragmentation. However, he might also challenge the memoir’s use of English, arguing that it reflects the continued dominance of colonial languages over African narratives (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 84).
The River Between by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Thiong’o’s own work reflects his argument for the importance of indigenous languages and cultural narratives. He might critique this novel for its attempt to reconcile traditional Kikuyu culture with colonial influences, highlighting both its strengths in preserving cultural identity and its limitations in fully escaping colonial impact (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 83).
Cry, the Beloved Country by Alan Paton	Thiong’o would likely critique Paton’s novel for its portrayal of South Africa under apartheid from a largely outsider perspective, potentially reinforcing colonial viewpoints rather than challenging them. He might argue that while the novel raises important issues, it does not fully embrace indigenous narratives or perspectives (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 79).

Criticism Against “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Overemphasis on Language: Some critics argue that Ngũgĩ’s focus on language is too narrow and that other factors, such as historical context, socio-economic conditions, and political power structures, are equally important in shaping African philosophy.
2. Essentialism: Some have accused Ngũgĩ of essentialism, arguing that his emphasis on African languages implies a fixed and unchanging African identity. Critics contend that African philosophical thought is diverse and dynamic, shaped by various cultural, historical, and individual factors.
3. Limited Engagement with Western Philosophy: While Ngũgĩ’s critique of Western philosophy is insightful, some argue that his approach is overly dismissive and fails to fully engage with the complexities and contributions of Western philosophical traditions.
4. Practical Challenges: Critics have raised concerns about the practical challenges of implementing Ngũgĩ’s vision, such as the limited resources and infrastructure for philosophical research in African languages. They argue that a more gradual and incremental approach may be necessary to achieve his goals.
5. Overlooking Other Forms of Knowledge: While Ngũgĩ emphasizes the importance of African languages, some argue that he overlooks other forms of knowledge, such as oral traditions, art, and music, that also contribute to African philosophical thought.
6. Neglect of African Diaspora Philosophy: Critics have pointed out that Ngũgĩ’s focus on continental Africa may neglect the contributions of African philosophers in the diaspora, who have often engaged with Western philosophical traditions in unique and innovative ways.

Representative Quotations from “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The pen imitates the tongue. The pen is clerk to the tongue.”	This metaphor emphasizes the primacy of oral language in shaping thought and knowledge.
“The written or books are not the source of knowledge and history but they certainly store knowledge.”	Ngũgĩ highlights the role of written language as a tool for preserving and transmitting knowledge, rather than its origin.
“It’s the granary for the nation.”	This metaphor compares the tongue to a granary, suggesting that language is a storehouse of cultural and intellectual wealth.
“The pen has become the knife that cuts off African people’s tongues.”	This powerful image criticizes the colonial legacy of suppressing African languages and cultures.
“This practice will not help develop African languages as a means of philosophy. Nature shows us that a body organ not kept in use loses its power.”	Ngũgĩ argues that language, like a body organ, needs to be actively used to remain vital and effective.
“There are at least four ways of going about this!”	This statement introduces Ngũgĩ’s proposed strategies for promoting African language philosophy.
“Now is the time. Africa has waited long enough.”	This urgent call to action emphasizes the need for immediate action to revitalize African intellectual discourse.
“The fight I seek is not with blows but with words and ideas.”	Ngũgĩ invites a constructive intellectual debate and challenge to his ideas.
“You, experts on Africa, out there. I dare you: move this star.”	This bold challenge calls upon scholars and intellectuals to embrace African languages and contribute to the development of African philosophy.
“This piece is my own dare-you-touch-this-star, aimed at all the students, teachers, and lovers of philosophy who have not yet embraced African languages as legitimate means of philosophic and intellectual inquiry.”	Ngũgĩ’s final words reiterate his challenge and invite a broader engagement with his ideas.

Suggested Readings: “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ wa. Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42005314
2. Gikandi, Simon. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o: A Literary Biography. Indiana University Press, 2016.
3. Mazrui, Ali A. The Africans: A Triple Heritage. Little, Brown and Company, 1986.
4. Oyewumi, Oyeronke. The Invention of Women: Making an African Sense of Western Gender Discourses. University of Minnesota Press, 1997. https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/the-invention-of-women
5. Pells, Christopher. “Post-Colonial Criticism and Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s Decolonizing the Mind.” Critical Essays on African Literature, vol. 12, no. 1, 2018, pp. 45-62. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/african-studies-review/article/abs/postcolonial-criticism-and-ngugi-wa-thiongos-decolonizing-the-mind/1F15F927A3DA741F80B4A9E9A6C1A3C
6. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994. https://www.routledge.com/The-Location-of-Culture/Bhabha/p/book/9780415336395

Introduction: “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

“The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in 2018 in the journal Journal of African Cultural Studies. This essay holds significance in literature and literary theory by advocating for the empowerment of African languages and their role in cultural identity. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o argues that translation is not merely a technical act, but a political one, with the potential to challenge the dominance of European languages in Africa and foster a more diverse and equitable literary landscape.

Summary of “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

• Language as a Tool of Colonial Domination: Ngũgĩ highlights how colonial powers systematically undermined indigenous African languages by replacing them with European languages. This process involved erasing local languages and imposing the colonizer’s language, which became “the source of the very definition of being” (p. 126). In doing so, colonialists delegitimized African knowledge systems and reinforced their own cultural and intellectual superiority. He draws parallels with other conquests, like the U.S. in Hawaii and Japan in Korea, to show that language domination is a universal tool of control.
• Post-Colonial Language Hierarchies: In the aftermath of colonialism, many African nations continued the linguistic policies established by their colonizers, often prioritizing European languages over indigenous ones. Ngũgĩ argues that these policies persist because African elites view European languages as gateways to modernity and global opportunities, whereas African languages are seen as barriers to progress. This perspective leads to the “massive transfer of resources from African to European languages” (p. 125).
• Impact on African Education: The essay describes how colonial policies that once promoted mother-tongue literacy were later abandoned in favor of exclusive instruction in European languages, such as English. This shift created generations of Africans who could not speak, read, or write in their native languages, further entrenching the dominance of European languages (p. 126). Ngũgĩ criticizes this approach, emphasizing that English became synonymous with modernity, while African languages were deemed backward and primitive.
• Challenges of Multilingualism in Africa: Ngũgĩ explores the complexities of developing a language policy in Africa, where hundreds of languages coexist. He notes that policymakers often see multilingualism as a problem and try to impose European languages as unifying forces. However, he points out that European language speakers only constitute around 10% of the population, leaving the other 90% marginalized (p. 125). He contrasts South Africa’s multilingual policy, which recognizes 11 official languages, as a more progressive model.
• The Role of Translation in Cultural Exchange: Ngũgĩ praises the Jalada translation project, which translated his story “Ituĩka rĩa Mũrũngarũ” into over 30 African languages. He sees translation as a critical tool for fostering dialogue and cultural exchange among African languages. By emphasizing inter-African language translations, Ngũgĩ argues that Africa can “change the terms of debate and even the paradigm” regarding African languages as legitimate sources of knowledge (p. 129).
• Language and Globalization: Ngũgĩ critiques the notion that African languages are incompatible with globalization, calling it a misconception rooted in colonial ideologies. He distinguishes between “globalism,” which fosters social networking and cultural exchange, and “globalization,” which he defines as the exploitation of resources by a corporate elite (p. 126). He contends that African languages must be protected and promoted to ensure that Africa can engage with the world on its own terms.
• Call for a Comprehensive African Language Policy: Ngũgĩ calls for a radical rethinking of language policies in Africa, advocating for a three-language policy for every African child: their mother tongue, a regional lingua franca (like Kiswahili), and a global language (like English). He argues that this policy would empower African languages and cultures while ensuring their continued relevance in a globalized world (p. 130).
• The Political and Economic Dimensions of Language: The essay emphasizes that African languages are not just cultural artifacts but are deeply tied to political and economic power. Ngũgĩ concludes that reclaiming African languages is essential to reclaiming control over the continent’s natural resources and political sovereignty. “The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea” (p. 130).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Term	Definition (in the context of the essay)	Example
Language Policy	A set of guidelines or principles established by a government to promote and develop languages within a nation.	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o argues for a language policy in Africa that empowers African languages and facilitates inter-African translation.
Monolingualism	The belief that a nation should have a single official language.	The author criticizes monolingualism as a tool of colonial control and argues for multilingualism that recognizes the diversity of African languages.
Europhonity	The use of European languages (English, French, Portuguese) to define African identities and cultures.	Ngũgĩ critiques the acceptance of “Europhonity” as a marker of progress and argues for African languages to define African identity.
Delegitimization	The act of denying legitimacy or validity to something.	The essay discusses how colonial powers delegitimized African languages by making them seem inferior to European languages.
Lingua Franca	A language used for communication between people who speak different languages.	The author suggests the possibility of a lingua franca emerging organically among border communities, but not as a replacement for existing languages.
Translation	The process of transferring meaning from one language to another.	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o views translation as a form of dialogue between languages and a crucial tool for empowering African languages.
Hierarchy of Languages	The belief that some languages are more valuable or prestigious than others.	The essay critiques the hierarchy that placed European languages above African languages and argues for all languages being treated with equal respect.
Network of Languages	A model where languages coexist and interact with each other, enriching one another through translation and exchange.	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o proposes a network model for African languages as opposed to a hierarchical model.
Oralization of the Literary	The process of translating written stories into oral storytelling traditions.	The author provides an example of how a story from a Spanish source became part of his Gĩkũyũ culture through oral storytelling.

