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“Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory” by bell hooks: Summary and Critique

“Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory” by bell hooks first appeared in her influential 1984 book Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, published by South End Press.

Introduction: “Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory” by bell hooks

“Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory” by bell hooks first appeared in her influential 1984 book Feminist Theory: From Margin to Center, published by South End Press. This work serves as a critical intervention in feminist discourse, challenging the mainstream feminist movement’s neglect of race and class. bell hooks argues that traditional feminist theory, exemplified by figures like Betty Friedan, predominantly represents the interests of white, middle-class women, sidelining the experiences of poor, non-white women. hooks critiques Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique for focusing on the frustrations of affluent housewives while ignoring the struggles of women who face systemic racial and economic oppression. In her essay, hooks highlights how white feminists often failed to acknowledge how class, race, and gender intersect to create different experiences of oppression. This work is pivotal in shaping intersectional feminist theory, calling for an inclusive feminism that addresses the interconnectedness of race, class, and gender. Its importance in literature and literary theory lies in its call to expand feminist analysis beyond a singular focus on gender, pushing scholars to consider broader socio-political contexts and the varied experiences of women across different racial and economic backgrounds.

Summary of “Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory” by bell hooks

Critique of Mainstream Feminism’s Focus on White, Middle-Class Women Bell hooks begins by critiquing the exclusionary nature of mainstream feminist discourse, which has historically been dominated by white, middle-class women. She points out that these women often ignore the experiences of women of color and working-class women, writing, “Friedan’s famous phrase, ‘the problem that has no name,’…actually referred to the plight of a select group of college-educated, middle and upper class, married white women.” hooks argues that the focus on white, affluent women’s experiences has obscured the unique forms of oppression faced by non-white and poor women.
Intersectionality: Race, Class, and Gender hooks emphasizes the importance of understanding how race and class intersect with gender to shape the experiences of women in America. She writes, “Racism abounds in the writings of white feminists, reinforcing white supremacy and negating the possibility that women will bond politically across ethnic and racial boundaries.” This is one of the central tenets of hooks’ argument: feminism must adopt an intersectional approach, addressing not just sexism but also how it interacts with racism and classism.
Critique of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique hooks specifically critiques Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique for failing to represent the experiences of women of color and poor women. She notes that while Friedan discusses the dissatisfaction of white housewives, she does not address who would take over their household labor if they pursued careers. hooks states, “She did not speak of the needs of women without men, without children, without homes. She ignored the existence of all non-white women and poor white women.”
Rejection of “Common Oppression” A significant part of hooks’ argument is her rejection of the idea that all women experience oppression in the same way. She writes, “A central tenet of modern feminist thought has been the assertion that ‘all women are oppressed.’ This assertion implies that women share a common lot, that factors like class, race, religion, sexual preference, etc. do not create a diversity of experience.” hooks argues that this assumption erases the lived realities of women who face oppression based on multiple intersecting identities.
Call for Inclusive Feminism hooks calls for a more inclusive feminism that recognizes and addresses the varying forms of oppression women experience. She critiques the feminist movement for being shaped by the interests of privileged women, which has led to the exclusion of the voices and experiences of marginalized groups. She writes, “It is essential for continued feminist struggle that black women recognize the special vantage point our marginality gives us and make use of this perspective to criticize the dominant racist, classist, sexist hegemony.”
The Importance of Class in Feminist Analysis hooks argues that feminist theory must seriously address the issue of class, as class is intricately tied to the oppression of women. She asserts, “Class struggle is inextricably bound to the struggle to end racism,” urging feminists to move beyond focusing solely on gender and adopt a broader perspective that incorporates race and class.
Challenges to White Feminist Dominance in Feminist Discourse hooks points out that white women’s dominance in feminist discourse has led to the silencing of black women and other women of color. She shares personal experiences of being marginalized within feminist spaces, noting that “Attempts by white feminists to silence black women are rarely written about. All too often they have taken place in conference rooms, classrooms, or the privacy of cozy living room settings.”
Black Women’s Unique Position in Feminist Struggle hooks argues that black women occupy a unique position in feminist struggle because they are often at the intersection of multiple forms of oppression. She writes, “As a group, black women are in an unusual position in this society, for not only are we collectively at the bottom of the occupational ladder, but our overall social status is lower than that of any other group.” This marginality, hooks argues, gives black women a critical perspective that is essential for feminist theory to become truly liberatory.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory” by bell hooks