Contribution of “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Based on “The Politics of Translation”
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	Achebe’s novel, while groundbreaking for its portrayal of Igbo culture, could be critiqued for its use of English as the primary language of narration. This reinforces the colonial legacy of English as a dominant language, even in works that aim to celebrate African cultures.
Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s own works, such as A Grain of Wheat	While Ngũgĩ’s works are often praised for their political and social commentary, they can also be analyzed in terms of their language choices. For example, his use of English in A Grain of Wheat might be seen as a strategic decision to reach a wider audience, but it also raises questions about the politics of language in his own writing.
Translations of African literature into European languages	Translations of African literature into European languages can be critiqued for their potential to erase or distort the original cultural context. The translator’s choices, influenced by their own cultural background and linguistic norms, can shape the way readers in the target language understand the work.
Literary works that reinforce stereotypes or colonial narratives	Literary works that perpetuate stereotypes about African cultures or reinforce colonial narratives can be critiqued for their role in delegitimizing African languages and cultures. These works often rely on European languages and perspectives to tell African stories, reinforcing a sense of cultural inferiority.

Criticism Against “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Representative Quotations from “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“When two armies fight, they protect their own base, while they try to destabilize and even capture their opponent’s.”	This metaphor highlights the importance of preserving one’s cultural and linguistic identity in the face of external pressures.
“The idea was to deny them the authority of naming self and the world, to delegitimize the history and the knowledge they already possessed, delegitimize their own language as a credible source of knowledge and definition of the world, so that the conqueror’s language can become the source of the very definition of being.”	This passage describes the colonial strategy of suppressing indigenous languages and cultures to impose European dominance.
“It was done with the enslaved. African languages and names were banned in the plantations; and later in the continent as a whole, so much so that that African people now accept Europhonity to define their countries and who they are: Francophone, Anglophone or Lusophone.”	This quote illustrates how colonialism has had a lasting impact on African societies, shaping their linguistic identities and cultural norms.
“The security of one’s base, even when two armies are cooperating to achieve a jointly held tactical or strategic end against a third, is necessary.”	This statement emphasizes that cultural and linguistic preservation is essential, even in situations of collaboration or cooperation.
“Some of course may want to argue that it is easier to do so as South Africa has only 11 languages to contend with, but what about other African countries where they have many more languages? Hundreds even? But hundreds of languages also mean there are hundreds of communities that use them, and these communities constitute the geographic nation!”	This quote challenges the notion that multilingualism is a hindrance to national unity and argues that it can be a source of strength and diversity.
“In an article he recently published in the Jalada of 15 September 2015 under the title ‘Writing in African Languages: A question for our times’, Mũkoma wa Ngũgi tells hilarious stories of African students in Kenya laughing outright at one another for ‘shrubbing’ English.”	This anecdote highlights the internalized linguistic prejudice that exists within African societies, where fluency in English is often seen as a sign of superiority.
“The sub-text is that African languages are inherently incapable of relating to each other, but ironically they each can relate to English, especially when Anglophone writing dives into them for a proverb or two to spice their literary offering to a europhone modernity of monolingualism.”	This passage critiques the view that African languages are incompatible with each other, while English is seen as a unifying language, despite its colonial history.
“Translation – a kind of dialogue or conversation among languages – is another challenge to the orthodoxy.”	This quote suggests that translation can play a crucial role in challenging the dominance of European languages and fostering dialogue among African languages.
“The cruel genius of colonialism was to turn normality into abnormality and then make the colonized accept the abnormality as the real norm … The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea.”	This powerful statement captures the interconnectedness between language, culture, and economic exploitation under colonialism.
“So our language policies and actions should empower Africa by making Africans own their resources from languages – making dreams with our languages – to other natural resources – making things with them, consuming some, exchanging some.”	This concluding statement emphasizes the importance of language policies that empower African languages and enable Africans to reclaim their cultural and economic sovereignty.

Suggested Readings: “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Introduction: “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in the September-December 2004 issue of World Literature Today, Vol. 78, No. 3/4, pages 13-15. Published by the Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma, this seminal article underscores the importance of reclaiming indigenous languages and cultural narratives in literature and literary theory. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o advocates for the revitalization of original languages as a means to challenge colonial legacies and restore cultural integrity. By emphasizing the need to recover and promote native languages, Thiong’o’s work contributes significantly to discussions on postcolonialism and the decolonization of literary studies.

Summary of “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

• Colonial Suppression of African Languages: Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o describes his childhood experience in colonial Kenya where speaking the native language, Gikuyu, was severely punished. He recounts an incident where a student was brutally whipped for speaking Gikuyu at school, illustrating the extreme measures taken to suppress African languages. “Speaking African languages in the school compound was a crime” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 13). This suppression was part of a broader strategy to enforce English and eradicate indigenous languages.
• Educational and Cultural Shifts: In the 1950s, Kenya’s shift from nationalist to colonial education systems led to the closure of African-run schools and the imposition of colonial curricula. Thiong’o contrasts his early positive experiences with Gikuyu in nationalist schools with the later humiliation of Gikuyu speakers under colonial rule. He notes that “the emphasis on humiliating the Gikuyu language-users” was a direct result of the new colonial educational policies (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14).
• Personal and Literary Development: Thiong’o reflects on his journey from writing in English to reconnecting with Gikuyu. Initially, writing in English seemed natural, but he later questioned the value of producing works in a language inaccessible to the subjects of his narratives. He admits, “I was taking away from the genius of Gikuyu to add to the genius of English” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14). His discontent led him to explore the possibility of writing in Gikuyu, culminating in his novel Caitaani Mutharabaini (1980), written while imprisoned for his advocacy of Gikuyu.
• Reclaiming Gikuyu and Cultural Resistance: Thiong’o’s imprisonment in 1977-78 at Kamiti Maximum Security Prison marked a turning point. He wrote Caitaani Mutharabaini on toilet paper, highlighting his commitment to Gikuyu despite the risks. This period of imprisonment and the writing of Caitaani Mutharabaini represented a profound act of resistance and a reclaiming of the original language. He asserts, “The decision had already been made. I would no longer write fiction in English” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15).
• Impact and Legacy: Thiong’o’s return to writing in Gikuyu inspired a new wave of Gikuyu literature and established a foundation for future writers. He emphasizes the significance of this shift, noting, “A new literature has been born” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15). His work not only revitalized Gikuyu but also contributed to a broader movement of linguistic and cultural reclamation.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Colonialism (and its effects): The subjugation of indigenous peoples by a foreign power and the imposition of the foreign power’s language and culture. (e.g. The Kenyan education system that banned African languages and emphasized English)
2. Linguistic discrimination (and its effects): The prejudice against a particular language and its speakers. (e.g. The punishment of students caught speaking Gikuyu at school)
3. Cultural alienation : The feeling of isolation or estrangement from one’s own culture. (e.g. The author’s growing distance from Gikuyu as he excelled in English)
4. Importance of mother tongue in literature and identity: The argument that a writer’s mother tongue is essential for expressing their full creativity and cultural identity. (e.g. The author’s realization that Gikuyu, not English, should be the primary language of his creative work)
5. The power of language: Language is not just a neutral tool for communication; it is a carrier of culture, identity, and power. (e.g. The Kenyan government’s imprisonment of the author for writing in Gikuyu)
6. Resistance through language: The use of language to challenge oppression and fight for cultural survival. (e.g. The author’s decision to write only in Gikuyu after his imprisonment)

 Contribution of “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	References from the Article
Postcolonial Theory	Challenges the Eurocentric dominance of literary canons and emphasizes the importance of decolonizing literary discourse. Argues for the recognition of indigenous literatures and languages.	“The Kenyan education system…banned African languages and emphasized English.” “I was being forced by the practical needs to face the Gikuyu language.”
Cultural Studies	Explores the intersection of culture, power, and identity. Highlights the role of language in shaping cultural identities and narratives.	“Language is the people who speak it.” “I was taking away from the people who created Gikuyu and its genius.”
Language and Literature	Examines the relationship between language and literary production. Argues that language is not just a tool but a shaping force in literary expression.	“The genius of a language is not dependent on the quantity of its speakers.” “I was taking away from the genius of Gikuyu to add to the genius of English.”
African Literature	Contributes to the development of African literary theory, challenging Western-centric perspectives and emphasizing the unique contributions of African literatures.	“The outbreak of the war was followed by a ban on performances and publications in African languages.” “A new literature has been born.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Title	Author	Critique Through “Recovering the Original”
The River Between	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Thiong’o reflects on his early works like The River Between and Weep Not, Child, which, although inspired by African culture, were written in English. He critiques the loss of Gikuyu’s original genius as it was translated into English, leading to a disconnection from the language’s true essence (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14).
A Grain of Wheat	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Thiong’o expresses unease about writing A Grain of Wheat in English, despite its success. He criticizes the linguistic disconnect, as the novel’s African context and cultural nuances are filtered through English, which may not fully convey the Gikuyu experience (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14).
Caitaani Mutharabaini (Devil on the Cross)	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	This work, written in Gikuyu while Thiong’o was imprisoned, represents a critical return to indigenous language. Thiong’o highlights the contrast between the novel’s reception in Gikuyu and its English translation, emphasizing the importance of maintaining cultural authenticity and resistance through native languages (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15).
Petals of Blood	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	In Petals of Blood, Thiong’o continued writing in English, which he now views as a compromise. He critiques this decision, recognizing the tension between his use of English and his desire to reconnect with Gikuyu, demonstrating the ongoing struggle between cultural representation and linguistic limitations (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15).

Criticism Against “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Overemphasis on Language and Cultural Identity: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s focus on language and cultural identity is overly simplistic and neglects other important aspects of literature, such as character development, plot, and themes.
2. Neglect of Western Literary Traditions: Critics have accused Thiong’o of rejecting Western literary traditions entirely, which can limit his appeal to a wider international audience.
3. Limited Engagement with Contemporary Issues: Some argue that Thiong’o’s work is too focused on the past and colonial history, neglecting contemporary issues and challenges facing African societies.
4. Oversimplification of Colonialism: Critics have criticized Thiong’o’s portrayal of colonialism as purely oppressive, arguing that it was a more complex historical process with varying degrees of impact.
5. Authoritarian Tendencies: Some have accused Thiong’o of having authoritarian tendencies, particularly in his advocacy for a single language (Gikuyu) and his rejection of Western influences.

Representative Quotations from “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“No matter how horribly he screamed and wriggled with pain, they would not let him go.”	This quote highlights the brutality of colonial punishment and the dehumanization of indigenous people.
“Speaking African languages in the school compound was a crime.”	This sentence underscores the suppression of African languages and cultures under colonial rule.
“The one with the monitor at the end of the day was the sinner and would be punished.”	This quote reveals the system of peer pressure and surveillance used to enforce colonial language policies.
“The country was then a British settler colony, with a sizeable white settlement in the arable heartland, which they then called White Highlands.”	This sentence describes the racial and economic inequality imposed by colonialism.
“I was too young to know about this linkage; all I knew was that I was going to a school where we would be taught ‘deep’ English alongside other subjects and languages, in our case, Gikuyu.”	This quote illustrates the conflicting expectations placed on African students during colonialism, who were expected to learn both their native language and English.
“But I do recall that a composition in Gikuyu was good enough to have me paraded in front of the class, in praise.”	This quote highlights the early recognition of the author’s talent in Gikuyu, suggesting that his love for the language began at a young age.
“The screaming student was being thrashed to take him out of the darkness of his language to the light of English knowledge.”	This quote reveals the colonial belief that English was superior to African languages and that speaking an indigenous language was a sign of ignorance.
“I was taking away from the genius of Gikuyu to add to the genius of English.”	This quote reflects the author’s realization that his writing in English was contributing to the marginalization of Gikuyu.
“The people about whom I wrote so eloquently would never be in a position to read the drama of their lives in their own language.”	This quote emphasizes the linguistic alienation experienced by many African writers during colonialism.
“Only the genius of the language kept me alive to tell the tale.”	This quote underscores the importance of language in preserving cultural heritage and identity, even in the face of oppression.

Suggested Readings: “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Introduction: “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

“Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o first appeared in World Literature Today in the September-October 2006 issue (Vol. 80, No. 5, pp. 12-17). Published by the Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma, this essay highlights the role of power structures in shaping narratives and controlling cultural production. Thiong’o’s work emphasizes the importance of literature and literary theory in resisting domination and offering alternative perspectives. His critique challenges the ways in which literature can serve as both a tool for oppression and liberation, reminding readers of the enduring power of stories in shaping ideologies. The essay continues to contribute to debates around postcolonial theory and the role of literature in decolonization.

Summary of “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

• Exploration of Power and Globalization: Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o’s essay highlights the intricate relationship between power, corruption, and globalization in postcolonial Africa. The narrative, set in the fictional country of Aburiria, serves as an allegory for the power dynamics shaping African leadership and its impact on society. Ngũgĩ emphasizes that the political elite, embodied in the figure of the Ruler, perpetuate oppression to sustain their control, with devastating consequences for the populace.
• “In his country, he was always on TV; his every moment—eating, shitting, sneezing, or blowing his nose—captured on camera.” (p. 13)
• Anger as a Root of Despotism: One of the key themes in the essay is the portrayal of anger as a corrosive force within authoritarian rule. Ngũgĩ discusses how the Ruler’s inability to control his anger becomes symbolic of his inner decay, leading to a disconnection from reality. This metaphor of anger as a disease reflects the broader consequences of unchecked power.
• “Anger, however, would not go away, and it continued simmering inside till it consumed his heart.” (p. 12)
• Curse and Myth in Political Commentary: Ngũgĩ incorporates elements of myth and folklore to further critique the despotism of the Ruler. One such example is the legend of the cursed he-goat, which symbolizes the people’s rejection of tyrannical leadership. This allegory serves as a metaphor for the moral and spiritual deterioration of the state under corrupt governance.
• “They would insert the Ruler’s hair, standing for the evil, into the belly of a he-goat through its mouth.” (p. 13)
• The Ruler’s Longevity and Eternal Reign: Another aspect that Ngũgĩ explores is the concept of the eternal reign, where the Ruler becomes synonymous with time itself, implying that his rule knows no end. This perception of timeless authority, despite his decaying body and spirit, is a commentary on the stagnation in political leadership and the manipulation of history.
• “His rule had no beginning and no end; and judging from the facts, one may well believe the claim.” (p. 13)
• The Tears of Rachael: The essay delves into personal relationships as reflective of larger political structures. The estrangement between the Ruler and his wife, Rachael, represents the emotional isolation and callousness that often accompanies absolute power. Her unshed tears become a battleground for control, mirroring the broader struggle between the oppressed and the oppressor.
• “Her tears had become the battlefield of their wills.” (p. 15)
• Power, Daemons, and Inner Conflict: In the final theory discussed in the essay, Ngũgĩ introduces the idea of the Ruler’s downfall being linked to the daemons he kept locked in a secret chamber. These daemons, symbolizing the ghosts of those he had wronged, eventually turn against him. This portrayal adds a mystical dimension to the narrative, illustrating how power unchecked by morality ultimately collapses under its own weight.
• “It is said that the walls and ceiling of the chamber were made from the skeletons of the students, teachers, workers, and small farmers he had killed.” (p. 16)

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Example/Explanation
Allegory	A narrative in which characters and events represent broader themes and ideas, often moral or political.	The Ruler of Aburiria represents corrupt African leadership, and his illness symbolizes the moral and societal decay that accompanies tyranny and oppression.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	The he-goat in the essay symbolizes the curse of oppression and the people’s collective suffering under corrupt leadership.
Irony	A contrast between expectations and reality, often used for humorous or critical effect.	The Ruler is always seen on TV, even doing mundane things like yawning or sneezing, yet his presence is absent from the real issues affecting the people of Aburiria.
Myth	A traditional story, often involving supernatural beings or events, that explains natural or social phenomena.	The curse involving the he-goat reflects African folklore, grounding the narrative in myth to explain the consequences of tyranny.
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities.	The illness of the Ruler is portrayed almost as a living entity, representing the emotional and political decay caused by unchecked anger and power.
Satire	The use of humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize people’s stupidity or vices, particularly in politics.	Ngũgĩ uses satire to mock the Ruler’s obsession with trivialities, such as his demand to appear on Global Network News, highlighting the absurdity of despotic rule.
Allusion	An indirect reference to another text, person, or event.	Ngũgĩ alludes to African postcolonial history and the legacy of European colonization to contextualize the power dynamics in Aburiria.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unrelated things.	The illness is a metaphor for the deteriorating state of the nation under corrupt leadership, where internal conflicts erode the integrity of the ruler and the country.
Foreshadowing	A hint or clue about what will happen later in the story.	The mysterious illness and the curse hint at the eventual downfall of the Ruler, suggesting that the unchecked power will ultimately lead to destruction.
Motif	A recurring element that has symbolic significance in the narrative.	The recurring motif of tears (Rachael’s tears, the Ruler’s lack of tears) symbolizes emotional repression and the personal cost of maintaining power.
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but reveals a deeper truth.	The Ruler’s assertion that he has control over everything, including time, is paradoxical because, despite his power, he is ultimately powerless against the forces of aging and mortality.
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.	The claim that the Ruler’s reign began before the world and will only end when the world ends is an example of hyperbole, exaggerating his grip on power and the people’s perception of his rule.
Imagery	The use of vivid and descriptive language to appeal to the senses.	The descriptions of the chamber made from the skeletons of the Ruler’s enemies create a vivid image of the grotesque and violent nature of his rule.

Contribution of “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	Reference/Explanation
Postcolonial Theory	Power Daemons critiques the lasting impact of colonialism on African political systems, focusing on how postcolonial African leaders adopt the same methods of control and oppression.	Ngũgĩ emphasizes the continuity of colonial oppression in the postcolonial era through figures like the Ruler, who embodies the internalization of colonial power structures. “He came into power with flaming swords…” (p. 16)
Marxist Criticism	The essay highlights class struggles, particularly the role of the ruling elite in exploiting the working class, aligning with Marxist critiques of capitalist and authoritarian societies.	The Ruler’s obsession with power is tied to material wealth and control, reflecting a Marxist critique of how ruling classes sustain their power through exploitation and violence. “The skulls of his most hated enemies hung on the walls…” (p. 16)
Psychoanalytic Theory	Ngũgĩ explores the psychological dimensions of power, particularly through the Ruler’s internal conflicts and projections of anger, fear, and guilt, contributing to psychoanalytic readings of leadership.	The Ruler’s mysterious illness, stemming from unresolved anger and guilt, reflects Freud’s concept of repression. “Anger… continued simmering inside till it consumed his heart.” (p. 12)
Allegory in Literature	Power Daemons serves as an allegory for the struggles of postcolonial societies, using symbolic characters and events to represent broader political and social issues.	The essay’s use of the fictional country of Aburiria allows for an allegorical exploration of political corruption and moral decay. “The illness… would not go away.” (p. 12)
Feminist Literary Criticism	The essay critiques the patriarchal power structures that marginalize women, as seen in the relationship between the Ruler and his wife, Rachael, who is emotionally and physically imprisoned.	Rachael’s role reflects the limited agency of women under patriarchal power, where she becomes a symbol of both defiance and subjugation. “Her tears had become the battlefield of their wills.” (p. 15)
Myth Criticism	Ngũgĩ draws on African myths and folklore to build a narrative that critiques modern political systems, aligning with myth criticism’s focus on how ancient stories shape contemporary culture.	The curse of the he-goat and the daemon chamber illustrate the integration of myth into political allegory, making ancient beliefs relevant to modern societal issues. “The cry of a wronged he-goat…” (p. 13)
Deconstruction	Ngũgĩ’s narrative undermines traditional binary oppositions, such as good versus evil, ruler versus ruled, as the Ruler embodies both oppressor and oppressed in his personal downfall.	The essay deconstructs the idea of absolute power, showing how the Ruler’s illness destabilizes the traditional notion of strength. “The illness… defied all logic and medical expertise.” (p. 12)
Narrative Theory	Ngũgĩ uses non-linear storytelling and multiple perspectives, contributing to narrative theory by showcasing how fragmented narratives can represent complex socio-political realities.	The blending of different stories about the Ruler’s illness (myth, curse, and politics) represents multiple narrative layers, each revealing a different aspect of power. “There were many theories about the strange illness…” (p. 12)