Literary Term/Concept	Description/Role in Text
Intersectionality	A key concept in hooks’ critique, intersectionality refers to how various forms of oppression, such as racism, sexism, and classism, interconnect to shape the lived experiences of marginalized women.
Patriarchy	The system of male dominance that hooks critiques as reinforcing sexism and preventing the liberation of women, especially women of color.
Hegemony	A dominant social or cultural system in which the ruling class exerts control over marginalized groups. hooks critiques feminist hegemony dominated by white, middle-class women.
Oppression	Central to hooks’ argument, oppression is the systemic disadvantage and mistreatment of individuals or groups based on race, class, and gender.
Classism	The belief or system that discriminates against people based on their socioeconomic status. hooks highlights how classism intersects with sexism and racism to oppress poor women.
Racism	Discrimination based on race, which hooks argues is often ignored or downplayed in mainstream feminist discourse.
Feminist Theory	The body of ideas and practices that seek to understand and address women’s oppression. hooks critiques mainstream feminist theory for being exclusionary.
Marginality	Refers to the social position of being on the outside or at the periphery of dominant social groups. hooks argues that black women’s marginality gives them a unique and valuable perspective in feminist theory.
Privilege	The unearned advantages possessed by dominant groups, such as white women in the feminist movement. hooks critiques the privilege that allows these women to ignore the struggles of marginalized women.
Collective Struggle	The idea that feminist struggle should be collective and inclusive, addressing the diverse needs and experiences of all women, rather than only those of privileged groups.

Contribution of “Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory” by bell hooks to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Intersectional Feminist Theory

Contribution: bell hooks’ work is foundational to intersectional feminist theory, which emphasizes how various forms of oppression—such as race, class, and gender—intersect and affect women differently.
Reference from the text: hooks critiques mainstream feminism for its failure to address the unique experiences of black and working-class women: “Racism abounds in the writings of white feminists, reinforcing white supremacy and negating the possibility that women will bond politically across ethnic and racial boundaries.”
Impact on Theory: hooks’ articulation of the need for feminism to be inclusive of race and class helped formalize the concept of intersectionality, which has since become a key tenet in feminist theory.

2. Critical Race Theory

Contribution: Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory contributed to the development of critical race theory by explicitly linking racism to feminist discourse. hooks points out how white feminists often ignore or downplay racism, thereby perpetuating racial hierarchies even within the feminist movement.
Reference from the text: “Class struggle is inextricably bound to the struggle to end racism. Urging women to explore the full implication of class…,” demonstrates how hooks connects the structural forces of racism and classism within feminist discourse.
Impact on Theory: This argument aligns with critical race theory’s focus on understanding how law and power structures are intertwined with race, showing that feminist struggles cannot be detached from issues of racial justice.

3. Marxist Feminism

Contribution: hooks emphasizes the importance of class analysis within feminist theory, arguing that class-based oppression is inseparable from gender and race-based oppression. She critiques white feminists for ignoring class struggles and the material conditions of marginalized women.
Reference from the text: hooks states, “Feminists have largely been unable to speak to, with, and for diverse groups of women because they either do not understand fully the interrelatedness of sex, race, and class oppression or refuse to take this inter-relatedness seriously.”
Impact on Theory: By incorporating class analysis, hooks strengthens the case for Marxist feminism, which argues that the capitalist system exploits women and that feminist theory must include economic and material conditions to address gender oppression effectively.

4. Postcolonial Feminism

Contribution: hooks critiques the Eurocentric perspectives of white feminists, which often fail to recognize the global dimensions of race and class. Her arguments contribute to postcolonial feminism, which highlights how colonial histories of exploitation and racial hierarchies shape the experiences of women of color.
Reference from the text: “Friedan’s famous phrase, ‘the problem that has no name,’… ignored the existence of all non-white women and poor white women,” showing that mainstream feminist discourse erases the experiences of women outside the white, Western framework.
Impact on Theory: This critique has helped shape postcolonial feminist thought, which seeks to decolonize feminism by including the voices and experiences of women from marginalized racial and national backgrounds.

5. Black Feminist Thought

Contribution: bell hooks’ work is a seminal contribution to black feminist thought, a theory that emphasizes the specific experiences and struggles of black women, who face both racial and gender-based oppression.
Reference from the text: “It is essential for continued feminist struggle that black women recognize the special vantage point our marginality gives us and make use of this perspective to criticize the dominant racist, classist, sexist hegemony.”
Impact on Theory: Her work supports the idea that black women’s lived experiences give them unique insights that are crucial for developing a feminist theory that challenges multiple layers of oppression, expanding the theoretical frameworks available in feminist thought.

6. Socialist Feminism

Contribution: hooks’ critique of capitalism and its role in oppressing marginalized women ties her work to socialist feminism, which argues that both patriarchy and capitalism need to be dismantled to achieve true gender equality.
Reference from the text: “Under capitalism, patriarchy is structured so that sexism restricts women’s behavior in some realms even as freedom from limitations is allowed in other spheres.”
Impact on Theory: hooks’ work highlights how economic systems contribute to women’s oppression, reinforcing socialist feminism’s stance that feminist struggles are inherently linked to class struggles within capitalist societies.

7. Cultural Feminism

Contribution: While hooks is critical of cultural feminism’s focus on women’s shared experiences of oppression, she expands the theory by showing how cultural feminism needs to account for differences in race and class.
Reference from the text: “A central tenet of modern feminist thought has been the assertion that ‘all women are oppressed.’ This assertion implies that women share a common lot, that factors like class, race, religion, sexual preference, etc. do not create a diversity of experience.”
Impact on Theory: By challenging the homogeneity presumed by cultural feminism, hooks encourages the development of a more nuanced understanding of women’s diverse cultural experiences.

8. Structuralism

Contribution: While not directly engaging with structuralism, hooks’ critique of how race, class, and gender are systemic forms of oppression aligns with structuralist theory, which examines how societal structures shape individual and group experiences.
Reference from the text: “Feminist struggle must begin by introducing a different feminist perspective—a new theory—one that is not informed by the ideology of liberal individualism.”
Impact on Theory: This structuralist approach to feminism, recognizing the institutional forces shaping women’s experiences, enhances structuralist analyses of power and oppression.

Examples of Critiques Through “Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory” by bell hooks

1. Critique of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963)

Through bell hooks’ lens: The Feminine Mystique is often credited with sparking second-wave feminism in the U.S., but hooks critiques the work for focusing solely on the struggles of white, middle-class housewives while ignoring the experiences of working-class and non-white women.
From the text: hooks writes, “Friedan’s famous phrase, ‘the problem that has no name,’…actually referred to the plight of a select group of college-educated, middle and upper class, married white women.”
Critique: Using hooks’ analysis, The Feminine Mystique can be critiqued for its narrow view of womanhood, excluding the lived realities of women of color and those facing economic oppression. Friedan’s work is framed as an example of how early feminist texts failed to account for intersectionality, reinforcing classism and racism within the feminist movement.

2. Critique of Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper (1892)

Through bell hooks’ lens: Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper is an important feminist text that critiques the oppression of women within marriage and the medical establishment. However, hooks’ theory encourages us to examine the racial and class implications of such texts.
Critique: While Gilman’s story exposes the mental and emotional toll of patriarchal oppression on white women, hooks’ theory would highlight the absence of race and class considerations in the narrative. The protagonist’s privileged social status, as a middle-class white woman, allows her access to treatment, a concern that hooks argues is irrelevant to poor women and women of color. Her struggle, while significant, is not reflective of the broader forms of systemic oppression experienced by marginalized groups.

3. Critique of Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale (1985)

Through bell hooks’ lens: Atwood’s dystopian novel critiques patriarchal control and gender oppression in a totalitarian society. However, hooks’ focus on intersectionality reveals how the novel’s feminist themes are centered on the oppression of primarily white women.
Critique: In The Handmaid’s Tale, race is almost entirely absent, despite the clear parallels between the novel’s reproductive exploitation and the historical enslavement of black women in the U.S. Using hooks’ perspective, one could critique the novel for overlooking how race and class intersect with gender oppression. hooks’ argument that white feminist narratives often ignore non-white women’s experiences is evident in this work, which fails to account for the racial dynamics that shape women’s oppression.

4. Critique of Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar (1963)

Through bell hooks’ lens: The Bell Jar portrays the psychological and emotional struggles of Esther Greenwood, a young white woman grappling with societal expectations. While it is often lauded for its portrayal of women’s mental health struggles, hooks’ critique of feminist exclusionism can be applied here.
Critique: hooks might argue that Plath’s narrative focuses on the emotional turmoil of a white, middle-class woman without acknowledging the systemic forms of oppression faced by women of color and those from lower socio-economic backgrounds. Esther’s personal crises, while profound, are grounded in a privileged framework that does not reflect the broader spectrum of experiences women face due to intersecting forms of race, class, and gender oppression.

Criticism Against “Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory” by bell hooks

Limited Focus on Black Women’s Collective Action
Some critics argue that while bell hooks provides a powerful critique of mainstream feminist theory, she focuses more on theory than on the practical, organized political actions taken by black women. Critics feel this undermines the role of black women’s activism in shaping feminist movements.
Overemphasis on Critique of White Feminism
hooks is often critiqued for focusing heavily on the failures of white feminists, with some arguing that this focus detracts from building constructive alliances between women of different racial and class backgrounds. Critics claim that this emphasis could foster division rather than promote solidarity among women across races.
Lack of Attention to Global Feminist Movements
While hooks highlights intersectionality and the importance of addressing race and class within the U.S., some critics argue that she does not give enough attention to global feminist struggles, particularly those in non-Western contexts. This critique suggests that hooks’ analysis, while intersectional, remains largely U.S.-centric.
Essentialism in Describing Black Women’s Experiences
Some have accused hooks of essentializing the experiences of black women by generalizing about their marginalization and unique perspective. This criticism suggests that her approach could simplify the diversity within the experiences of black women, overlooking individual differences within this group.
Insufficient Engagement with Queer and LGBTQ+ Feminism
Critics note that Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory does not engage deeply with issues of sexual orientation or queer identities. Some believe hooks’ framework could be expanded to include more analysis of how homophobia and heteronormativity intersect with race, class, and gender.