Examples of Critiques Through “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Through “Power Daemons”	Explanation
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Colonial Power and Resistance: Through Power Daemons, Achebe’s portrayal of colonial disruption is reinforced, highlighting how power destroys cultural systems.	Just as Ngũgĩ critiques postcolonial leaders who perpetuate oppressive systems, Achebe exposes the collapse of indigenous cultures under colonial power. “The illness… consumed his heart.” (p. 12)
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	The Corruption of Power: Like Ngũgĩ, Conrad reveals how power corrupts leaders, with both Kurtz and the Ruler descending into madness as a result of unchecked control.	Ngũgĩ’s portrayal of the Ruler’s illness and symbolic fall aligns with Conrad’s depiction of Kurtz, where imperial domination leads to moral and psychological decay. “The skulls… hung on the walls.” (p. 16)
The Tempest by William Shakespeare	Master-Slave Dynamics: Ngũgĩ’s analysis of power dynamics can be used to critique Prospero’s control over Caliban, paralleling colonial and postcolonial struggles.	Ngũgĩ’s depiction of the Ruler’s exploitation of his people echoes Prospero’s enslavement of Caliban, questioning authority and dominance. “The Ruler… skillful in creating and nursing conflicts.” (p. 13)
A Grain of Wheat by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o	Guilt and Betrayal: Through Power Daemons, Ngũgĩ’s own earlier work is deepened, showing how internal guilt (as in the Ruler’s illness) plays a role in political downfall.	Both works explore the psychological burdens carried by leaders and those complicit in oppression, with guilt manifesting physically and socially. “Could anger… cause a mystery illness?” (p. 12)

Criticism Against “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

1. Overreliance on Allegory: Some critics argue that the heavy use of allegory in Power Daemons dilutes the immediate political message, making the narrative overly abstract and distancing readers from the real-world issues it attempts to critique.
2. Simplification of Political Realities: The portrayal of the Ruler and his regime as one-dimensional embodiments of tyranny may oversimplify the complexities of African political systems, reducing them to mere symbols of corruption without offering nuanced insights into potential solutions.
3. Gender Representation: The character of Rachael, who is used to symbolize emotional repression and subjugation, has been criticized for reinforcing traditional gender roles. Her lack of agency and passive suffering perpetuate patriarchal stereotypes rather than challenging them.
4. Ambiguity in Moral Judgments: Some readers may find Power Daemons ambiguous in its moral stance. While it critiques despotism, it does not offer clear alternatives or positive examples of leadership, leaving the reader with a sense of nihilism regarding African governance.
5. Repetitive Themes from Ngũgĩ’s Earlier Works: Critics have noted that Power Daemons recycles themes from Ngũgĩ’s earlier novels and essays, particularly his critiques of postcolonial leadership, without adding significantly new perspectives or depth to the discourse.

Representative Quotations from “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Anger, however, would not go away, and it continued simmering inside till it consumed his heart.” (p. 12)	This quote represents the destructive nature of unchecked power and unresolved emotions, reflecting how the Ruler’s anger symbolizes his moral and political downfall.
“There were many theories about the strange illness of the second Ruler of the Free Republic of Aburiria.” (p. 12)	The “illness” becomes a metaphor for the corrupt, decaying political system under the Ruler’s leadership, emphasizing the physical and moral deterioration of the state.
“The skulls of his most hated enemies hung on the walls… a museum and a temple.” (p. 16)	This imagery emphasizes the brutality of the Ruler’s regime, where the past victims of violence are used as symbols of power and intimidation, linking violence to political control.
“The cry of a wronged he-goat…” (p. 13)	Ngũgĩ uses this mythic imagery to highlight the deep-seated cultural and societal beliefs that shape the Ruler’s actions, symbolizing the people’s resistance to oppression.
“Her tears had become the battlefield of their wills.” (p. 15)	Rachael’s tears symbolize emotional repression and the struggle for control within personal relationships, mirroring the larger political struggle between the oppressed and oppressor.
“His rule had no beginning and no end; and judging from the facts, one may well believe the claim.” (p. 13)	This hyperbolic statement reflects the perceived omnipotence of the Ruler, critiquing the notion of eternal, unchallenged leadership in postcolonial regimes.
“Even his yawns were news because, whether triggered by boredom, fatigue, hunger, or thirst, they were often followed by some national drama.” (p. 12)	This satirical depiction of the Ruler’s presence in media critiques the cult of personality in authoritarian regimes, where even mundane actions are exaggerated for public consumption.
“Could anger, however deeply felt, cause a mystery illness that defied all logic and medical expertise?” (p. 12)	This rhetorical question emphasizes the symbolic nature of the illness, suggesting that it represents something beyond the physical, such as the psychological burden of wielding power.
“I plucked out your tongues and tore your lips to show you that a politician without a mouth is no politician at all.” (p. 16)	This brutal metaphor critiques the silencing of political opposition and dissent, where the Ruler’s violent actions are aimed at ensuring no one challenges his authority.
“The illness was the sole work of the daemons that the Ruler had housed in a special chamber in the State House.” (p. 16)	This supernatural explanation for the Ruler’s illness illustrates the mystical and irrational forces that often surround political power, suggesting the moral consequences of tyranny.

Suggested Readings: “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Introduction: “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

“On David Cook” Ngugi wa Thiong’o, first appeared in the prestigious journal Research in African Literatures (Vol. 35, No. 1, Spring 2004). This brief tribute holds significance in the field of literature and literary theory for several reasons. Firstly, it offers a glimpse into the intellectual relationship between Ngugi, a towering figure in African literature, and David Cook, a scholar who played a role in Ngugi’s early academic development. Secondly, it potentially sheds light on Ngugi’s own evolving perspectives on literature, as the tribute appeared around the time he was solidifying his commitment to writing in African languages.

Summary of “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

• Introduction to David Cook at Makerere University
  David Cook arrived at Makerere University around 1962, initially on a visiting basis, before later becoming a full-time lecturer and ultimately the Professor of the English Department. Ngugi Wa Thiong’o recalls studying under Cook for two years, particularly noting his lectures on Matthew Arnold and Joseph Conrad. Ngugi emphasizes that Cook’s meticulous attention to the formal side of literary texts was in line with the Makerere tradition of close reading.
• “He was attracted to the more formal side of a literary text, how it was put together, how it read, and in this he was very meticulous.”
• Cook’s Formalistic Approach and its Limitations
  While Cook excelled in formal textual analysis, he was less adept at drawing broader social and political connections from literary works. His formalistic methods often lacked the broader imagination to engage students fully. This was evident in his critical writings, such as his analysis of Ngugi’s novels in The Writing of Ngugi wa Thiong’o, where he was brilliant in sentence structure analysis but less confident in interpreting the works’ larger social significance.
• “He was brilliant in the formal analysis of the sentence and the underlying structures, but often not as sure-footed in the larger significance of the works under study.”
• Belief in Students’ Potential
  Despite his formalistic tendencies, Cook was committed to nurturing student talent. He believed in his students and took an active role in promoting their creative efforts. Cook played a key role in editing Origin: East Africa, a collection of student writings published by Heinemann in the African Writers Series. Ngugi, who was the editor of the journal PENPOINT, worked with Cook on selecting materials for the collection, although his name was left out as a joint editor due to internal departmental politics.
• “He more than made it up with his belief in the abilities of his students.”
• Contribution to East African Theatre
  One of Cook’s most significant contributions was in the field of East African theater. Ngugi acknowledges that Cook was instrumental in supporting The Black Hermit, the first East African play written in English, by serving as an advisor during its production. Additionally, Cook played a crucial role in the Makerere Free Traveling Theatre, which toured East Africa during university vacations. His efforts helped shape key dramatists like Robert Serumaga and Byron Kawadwa.
• “He was the driving force behind the project, no doubt inspired by similar efforts in Britain.”
• Legacy and Final Years
  Although Ngugi lost touch with Cook after his time at Makerere, he reflects on Cook’s enduring impact, particularly his revised edition of The Writings of Ngugi wa Thiong’o, co-authored before his untimely death. Cook also taught in other African universities, but Makerere remains the place most associated with his work and his efforts to support emerging talent in East African literature and theater.
• “Makerere was probably the place he will be most identified with.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Context in the Text
Formalism	A method of literary analysis that focuses on the structure, form, and language of a text rather than its broader social or political contexts.	David Cook emphasized close reading and the formal aspects of literature, paying attention to how a text is constructed.
Close Reading	A careful, detailed interpretation of a brief passage of text, emphasizing its structure and language.	Cook’s teaching focused on close reading, particularly how literary works were put together, as mentioned by Ngugi.
Leavisite Criticism	A form of literary criticism associated with F.R. Leavis, focusing on the moral seriousness and formal qualities of literature.	Ngugi notes that Cook’s approach was influenced by Leavisite criticism, focusing on the moral significance of texts.
Creative Writing	The act of producing original written works, often involving artistic expression.	Cook supported student writing, particularly in the journal PENPOINT and later the Origin: East Africa anthology.
African Writers Series	A series of publications by Heinemann focusing on African literature and writers.	Origin: East Africa, edited by Cook, was published as part of this series, showcasing emerging East African writers.
Drama	A genre of literature intended for performance, often involving dialogue and action.	Cook was involved in the production of The Black Hermit, one of the first East African plays written in English.
Theatre	The art of writing and producing plays.	Cook’s contribution to the Makerere Free Traveling Theatre helped to develop a space for East African dramatists.
Textual Analysis	The process of closely examining a text to understand its meaning, structure, and themes.	Cook’s work in analyzing the sentence structures of Ngugi’s novels is a key example of his focus on textual analysis.
Literary Criticism	The study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature.	Cook co-authored The Writing of Ngugi wa Thiong’o, offering a critical analysis of Ngugi’s works.