Representative Quotations from “Black Women: Shaping Feminist Theory” by bell hooks with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Feminism in the United States has never emerged from the women who are most victimized by sexist oppression.”	hooks begins her critique by pointing out that mainstream feminism has largely ignored the voices of women of color and poor women, focusing instead on the concerns of white, middle-class women. This sets the stage for her intersectional critique.
“Friedan’s famous phrase, ‘the problem that has no name,’… actually referred to the plight of a select group of college-educated, middle and upper class, married white women.”	This quote illustrates hooks’ criticism of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique for being exclusionary and failing to acknowledge the experiences of non-white and working-class women.
“Racism abounds in the writings of white feminists, reinforcing white supremacy and negating the possibility that women will bond politically across ethnic and racial boundaries.”	hooks emphasizes the existence of racism within feminist discourse, arguing that white feminists often ignore or reinforce racial hierarchies, thus preventing solidarity across racial lines.
“A central tenet of modern feminist thought has been the assertion that ‘all women are oppressed.’ This assertion implies that women share a common lot, that factors like class, race, religion, sexual preference, etc. do not create a diversity of experience.”	hooks critiques the idea of “common oppression” in feminism, arguing that it erases the different forms of oppression women experience based on race, class, and other factors.
“Class struggle is inextricably bound to the struggle to end racism.”	This quote reflects hooks’ Marxist feminist perspective, emphasizing the interconnectedness of class and race struggles. She argues that feminist theory must address these multiple forms of oppression together.
“Many women do not join organized resistance against sexism precisely because sexism has not meant an absolute lack of choices.”	hooks explains why many women, particularly those with privilege, do not engage in feminist activism, as sexism does not affect them in the same way it does marginalized women.
“It is essential for continued feminist struggle that black women recognize the special vantage point our marginality gives us and make use of this perspective to criticize the dominant racist, classist, sexist hegemony.”	hooks argues that black women’s marginalization gives them a unique and critical perspective that is essential for challenging oppressive systems in feminist theory.
“The usurpation of feminism by bourgeois women to support their class interests has been to a very grave extent justified by feminist theory as it has so far been conceived.”	This quotation critiques how privileged women have co-opted feminist theory to advance their own class interests, often at the expense of less privileged women.
“Feminism has its party line and women who feel a need for a different strategy, a different foundation, often find themselves ostracized and silenced.”	hooks critiques the dogmatism of mainstream feminism, arguing that alternative voices, especially those of marginalized women, are often silenced in the feminist movement.
“Privileged feminists have largely been unable to speak to, with, and for diverse groups of women because they either do not understand fully the inter-relatedness of sex, race, and class oppression or refuse to take this inter-relatedness seriously.”	hooks critiques privileged feminists for failing to recognize how sex, race, and class intersect to oppress women in different ways, thus limiting their ability to represent all women.

“Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen” by Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

“Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen” by Harold Bloom first appeared in Orbis Litterarum in 2005.

"Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen" Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen” by Harold Bloom

“Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen” by Harold Bloom first appeared in Orbis Litterarum in 2005. This scholarly article explores the unique qualities and significance of Andersen’s work, positioning him among literary giants like Shakespeare and Goethe. Bloom delves into the fusion of folklore, romanticism, and Andersen’s personal struggles, suggesting that his stories reflect a pagan reverence for fate intertwined with his personal life’s tragedies. Bloom’s analysis reveals Andersen’s fairy tales as deeply complex, often dark narratives that transcend traditional children’s literature. His article underlines the lasting importance of Andersen’s tales in literary theory and criticism, emphasizing their cruel beauty and the profound existential undercurrents that resonate with both adults and children alike.

Summary of “Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen” by Harold Bloom

1. Andersen’s Literary Influences and Precursors

Andersen’s work is deeply influenced by Shakespeare and Sir Walter Scott, blending the fantastical with folklore.
Bloom states: “Andersen’s prime precursors included Shakespeare and Sir Walter Scott, and his best work can be thought of as an amalgam of A Midsummer Night’s Dream and the almost as magnificent ‘Wandering Willie’s Tale’ from Scott’s Redgauntlet.”

2. Themes of Fate and Renunciation

Andersen’s stories often revolve around the concept of fate and renunciation, drawing from Goethean influences.
“Goethean ‘renunciation’ was central to Andersen’s art, which truly worships only one god, who can be called Fate.”

3. Andersen’s Homoerotic and Autoerotic Sexuality

Bloom discusses Andersen’s complex sexual orientation, linking it to the homoerotic and autoerotic tendencies in his works.
“Like Walt Whitman’s, Andersen’s authentic sexual orientation was homoerotic. Pragmatically, both great writers were autoerotic.”

4. Andersen’s Artistic Legacy and Children’s Literature

While Andersen is seen as a children’s author, Bloom argues his tales transcend this label and appeal to “intelligent children of all ages.”
“I myself see no distinction between children’s literature and good or great writing for extremely intelligent children of all ages.”

5. Psychological and Mythological Depth of Andersen’s Fairy Tales

Bloom emphasizes the psychological and mythological dimensions in Andersen’s stories, particularly focusing on the cruelty and complexity found in The Little Mermaid and The Snow Queen.
“Andersen’s imagination is as cruel as it is powerful, and ‘The Little Mermaid’ is least persuasive (to me) in its benign conclusion.”

6. Kierkegaard and Andersen: Diverging Projects

Bloom compares Andersen to his Danish contemporary Kierkegaard, noting that while Kierkegaard explored existential Christian dilemmas, Andersen sought to retain his childlike perspective in a harsh adult world.
“Andersen covertly had a rather different project: how to remain a child in an ostensibly adult world.”

7. Aesthetic and Allegorical Ambiguity

Andersen’s stories, such as The Shadow and The Red Shoes, are noted for their aesthetic ambiguity, avoiding clear allegorical readings, which Bloom highlights as a key strength.
“There is no consistent allegory in ‘The Little Mermaid,’ and whoever finds a moral in it should be shot.”

8. Critique of Modern Writers

Bloom is critical of modern children’s authors like J.K. Rowling and Stephen King, advocating instead for the enduring literary value of Andersen and Dickens.
“J. K. Rowling and Stephen King are equally bad writers, appropriate titans of our new Dark Age of the Screens.”

9. Andersen’s Personal Struggles and Desire for Fame

Andersen’s personal life, marked by loneliness and unfulfilled desires, deeply influenced his artistic ambitions and narrative themes.
“The driving purpose of his career was to win fame and honor while not forgetting how hard the way up had been.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Reference from the Article
Renunciation	The act of rejecting or giving up something, often seen in a spiritual or philosophical context.	“Goethean ‘renunciation’ was central to Andersen’s art, which truly worships only one god, who can be called Fate.”
Fate	A force that predetermines events in a person’s life, often beyond their control, prevalent in Andersen’s stories.	“Andersen’s art, which truly worships only one god, who can be called Fate.”
Homoeroticism	The representation of same-sex desire, which Bloom discusses in the context of Andersen’s sexual orientation.	“Like Walt Whitman’s, Andersen’s authentic sexual orientation was homoerotic.”
Autoeroticism	Refers to self-love or self-desire, connected by Bloom to both Andersen’s and Whitman’s lives and works.	“Pragmatically, both great writers were autoerotic.”
Animism	The belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence, a key feature in Andersen’s tales.	“One of Andersen’s weirdest and greatest gifts is that his stories live in an animistic cosmos, in which there are no mere objects whatsoever.”
Irony	A literary device where the meaning implied by a statement or situation is opposite to the literal meaning.	“Kierkegaard had chastised Andersen for lacking an irony of vision.”
Mythological Allusion	References to myths or mythological figures in literature, which Bloom finds present in Andersen’s fairy tales.	“That vision has the strangeness of lasting myth.” (Referring to The Wild Swans)
Allegory	A narrative where characters and events symbolize abstract ideas or moral qualities, though Bloom criticizes reading Andersen purely as allegory.	“There is no consistent allegory in ‘The Little Mermaid,’ and whoever finds a moral in it should be shot.”
Metaphor	A figure of speech that refers to one thing by mentioning another, often used to draw symbolic parallels.	“The Snow Queen… an ‘ice puzzle of the mind,’ a marvelous phrase taken from and alluding to the unfinished visionary novel of Novalis.”
Paganism	Religious beliefs that involve the worship of nature or multiple deities, which Bloom links to Andersen’s reverence for fate and animism.	“His art is pagan in nature.” (Contrasting Andersen’s religious devotion with his pagan artistic elements)
Sublimation	A psychological concept where socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable actions or art, present in Andersen’s tales.	“The aesthetic difficulty is not sentimentality but sublimation, a defense against the erotic drive that may work for the rare saint but almost never convinces us.”
Sentimentality	Excessive tenderness, sadness, or nostalgia, which Bloom critiques in Andersen’s later works.	“The aesthetic difficulty is not sentimentality but sublimation.”
Phantasmagoria	A sequence of real or imaginary images like those seen in a dream; Bloom uses this to describe Andersen’s vivid storytelling.	“Even the most menacing entities pass by in a phantasmagoric rush.”
Androgyny	The combination of masculine and feminine characteristics, a recurring theme in Andersen’s portrayal of characters and Bloom’s interpretation.	“Andersen’s androgynous princes.”
Romanticism	A literary movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature, which Bloom ties to Andersen’s aesthetic.	“Kierkegaard and Andersen both developed into major erotic ironists… Andersen was post-Goethean.”
Indirect Communication	A method of conveying ideas without stating them outright, often through irony or subtle hints, common in Kierkegaard and Andersen’s work.	“All of Kierkegaard is indirect communication, since his purpose is not to instruct us but to make it more difficult for us to read him.”