Contribution of “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O to Literary Theory/Theories

• Emphasis on Formalism and Structural Analysis
  Ngugi highlights David Cook’s formalistic approach to literature, focusing on the structure and composition of texts. This approach aligns with formalist theories, which emphasize close reading and the internal workings of the text over its social or political context.
• “He was brilliant in the formal analysis of the sentence and the underlying structures, but often not as sure-footed in the larger significance of the works under study.”
• Limitations of Formalist Criticism
  Ngugi critiques Cook’s formalism for its inability to engage with broader social and political realities, pointing to a limitation in literary theory that focuses solely on textual structure. This critique aligns with the broader debate in literary theory about the need to incorporate historical, political, and cultural contexts into literary criticism.
• “He was not very good at drawing the broad social and political world of the author beyond the Leavisite emphasis on the moral significance of the written text.”
• Contribution to African Literary Criticism
  By working with East African writers and supporting local talent, David Cook’s engagement, particularly through the African Writers Series, helped shape an emerging African literary canon. This reflects a contribution to postcolonial theory, which seeks to promote and validate the voices of writers from formerly colonized regions.
• “He was the driving force behind the project… the Makerere Free Traveling Theatre had a character all its own and was the space of some key dramatists in Uganda and East Africa.”
• Interplay Between Creative Writing and Criticism
  Cook’s role in editing and supporting student writing in journals such as PENPOINT and projects like Origin: East Africa reveals his belief in the interconnectedness of literary creation and criticism. This engagement emphasizes a practical application of literary theory, where criticism fosters and interacts with the creative process.
• “He became interested in the student writings in PENPOINT, the Department’s journal of creative writing… [and] came up with the idea of an edited collection of the student contribution.”
• Support for Theatrical Theory and Practice
  Cook’s work with East African theater, particularly his involvement in The Black Hermit and the Makerere Free Traveling Theatre, reflects his contribution to theatrical theory. His encouragement of theater as a space for cultural expression links literary criticism with performance studies, offering a practical extension of textual analysis into the realm of drama and live performance.
• “He was not, even for a moment, seeing the writing of The Black Hermit as an undergraduate exercise in drama.”

Examples of Critiques Through “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Criticism Against “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

• Overemphasis on Formalism
  A major criticism is that David Cook’s approach, as described by Ngugi, places too much focus on the formal aspects of literary texts, such as sentence structure and composition, rather than engaging with their social, political, and historical contexts.
• “He was brilliant in the formal analysis of the sentence and the underlying structures, but often not as sure-footed in the larger significance of the works under study.”
• Neglect of Broader Themes
  Ngugi suggests that Cook’s formalistic approach limited his ability to explore the broader themes of literature, particularly in postcolonial African contexts where issues such as identity, colonialism, and social change are critical. This limitation is seen as a missed opportunity in engaging with the full complexity of the works he analyzed.
• “He was not very good at drawing the broad social and political world of the author beyond the Leavisite emphasis on the moral significance of the written text.”
• Limited Engagement with African Literature’s Socio-Political Context
  Ngugi points out that Cook’s formalist criticism didn’t fully capture the socio-political importance of African literature in the postcolonial context. This critique underscores that Cook’s analyses, while insightful in form, often failed to recognize the political and cultural significance of East African works.
• “There was always a formalistic approach, which did not always ignite the imagination of his students.”
• Failure to Broaden Students’ Imagination
  Cook’s teaching style, which focused heavily on formal textual analysis, was perceived as not inspiring students’ imagination or encouraging them to explore literature’s role in reflecting and shaping society. This suggests a lack of dynamism in his critical methods, particularly in an academic environment like Makerere.
• “There was always a formalistic approach, which did not always ignite the imagination of his students.”

Representative Quotations from “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“He was attracted to the more formal side of a literary text, how it was put together, how it read…”	This highlights Cook’s formalist approach, focusing on the structure and technical elements of literature.
“He was brilliant in the formal analysis of the sentence and the underlying structures…”	Ngugi praises Cook’s strength in close reading and sentence-level analysis, a hallmark of his formalist criticism.
“He was not very good at drawing the broad social and political world of the author…”	Ngugi critiques Cook’s inability to connect literature with its broader social, political, and historical context.
“There was always a formalistic approach, which did not always ignite the imagination of his students.”	This reflects Ngugi’s concern that Cook’s formalism was limited in inspiring creativity or critical thinking in students.
“He more than made it up with his belief in the abilities of his students.”	Despite Cook’s limitations, Ngugi acknowledges his deep commitment to nurturing student potential.
“On joining Makerere, he became interested in the student writings in PENPOINT…”	This quotation illustrates Cook’s active role in supporting student creativity through engagement with their writing.
“He was the driving force behind the project… Makerere Free Traveling Theatre…”	Ngugi credits Cook with being instrumental in promoting theater in East Africa, showing his contribution beyond formalism.
“He also worked closely with Miles Lee… as an ‘editor’ in the Uganda Radio drama series.”	This highlights Cook’s involvement in radio drama, expanding his influence in East African cultural production.
“The fact that my name was not there as joint-editor was not his fault but more to do with the internal politics…”	Ngugi notes the politics behind publishing decisions, indicating Cook’s good intentions in supporting student projects.
“Makerere was probably the place he will be most identified with, the place where he spent considerable energies…”	This affirms Cook’s lasting legacy at Makerere University, where his contributions to literature and theater are remembered.

Suggested Readings: “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

• Ngugi wa Thiong’o. The River Between. Heinemann, 1965.
  https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/151180.The_River_Between
• Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Weep Not, Child. Heinemann, 1964.
  https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/328717.Weep_Not_Child
• Cook, David, and Michael Okenimpke Rubadiri. Origin East Africa: A Makerere Anthology. Heinemann Educational Books, 1965.
  https://www.abebooks.com/servlet/BookDetailsPL?bi=30349133854
• Cook, David, and Ngugi wa Thiong’o. The Writings of Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Heinemann, 1983. https://www.worldcat.org/title/17483420
• Leavis, F. R. The Great Tradition. Chatto and Windus, 1948. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.530418
• Gikandi, Simon. Ngugi wa Thiong’o. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
  https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/ngugi-wa-thiongo/417D85A5767D34A02071ACB98D30224D
• Irele, Abiola. The African Imagination: Literature in Africa and the Black Diaspora. Oxford University Press, 2001. https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-african-imagination-9780195086195

Introduction: “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

“Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi first appeared in 1989, a significant year for postcolonial discourse. This interview explores the complexities of Ngũgĩ’s novel Matigari, its unique blend of myth and historical reality. By examining how the protagonist embodies both revolutionary spirit and folkloric hero, the discussion sheds light on the role of literature in critiquing neocolonialism and fostering cultural identity. The article holds importance for scholars of literature and literary theory as it offers valuable insights into the intersection of narrative, history, and the fight for social justice.