Contribution of “Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Reader-Response Theory

Contribution: Bloom’s approach emphasizes the importance of the reader’s interpretation over the author’s intended meaning, aligning with Reader-Response Theory. He suggests that the stories themselves, not the author’s biography or intentions, hold the true meaning.
Reference: “Trust the tale, not the teller,” originally a quote by D.H. Lawrence, is echoed throughout the article, underlining that readers should derive meaning from the narrative rather than Andersen’s personal life or authorial intent.
Theory Impact: This emphasis on the autonomy of the text encourages readers to engage actively with the narrative, moving away from biographical criticism.

2. Psychoanalytic Criticism

Contribution: Bloom analyzes the psychological depth of Andersen’s characters, particularly exploring themes of repressed desires, sexual frustration, and sublimation, which are central to psychoanalytic criticism.
Reference: “Sexual frustration is Andersen’s pervasive though hidden obsession, embodied in his witches and icy temptresses, and in his androgynous princes.”
Theory Impact: By highlighting Andersen’s repressed sexuality and his portrayal of androgyny, Bloom’s essay offers psychoanalytic insights into how Andersen’s personal psyche influenced his narratives, particularly through sublimation.

3. Myth Criticism

Contribution: Bloom engages with myth criticism by identifying mythological structures and archetypes within Andersen’s tales, suggesting they have a deeper, universal resonance.
Reference: “That vision has the strangeness of lasting myth” (in reference to The Wild Swans), and the emphasis on Andersen’s use of pagan themes and archetypal figures like witches and mermaids.
Theory Impact: Bloom’s focus on mythic elements in Andersen’s stories places them within a broader tradition of myth-making, where archetypes resonate beyond individual tales, contributing to the collective unconscious in the Jungian sense.

4. Romanticism and Post-Romanticism

Contribution: Bloom positions Andersen firmly within the Romantic and post-Romantic traditions, aligning his tales with the emotional intensity, existential questioning, and imagination characteristic of these movements.
Reference: “Kierkegaard and Andersen both developed into major erotic ironists… Andersen was post-Goethean.”
Theory Impact: This linkage to Romanticism allows for a reevaluation of Andersen’s work as part of the High Romantic tradition, showcasing how his tales explore emotional extremes, the sublime, and the inner conflicts of his characters.

5. Queer Theory

Contribution: Bloom’s discussion of Andersen’s homoerotic and autoerotic tendencies aligns with Queer Theory, which interrogates normative sexual identities and explores hidden or marginalized sexualities in literature.
Reference: “Like Walt Whitman’s, Andersen’s authentic sexual orientation was homoerotic.” Bloom also emphasizes the presence of androgyny and sexual ambiguity in Andersen’s characters.
Theory Impact: This contribution allows for a Queer theoretical reading of Andersen’s work, where characters embody fluid or ambiguous sexual identities, reflecting the complexity of desire and gender in his narratives.

6. Structuralism

Contribution: Bloom hints at structuralist approaches by analyzing recurring motifs, themes, and binary oppositions (e.g., fate vs. free will, human vs. supernatural) that structure Andersen’s fairy tales.
Reference: “Andersen’s universe is totally vitalistic, but more malign than not,” reflects a structuralist approach to analyzing the deep structures within Andersen’s stories.
Theory Impact: Bloom’s analysis contributes to understanding how these narrative structures function across Andersen’s body of work, revealing underlying patterns and oppositions that inform the text’s meaning.

7. Existentialism

Contribution: Bloom draws parallels between Andersen and existentialist themes, particularly in relation to Kierkegaard’s philosophy. Andersen’s stories often explore existential dilemmas of isolation, fate, and self-realization.
Reference: “Kierkegaard covertly had a rather different project: how to remain a child in an ostensibly adult world.” This reflects the existential tension in Andersen’s work between innocence and the adult world.
Theory Impact: Bloom’s reading introduces existential concerns into Andersen’s tales, such as the struggle for meaning in an indifferent or malevolent universe, aligning his works with existentialist literary theory.

8. Allegory and Anti-Allegory

Contribution: While Bloom acknowledges that Andersen’s tales can be read allegorically, he warns against simplistic allegorical readings, aligning with anti-allegorical trends in modern criticism.
Reference: “There is no consistent allegory in ‘The Little Mermaid,’ and whoever finds a moral in it should be shot.”
Theory Impact: This anti-allegorical stance encourages readers and scholars to avoid moralistic interpretations, instead focusing on the aesthetic, emotional, and psychological layers of Andersen’s stories.

9. Feminist Criticism

Contribution: Bloom touches upon feminist themes, particularly in his exploration of how female suffering and gender roles are portrayed in Andersen’s tales. However, he also critiques the oversimplification of feminist readings.
Reference: “Female suffering, in ‘The Marsh King’s Daughter’ as elsewhere in Andersen’s stories, is powerfully but unhealthily conveyed, since I cannot see how the strong elements of sadomasochism are to be evaded by readers of any age.”
Theory Impact: While acknowledging feminist concerns about Andersen’s portrayal of female suffering, Bloom also invites a more nuanced analysis of gender and power dynamics in his stories.

10. New Historicism

Contribution: Bloom places Andersen’s stories within the broader historical and cultural context of 19th-century Denmark and Europe, reflecting how societal norms, religious influences, and personal struggles shaped his work.
Reference: “The driving purpose of his career was to win fame and honor while not forgetting how hard the way up had been.”
Theory Impact: By contextualizing Andersen’s tales within his personal and cultural milieu, Bloom’s essay encourages a New Historicist reading, examining how his texts reflect and respond to the social and historical forces of his time.

Examples of Critiques Through “Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen” by Harold Bloom

1. The Little Mermaid (1837)

Critique: Bloom reads The Little Mermaid as a tale of horror and existential sacrifice, focusing on the ghastly nature of the mermaid’s transformation and the underlying theme of renunciation. He argues that the conventional moral reading of the story (as a tale of love and sacrifice) is insufficient to capture its true aesthetic and psychological depth.
Reference from Bloom: “On its vivid surfaces ‘The Little Mermaid’ suggests a parable of renunciation, and yet in my own literary sense of the tale, it is a horror story.”
Approach: Rather than viewing the tale as a simple moral allegory, Bloom emphasizes its cruel aesthetic, focusing on the mermaid’s torment and the painful consequences of her desire to become human. The story’s resolution, with the mermaid’s ascension to the daughters of the air, is criticized as a sentimental overlay that does not align with the tale’s deeper existential tragedy.
Key Theoretical Lens: Psychoanalytic Criticism (sublimation of desire, renunciation), Reader-Response (emphasis on the reader’s interpretation over authorial intent).

2. The Snow Queen (1845)

Critique: Bloom interprets The Snow Queen as a psychological and existential narrative that resists reductive interpretations. He highlights the story’s refusal to conform to a simple moral or allegorical reading and instead focuses on the complexity of the characters, particularly Gerda’s strength and resourcefulness in rescuing Kai.
Reference from Bloom: “The fascination of ‘The Snow Queen’ is Gerda’s continuous resourcefulness and strength, which derives from her freedom or refusal of all reductiveness.”
Approach: Instead of reading The Snow Queen as a mere children’s adventure or a moral tale, Bloom elevates it as a story that embodies the richness of Andersen’s imagination, where characters like Gerda resist simple categorizations. The evil mirror, the Snow Queen, and Gerda’s quest are seen as symbolic, but their significance goes beyond allegory, touching on themes of perception, emotional isolation, and the power of innocence.
Key Theoretical Lens: Myth Criticism (mythical and archetypal elements), Romanticism (individualism, emotional intensity).

3. The Red Shoes (1845)

Critique: Bloom critiques The Red Shoes for its dark and disturbing portrayal of obsession, compulsion, and punishment. He rejects a moralistic reading of the tale, instead focusing on the over-determined nature of the narrative, where Karen’s perpetual motion and suffering reflect deep psychological and existential conflicts.
Reference from Bloom: “The beautiful red dancing shoes whirl Karen into a cursed existence of perpetual motion, that cannot be solved even when her feet (with her consent) are cut off.”
Approach: Bloom’s reading rejects simplistic interpretations of the tale as a cautionary moral fable about vanity or disobedience. Instead, he views it as an exploration of uncontrollable desires and the destructive consequences of yielding to them. The macabre punishment Karen endures transcends mere morality, reflecting a psychological torment that cannot be resolved even by physical sacrifice.
Key Theoretical Lens: Psychoanalytic Criticism (over-determination, unconscious drives), Anti-Allegory (resisting moralistic interpretations).