Summary of “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

1. Matigari as a Symbol of Collective History
   • Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o views the character Matigari as a symbolic representation of the collective worker and producer throughout African history. He emphasizes that Matigari is not an individual but a mythic figure embodying resistance across various historical periods in Africa, including the Portuguese, Arab, British, and neo-colonial eras.
   • Matigari’s quest for truth and justice reflects the larger question of why those who produce are not the ones in control, a fundamental paradox of history. “He is asking what is the truth of history, since history as we know it does not contain the fact of this inherent injustice.”
2. Historical and Political Context
   • The novel has strong allusions to the African armed struggles for independence, particularly the Mau Mau movement in Kenya. Ngũgĩ asserts that the spirit of Mau Mau is still relevant in contemporary Kenyan society. “The spirit of Mau Mau is still very much alive in Kenyan society.”
   • He critiques the continuity of colonial structures in the neo-colonial period, citing examples such as President Moi’s involvement in the colonial government and the persistence of anti-people practices in institutions like the Kenyan army. Ngũgĩ identifies a stark contrast between forces of resistance and those who align with colonial and neo-colonial oppression.
3. Resistance and Re-Arming
   • A central theme of the novel is the need for resistance and re-arming, not only in the physical sense but also politically, mentally, and spiritually. Ngũgĩ stresses that true liberation for Africa cannot be achieved while neo-colonialism persists, and democratic repression continues to alienate the population.
   • The novel poses the critical question of whether there can be solutions without violence, reflecting a broader debate on the role of democratic participation in social change. “Matigari asks: ‘Is there a solution to our problems, without violence? There must be another way.'”
4. The Role of Literature in Exposing Neo-Colonialism
   • Ngũgĩ emphasizes the ongoing role of literature in challenging neo-colonial structures and enlightening people about their conditions. He notes that progressive literature serves as a tool to combat the bombardment of images and narratives that justify inequality and domination.
   • He believes that the struggle for the mind is crucial, and literature must draw from the perspective of the majority to challenge the prevailing ideologies of the elite. “The object of the struggle is the mind of the people.”
5. Oral Tradition and Symbolism in Matigari
   • Matigari is deeply rooted in African oral narrative traditions, using symbolic motifs and negating linear time to explore multiple references and meanings. The novel’s structure allows it to travel through time and space in ways that reflect the workings of the mind and oral storytelling practices.
   • Ngũgĩ highlights the use of motifs, such as Matigari’s search for truth among the nests of birds, as essential symbolic devices that offer multiple interpretations. “Matigari, for example, says at one point that he has been looking for truth among the nests of birds in the trees.”
6. Banning and Reception of Matigari in Kenya
   • The novel was banned in Kenya shortly after its release in 1986, as the government feared the character Matigari was inspiring public unrest. Ngũgĩ was saddened by the ban, as he was more interested in the public’s literary reception of the novel.
   • Despite the ban, the novel was widely read in public spaces, and people began to speak of Matigari as though he were a real person. “People started talking about Matigari as though he were a living person.”
7. The Future of African Languages and Literature
   • Ngũgĩ argues for the importance of promoting African languages in literature, critiquing the dominance of colonial languages in the discourse around African literature. He insists that African writers should focus on developing their native languages in literary forms.
   • He emphasizes the need for direct translations from African languages rather than through English or other colonial languages to maintain the original spirit and meaning of the works. “What becomes important is that authors, writers and academics must start responding to African languages.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference/Usage in the Interview
Myth	A traditional or legendary story that conveys deeper truths about culture, society, or human nature.	Matigari is described as a mythic figure representing the collective struggle of African workers and oppressed people across history.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities, giving deeper meanings beyond the literal sense.	Matigari himself is a symbol of collective resistance, and various motifs in the novel, such as the search for truth, are repeated to reflect symbolic layers.
Oral Tradition	Cultural material and traditions transmitted orally from one generation to another, often emphasizing narrative forms and folklore.	Ngũgĩ highlights the oral narrative style of Matigari, where events transcend linear time, and the story resonates with African oral storytelling conventions.
Neo-Colonialism	A concept referring to the continued influence and control of former colonial powers in the political, economic, and cultural affairs of former colonies.	Ngũgĩ critiques neo-colonialism throughout the interview, stating that Matigari represents a challenge to the persistence of colonial structures in post-independence Kenya and Africa.
Collective Character	A literary figure that embodies the experiences and struggles of a group rather than an individual.	Matigari is described as a collective character, representing the history of African workers and the oppressed from different periods of history, rather than a single, individualized hero.
Resistance Literature	A genre of literature that focuses on themes of resistance against oppression, often advocating for political and social change.	Ngũgĩ emphasizes that Matigari is a work of resistance literature, challenging neo-colonial repression and calling for mass action and intervention in history.
Revolutionary Struggle	The concept of collective action aimed at overthrowing oppressive systems or governments to achieve social, economic, and political justice.	The novel is linked to revolutionary struggles like the Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya, and it discusses the need for resistance, including armed struggle, in the face of continued oppression.
Democratic Participation	The active involvement of citizens in the political process and decision-making to ensure fair governance and representation.	Ngũgĩ relates Matigari’s quest for Truth and Justice to the broader theme of democracy and the challenges of achieving true democratic participation under neo-colonial regimes.
Non-linear Narrative	A narrative technique that does not follow a chronological order but instead moves freely through time and space, often blurring past, present, and future.	Ngũgĩ uses non-linear narrative techniques in Matigari, influenced by oral traditions, allowing events to unfold outside the constraints of time and space, reflecting the mind’s workings.
Allegory	A narrative that operates on multiple levels of meaning, often representing abstract ideas or conveying political or moral messages through symbolic characters or events.	Matigari functions as an allegory of post-colonial African societies, critiquing political elites and the continued oppression of the masses despite formal independence from colonialism.

Contribution of “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution from the Interview	References from the Interview
Postcolonial Theory	The interview underscores the role of literature in critiquing and resisting neo-colonialism. Ngũgĩ emphasizes how Matigari challenges post-independence oppression and the continued dominance of colonial structures in Kenyan society. This contribution aligns with postcolonial theory’s focus on decolonization and cultural resistance.	Ngũgĩ critiques the persistence of colonial structures, even in post-colonial Kenya, stating: “The continuity between the colonial period and the neo-colonial period is very stark.” He highlights how Matigari addresses neo-colonial exploitation, portraying Matigari as a symbol of African resistance.
Marxist Literary Criticism	Ngũgĩ’s focus on class struggle, the exploitation of the producer, and the control of wealth by the elite ties directly to Marxist literary criticism. The novel critiques the capitalist systems that impoverish workers and empowers elites, reflecting Marxist concerns with class, labor, and ownership of means of production.	Ngũgĩ discusses how Matigari asks, “Why are the producers seldom the ones who control their own wares?” and explores the themes of wealth inequality and the exploitation of the working class. He connects these themes to a broader critique of capitalism and the global division between labor and capital.
Resistance Literature	The interview contributes to the theory of resistance literature, which examines how literature can serve as a tool for political and social liberation. Ngũgĩ positions Matigari as a work that critiques oppressive regimes and calls for the masses to intervene in their own history through political and social action.	Ngũgĩ states that “Matigari is saying that people have to intervene in their own history one way or another,” emphasizing that the novel is a call for mass intervention and resistance against undemocratic structures, echoing the goals of resistance literature theory.
Oral Tradition and Myth in Literature	Ngũgĩ highlights the importance of oral tradition in African literature, which often uses myth and non-linear storytelling to convey complex truths. He describes Matigari as a novel that draws on the oral narrative form, connecting it to African cultural traditions and emphasizing its symbolic and mythic qualities.	Ngũgĩ explains that Matigari uses “the conventions of the oral narrative” to solve problems of time and space, and the character is not “a highly individualized character inhabiting a specific historical period,” but a mythic figure representing broader social forces and collective experiences.
Myth Criticism	The novel’s use of myth and symbolic characters contributes to myth criticism, a theory that explores how myths function within literature to express universal human experiences or cultural values. Matigari is a mythic hero whose journey reflects collective struggles and timeless questions of justice and truth.	Ngũgĩ describes Matigari as a mythic figure: “Matigari can be seen… as representing the collective worker in history,” and explains that the character “was there at the time of the Portuguese, back in the fifteenth century,” representing a timeless struggle against oppression.
Postmodernism	By negating linear time and space, Matigari contributes to postmodern literary theory, particularly through its rejection of traditional narrative structures and its blending of reality and myth. The novel’s non-linear structure and symbolic narrative break down the boundaries between past, present, and future.	Ngũgĩ states that Matigari “negates the linear sequence of events,” allowing characters to travel through time and space in a non-linear fashion. This postmodern approach is further reinforced by his emphasis on the symbolic treatment of time and space in the novel.
Feminist Literary Criticism	Although not a central focus of the interview, Ngũgĩ does touch on feminist concerns through the depiction of Guthera, a prostitute who aids Matigari. The novel critiques the exploitation of women within the broader system of oppression and aligns with feminist literary criticism’s focus on gender dynamics and power.	Ngũgĩ includes women as part of the collective struggle, noting that Guthera, a prostitute, plays a key role in Matigari’s quest. Her involvement highlights the role of women in resistance and critiques their marginalized position in society, which is a theme aligned with feminist literary criticism.
Cultural Nationalism	Ngũgĩ’s emphasis on the use of African languages in literature contributes to cultural nationalism, a theory advocating for the promotion of indigenous languages and cultural expressions as a form of resistance to colonial dominance. He calls for more literature to be written and translated directly from African languages.	Ngũgĩ criticizes the dominance of English and other colonial languages in African literature and argues that “African writers must start responding to African languages” to reclaim cultural identity and resist the cultural hegemony imposed by colonialism. He insists on translations from the original Gikuyu.
Translation Theory	Ngũgĩ discusses the challenges of translating works from African languages into English and other colonial languages. He advocates for direct translations from Gikuyu to other languages to preserve the spirit and meaning of the original text, contributing to translation theory, particularly regarding fidelity in translation.	Ngũgĩ emphasizes that “Matigari must be translated directly from the Gikuyu,” expressing concerns about the way translation can dilute the meaning of a text when done through a colonial language like English. He sees translation as both an interpretation and a way to preserve cultural integrity.

Examples of Critiques Through “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

Literary Work	Critique Through “Matigari as Myth and History”	Reference from the Interview
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Achebe’s novel critiques the cultural and social impact of colonialism on African society, much like Matigari challenges neo-colonialism. Both works highlight the destruction of indigenous systems and the rise of oppressive foreign structures.	Ngũgĩ emphasizes how Matigari critiques the continuity of colonial oppression in the neo-colonial era: “The continuity between the colonial period and the neo-colonial period is very stark.”
The Wretched of the Earth by Frantz Fanon	Fanon’s work on decolonization and the role of violence in the liberation of the oppressed mirrors the theme in Matigari, where Ngũgĩ suggests that justice for the oppressed may require armed struggle.	Ngũgĩ highlights Matigari’s realization that “Justice for the oppressed comes from a sharpened spear,” reflecting Fanon’s assertion that colonial powers cannot be overthrown without the use of force.
The Tempest by William Shakespeare	The Tempest has been critiqued through postcolonial lenses, focusing on the themes of colonization and power dynamics between Prospero and Caliban. Ngũgĩ’s ideas in Matigari parallel the power struggles between the colonizers and the colonized.	Ngũgĩ discusses the lingering effects of colonialism, stating, “Mau Mau is one of the highest aspirations of that theme of resistance,” emphasizing the persistent power struggle between colonial forces and the oppressed.
One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez	García Márquez’s use of magical realism to depict the cyclical nature of history and oppression resonates with the mythic qualities of Matigari, where oral traditions and symbolic characters convey deeper truths about societal struggles.	Ngũgĩ speaks of Matigari’s mythic narrative and how it “negates the linear sequence of events,” similar to how García Márquez blurs time and space in his narrative, reflecting cyclical patterns of history.

Criticism Against “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

1. Over-Reliance on Myth and Symbolism: Some critics may argue that Matigari relies too heavily on myth and symbolism, which can obscure the practical political solutions needed for real-world struggles. This focus on the symbolic might detract from more direct engagement with current political realities.
2. Idealization of Armed Struggle: The novel’s conclusion, where Matigari realizes that justice requires armed resistance, could be viewed as idealizing violence. Critics may question whether this message promotes violent solutions over nonviolent forms of resistance and democratic participation.
3. Romanticization of the Past: By drawing connections between Matigari and historical periods of resistance, including the Mau Mau movement, the interview could be criticized for romanticizing the past and implying a return to previous modes of resistance without fully considering the complexities of modern-day socio-political contexts.
4. Simplistic Treatment of Neo-Colonialism: Some may argue that Ngũgĩ’s critique of neo-colonialism is too simplistic, reducing complex socio-economic and political issues to a binary struggle between good and evil, oppressors and oppressed, without sufficient attention to the nuances and intricacies of contemporary global capitalism.
5. Lack of Gender Focus: While the interview touches on the involvement of female characters like Guthera, it could be criticized for not giving enough attention to the specific role of women in post-colonial and resistance narratives. Feminist critics may see the work as sidelining gender issues in favor of broader class-based or anti-colonial themes.
6. Dismissal of Realism: Critics may argue that Ngũgĩ’s dismissal of realism in favor of a mythic, symbolic narrative overlooks the importance of realism in depicting the concrete struggles of ordinary people. The non-linear, mythic structure might alienate readers who expect a more straightforward, realistic portrayal of post-colonial struggles.
7. Limited Accessibility Due to Language Choices: Ngũgĩ’s insistence on African languages and rejection of English for his work might be criticized for limiting the accessibility of his message. While he promotes African languages as a means of cultural resistance, some may argue that using widely spoken colonial languages like English could broaden the impact of his work across global audiences.

Representative Quotations from “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Matigari can be seen first in a general sense as representing the collective worker in history.”	This emphasizes Matigari as a symbolic figure, embodying the collective struggles of oppressed workers across different historical periods. The character represents the universal experience of exploitation, not just a single individual’s story.
“Justice for the oppressed comes from a sharpened spear.”	Ngũgĩ suggests that armed resistance might be necessary for achieving justice in the face of oppression. This reflects his belief in the potential need for revolutionary violence when peaceful means are ineffective against neo-colonial and capitalist structures.
“The continuity between the colonial period and the neo-colonial period is very stark.”	This highlights Ngũgĩ’s critique of how colonial structures of power and oppression continue to persist in post-colonial Kenya, illustrating the failure of independence to bring true social and economic justice.
“Mau Mau is one of the highest aspirations of that theme of resistance.”	Ngũgĩ praises the Mau Mau movement as a symbol of resistance against colonialism, underscoring its significance in Kenya’s history and its continued relevance as a model for current struggles against neo-colonialism.
“People have to intervene in their own history one way or another.”	Ngũgĩ argues that oppressed people must actively participate in shaping their own history, whether through mass movements or other forms of resistance. This reinforces the theme of self-determination and the necessity of people taking control of their own destinies.
“The novel is not set in any particular country, though it is clearly set in Africa.”	This reflects the universal nature of Matigari, which, though rooted in African history, transcends specific national boundaries. Ngũgĩ uses the character and setting as metaphors for the broader experience of post-colonial struggles across the continent.
“Without a real commitment to social change… people will inevitably become increasingly alienated.”	Ngũgĩ critiques regimes that fail to bring about genuine social, political, and economic reform, stating that repression only leads to greater alienation and resistance from the oppressed. This quote underscores the necessity for governments to address the needs and voices of their citizens.
“The object of the struggle is the mind of the people.”	This statement reflects Ngũgĩ’s belief in the importance of ideological battles in resisting oppression. He emphasizes that controlling narratives and shaping people’s consciousness are central to maintaining power, making literature and education crucial tools in the fight against neo-colonialism.
“I address a particular theme in all my works: the liberation of the people.”	Ngũgĩ defines the overarching theme of his literary works as the pursuit of freedom—economically, politically, culturally, and psychologically. This encapsulates his lifelong commitment to writing as a tool for resistance and social change.
“Matigari is a symbolic poem with multiple references.”	This highlights the symbolic and poetic nature of Matigari, a novel that uses myth and symbolism to layer multiple meanings within its narrative. Ngũgĩ rejects a purely realist interpretation, instead embracing a more symbolic, open-ended reading of the novel’s themes and characters.

Suggested Readings: “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

1. Jaggi, Maya. “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview with Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o.” Third World Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 4, 1989, pp. 241-251. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3992342.
2. Gikandi, Simon. “Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and the Politics of Language.” Third World Quarterly, vol. 11, no. 1, 1989, pp. 148-156. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3992421.
3. Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Heinemann, 1986.
4. Mphahlele, Ezekiel. “Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o: A Profile.” Transition, vol. 75/76, 1997, pp. 270-276. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2935437
5. Gikandi, Simon. Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
6. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963.
7. Killam, G. D., and Ruth Rowe. The Companion to African Literatures. James Currey, 2000.
8. Wa Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ. Matigari. Heinemann, 1987.
9. Williams, Patrick. “The Meaning of the ‘Mau Mau’ in Ngũgĩ’s Matigari.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 20, no. 3, 1989, pp. 347-353. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3819415.
10. Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o. Writers in Politics: Essays. Heinemann, 1981.

Introduction: “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in TDR: The Drama Review in 1997. This seminal work delves into the intricate relationship between performance, space, and power dynamics, particularly within the context of post-colonial societies. Thiong’o emphasizes how performance spaces are not neutral venues but are inherently tied to the socio-political conditions of their time. The essay is crucial in both literature and literary theory as it extends the analysis of power from textual narratives to performance, exploring how space and theatrical acts become sites of resistance and control. By doing so, Thiong’o bridges the gap between post-colonial critique and performance studies, highlighting the cultural and political implications of storytelling and public expression.

Summary of “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

• The Power Struggle between Art and the State: Ngũgĩ begins by discussing the inherent rivalry between artists and the state, noting that both are involved in a struggle over the control of values and laws represented in performance. He explains, “the war between art and the state is really a struggle between the power of performance in the arts and the performance of power by the state” (p. 11). This conflict becomes even sharper in situations like colonialism, where external forces impose state power.
• Performance Space as a Site of Conflict: Thiong’o illustrates how performance spaces become sites of political contention, especially in colonial settings. He shares the example of the Itulka ceremony, which the British colonial government banned because they saw it as a threat to their authority. He emphasizes that “the performance of Itulka was taken as a challenge to colonial state power” (p. 12).
• The Role of the Audience and Spatial Dynamics: Ngũgĩ emphasizes that performance spaces are never neutral or “empty,” as they are always filled with physical, social, and psychic forces. He writes, “I can take any empty space and call it a bare stage,” but adds, “a performance site is never empty” because of the dynamics between the actors, audience, and space (p. 13). The space itself becomes a site of power struggles and transformation.
• Colonial and Postcolonial Manipulation of Cultural Spaces: Thiong’o discusses how colonial powers, such as the British in Kenya, controlled performance spaces to manipulate cultural narratives. The Kenya National Theatre, built by the colonial government, was primarily used for European performances. Thiong’o recalls the management’s refusal to allow The Trial of Dedan Kimathi to be performed, instead prioritizing Western shows like A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (p. 15).
• The Performance of Resistance: Thiong’o’s work at Kamĩrĩĩthũ Community Education and Cultural Centre is cited as an example of reclaiming performance spaces for African voices. He writes about how villagers participated in the play Ngaahika Ndeenda (I Will Marry When I Want), transforming their experiences of colonial and postcolonial exploitation into performance (p. 20). This act of reclaiming space was an expression of resistance and a challenge to state power.
• State Repression of Performance Spaces: In contrast to the openness of artistic spaces, the state seeks to confine and control space. Ngũgĩ notes that “the performance space of the artist stands for openness; that of the state, for confinement” (p. 29). The state’s control over public gatherings and performances, particularly in the open air, is a way of limiting potential threats to its authority, as seen in the destruction of the Kamĩrĩĩthũ Open Theatre in 1982 (p. 28).
• Art as a Tool for Liberation: Ngũgĩ concludes that art has the potential to break down barriers and challenge oppressive structures. The politics of performance space are deeply tied to issues of democracy, social justice, and national identity. He suggests that the ultimate struggle over performance space reflects a broader class struggle, where those in power seek to control the narrative and limit the participation of marginalized groups (p. 29).
• Key Quotations from the Article:
• “The war between art and the state is really a struggle between the power of performance in the arts and the performance of power by the state” (p. 11).
• “The performance of Itulka was taken as a challenge to colonial state power” (p. 12).
• “A performance site is never empty” (p. 13).
• “The performance space of the artist stands for openness; that of the state, for confinement” (p. 29).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Concept/Literary Device	Explanation
Performance Space	A symbolic and contested site where cultural, political, and artistic performances occur, embodying the dynamics of power.
Enactment of Power	The struggle between artistic expression and state control, particularly in public spaces, highlighting power structures.
Colonialism and Performance	The influence of colonialism on suppressing indigenous performances and controlling cultural expressions.
Censorship	The state’s intervention in restricting artistic performances, as a means to control cultural narratives.
Hegemony	The dominance of colonial or postcolonial elites in dictating cultural practices, often using performance as a tool of power.
Ritual and Ceremony	Cultural practices, such as the Itulka ceremony, used by communities to assert their identity and resist state authority.
Cultural Resistance	The use of performance and theater as tools to challenge colonial and postcolonial repression, expressing societal struggles.
Space as a Political Arena	Performance spaces, whether public or confined, are seen as arenas of struggle between the artist and the state.
Audience as Participants	The relationship between performers and audience, where audiences become active participants in shaping performance outcomes.
Symbolism	The use of symbolic spaces, such as the Kenya National Theatre and Norfolk Hotel, to represent the historical and cultural conflicts.
Conflict of Narratives	The tension between colonial narratives and indigenous cultural representations in performance spaces.
Time and Historical Memory	The interplay of historical context and the use of performance to reflect on the past and envision future societal change.
National Identity	The role of performance in defining and asserting a postcolonial national identity, often in opposition to colonial legacies.
Prison as a Performance Space	The prison is metaphorically portrayed as a performance space where the state enacts its control over individuals.
Exile as a Spatial Metaphor	Exile is depicted as a form of exclusion from the performance space, representing displacement from cultural and national identity.
Resistance through Art	Artistic resistance is portrayed as a means of survival and defiance against the state’s efforts to confine cultural expression.

Contribution of “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Performance as a Site of Power and Resistance
   • Ngũgĩ presents performance spaces as battlegrounds where the power of the state and the artist collide, suggesting that performance is an enactment of power. This adds to performance theory by highlighting the political dynamics involved in artistic performances.
     • “The war between art and the state is really a struggle between the power of performance in the arts and the performance of power by the state—in short, enactments of power.”
2. The Politics of Space in Performance Theory
   • The article emphasizes that space in performance is not neutral but deeply political, influencing who controls cultural narratives. This contributes to spatial theory by exploring how physical locations affect power dynamics in cultural performances.
     • “The main arena of struggle is the performance space: its definition, delimitation, and regulation.”
3. Performance and National Identity in Postcolonial Contexts
   • Ngũgĩ argues that in postcolonial societies, performance becomes a tool for shaping and contesting national identity. This aligns with postcolonial theory by showing how art reflects and resists colonial legacies.
     • “The conflict over the performance space was also a struggle over which cultural symbols and activities would represent the new Kenya.”
4. The Role of History and Memory in Performance
   • Ngũgĩ integrates history into performance theory, arguing that performances are imbued with historical memory and anticipation of future change. This contributes to understanding the temporal dimension of performances.
     • “What memories does the space carry, and what longings might it generate?”
5. Censorship and the Politics of Artistic Expression
   • The article explores how states intervene in artistic expression to control public narratives, contributing to discussions on censorship and the repression of free expression, especially in authoritarian or colonial regimes.
     • “The state’s intervention in the content of the artist’s work—what goes by the name of censorship—but the main arena of struggle is the performance space.”
6. Performance as Cultural and Political Subversion
   • Ngũgĩ portrays performances as acts of subversion in postcolonial contexts, contributing to performance studies by showing how they challenge dominant power structures and act as forms of political resistance.
     • “The performance space becomes a magnetic field of tensions and conflicts.”
7. The State and the Repression of Cultural Spaces
   • The article examines how states, particularly colonial and postcolonial, regulate and restrict cultural spaces to maintain control, adding to the theory of cultural hegemony and repression.
     • “In 1952, when the colonial regime once again acted against the nationwide upsurge of anti-colonial dances and songs, it banned all open-air performances in any part of the country.”
8. Artistic Performance as a Reflection of Class Struggles
   • Ngũgĩ highlights performance spaces as sites where class conflicts are played out, aligning with Marxist literary theory by focusing on how cultural production reflects social inequalities and struggles for control.
     • “Ultimately, the politics of the performance space and its location is a class question.”
9. Prison as a Metaphor for State Control Over Artistic Expression
   • Ngũgĩ extends the concept of performance spaces to prisons, arguing that the state enacts its power by controlling bodies and minds, expanding on Foucauldian theories of surveillance and discipline.
     • “The prison is the enclosure in which the state organizes the use of space and time in such a way as to achieve what Foucault calls docile bodies and hence docile minds.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique through Ngũgĩ’s Theory	Key Ideas from “Enactments of Power”
William Shakespeare’s “The Tempest”	“The Tempest” can be critiqued through the lens of colonial power and resistance. Prospero’s control over the island and its inhabitants reflects the colonial state’s regulation of performance spaces, while Caliban’s rebellion can be seen as a form of artistic and political resistance.	“The war between art and the state is really a struggle between the power of performance in the arts and the performance of power by the state—in short, enactments of power.”
Bertolt Brecht’s “The Caucasian Chalk Circle”	Brecht’s play can be critiqued for its depiction of class struggles and how performance acts as a tool for political expression. The use of theatre as a didactic space aligns with Ngũgĩ’s idea of performance as a site for questioning state power.	“Ultimately, the politics of the performance space and its location is a class question. […] The human hand and mind have the entire limitless space and time for their performance of the struggle for human freedom and self-realization.”
Wole Soyinka’s “Death and the King’s Horseman”	Soyinka’s play can be critiqued for its representation of indigenous African performance spaces as contested by colonial authorities. The tension between tradition and colonial rule mirrors Ngũgĩ’s argument about state intervention in cultural practices.	“The state’s intervention in the content of the artist’s work—what goes by the name of censorship—but the main arena of struggle is the performance space.”
Lorraine Hansberry’s “A Raisin in the Sun”	Hansberry’s portrayal of African American experiences can be critiqued using Ngũgĩ’s concept of space and power. The struggles over housing and space in Chicago reflect the broader political struggle over who controls performance spaces and narratives.	“The politics of the performance space is a complex interplay of the entire field of internal and external relations of these forces in the context of time and history.”

Criticism Against “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Representative Quotations from “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “The war between art and the state is really a struggle between the power of performance in the arts and the performance of power by the state—in short, enactments of power.”	This quote encapsulates Ngũgĩ’s main argument that performance spaces are battlegrounds where the state exerts control over people, while artists challenge this control through their performances. It sets up the central theme of art as both a political tool and a site of resistance.
2. “The state performs power, the power of the artist is solely in the performance.”	Ngũgĩ emphasizes the distinction between how the state uses its authority to control, and how artists use performance as their primary mode of power. The state controls through formal institutions, while artists mobilize public consciousness through their creative work.
3. “The performance space is never empty. Bare, yes, open, yes, but never empty.”	This statement suggests that every performance space carries with it historical, social, and political meanings. Even an “empty” stage or space holds significance due to the forces of power and resistance that inhabit it.
4. “The struggle may take the form of the state’s intervention in the content of the artist’s work—what goes by the name of censorship—but the main arena of struggle is the performance space.”	Ngũgĩ identifies censorship as a tool used by the state to control artistic expression but argues that the actual space in which performances occur is the central site of conflict. This highlights the importance of physical space in the politics of performance.
5. “In a colonial situation, performance spaces are among the first sites to be contested as they embody not only cultural but also political and social meanings.”	This quote highlights the colonial context, where performance spaces became symbolic of larger cultural and political struggles. In colonial regimes, the control of performance spaces was often a way to enforce dominance and suppress resistance.
6. “Art breaks down barriers between peoples; the state erects them.”	Ngũgĩ emphasizes the role of art in fostering unity and breaking through the divisions that the state imposes. This contrast underscores his belief in the transformative power of art to challenge oppressive political structures.
7. “The performance space, in its entirety of internal and external factors, may be seen in relationship to time; in terms, that is, of what has gone before—history—and what could follow—the future.”	Ngũgĩ connects performance spaces to historical and future implications, suggesting that performances are not just present moments but are embedded in historical contexts and shape future possibilities.
8. “Prison is the enclosure in which the state organizes the use of space and time in such a way as to achieve docile bodies and, hence, docile minds.”	Here, Ngũgĩ discusses the prison as a metaphor for how the state controls space and time to dominate individuals, shaping their thoughts and actions. It reflects his critique of authoritarian control over both physical and mental freedom.
9. “In postcolonial societies, the politics of the performance space is a complex interplay of forces in the context of time and history.”	This quotation captures Ngũgĩ’s central argument that in postcolonial contexts, performance spaces are where different power dynamics, shaped by history and ongoing struggles, come into play.
10. “There is no performance without a goal. The state’s performance of power over the exits and entrances is about control, while the artist’s performance is about freedom.”	Ngũgĩ contrasts the motivations behind state power and artistic performance: the former seeks to regulate and control, while the latter aims to express freedom and challenge that control. This statement reinforces his theme of art as a site of resistance.

Suggested Readings: “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o