4. The Shadow (1847)

Critique: The Shadow is seen by Bloom as one of Andersen’s most enigmatic and complex tales, where the narrative explores the duality of self and the metaphysical implications of losing one’s identity. He suggests that the story, with its themes of doppelgängers and existential bewilderment, anticipates modernist and postmodernist concerns about selfhood and reality.
Reference from Bloom: “The Shadow…may be Andersen’s most evasive masterpiece. The author and his shadow disengage from one another…and Andersen’s shadow is malign and Iago-like.”
Approach: Bloom emphasizes the metaphysical depth of The Shadow, interpreting the tale as a narrative of identity disintegration rather than a mere moral or allegorical tale about good and evil. The shadow, representing an autonomous, darker self, reflects existential dread and the loss of personal agency. This foreshadows modernist works that explore the fragmentation of self.
Key Theoretical Lens: Existentialism (exploration of self and identity), Structuralism (binary opposition of self and shadow).

Summary of Bloom’s Critique Approach:

Key Principles: Harold Bloom’s critiques consistently advocate for trusting the complexity of the narrative itself, rather than reducing it to simple moral or biographical readings. His approach prioritizes the aesthetic, psychological, and existential dimensions of Andersen’s stories.
Literary Theories Engaged: Psychoanalytic Criticism, Reader-Response Theory, Myth Criticism, Anti-Allegory, Romanticism, Existentialism.

Criticism Against “Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen” by Harold Bloom

1. Overemphasis on Aesthetic Autonomy

Critics might argue that Bloom’s insistence on separating the author from the tale (“Trust the tale, not the teller”) undermines the value of contextual, biographical, or historical readings of Andersen’s work, which can offer significant insights.
By focusing primarily on the aesthetic and psychological aspects of Andersen’s tales, Bloom could be seen as neglecting the broader socio-political or cultural contexts that shaped Andersen’s writing.

2. Dismissal of Moral and Allegorical Interpretations

Bloom’s strong stance against allegorical and moral readings could be seen as reductive. Critics may argue that Andersen’s tales, especially those written for children, naturally lend themselves to moral interpretations, and by dismissing this, Bloom potentially overlooks an important layer of the text.
His statement, “whoever finds a moral in it should be shot,” can be seen as extreme, disregarding readers or scholars who find value in interpreting moral messages in Andersen’s work.

3. Limited Engagement with Feminist and Gender Criticism

While Bloom touches upon issues of gender and sexuality in his analysis (particularly through Queer Theory), his lack of deep engagement with feminist criticism, especially concerning Andersen’s portrayal of female suffering and victimization, could be seen as a gap.
Critics might argue that Bloom does not sufficiently address the problematic gender dynamics and representations of women in Andersen’s tales, such as the passive suffering of female characters in stories like The Little Mermaid and The Red Shoes.

4. Overshadowing of Andersen’s Religious and Theological Themes

Some might criticize Bloom for downplaying the religious elements in Andersen’s work, dismissing his Christian sentiments as “sentimental” or “pagan.” This might be seen as a narrow view, ignoring the complexity of Andersen’s engagement with Christian theology and existential questions of faith.
His remark, “Andersen’s art is pagan in nature,” may be criticized as oversimplifying the complex interplay between Christian and pagan themes in Andersen’s storytelling.

5. Resistance to Postmodern and Poststructuralist Readings

Bloom’s approach, rooted in a traditional Romantic and psychoanalytic framework, might be seen as resistant to more contemporary postmodern or poststructuralist readings, which would focus on deconstructing the text’s language and narrative strategies.
His focus on myth and archetypes, while valuable, could be seen as out of step with newer critical approaches that emphasize fluidity, fragmentation, and multiple interpretations of texts.

6. Lack of Attention to Andersen’s Folk and Popular Culture Sources

Critics may argue that Bloom’s emphasis on Andersen’s literary precursors (such as Shakespeare and Goethe) neglects the importance of the folk and popular culture traditions that greatly influenced Andersen’s tales.
By focusing on high literary influences, Bloom could be accused of sidelining the significance of oral storytelling traditions and folklore in shaping Andersen’s narrative style and themes.

7. Elitist Dismissal of Modern Popular Writers

Bloom’s harsh criticism of contemporary authors like J.K. Rowling and Stephen King as “equally bad writers” could be viewed as elitist and dismissive of the cultural impact of popular literature.
Critics might argue that Bloom’s literary taste is overly narrow, failing to recognize the value of diverse literary traditions and their role in engaging a wide audience.

8. Insufficient Engagement with Children’s Literature Scholarship

While Bloom challenges the distinction between children’s literature and great writing, some may argue that his analysis lacks a nuanced engagement with scholarship on children’s literature as a field.
His dismissal of the genre as merely “for extraordinarily intelligent children of all ages” might overlook critical discussions about how Andersen’s work fits within the broader discourse of children’s storytelling and education.

9. Psychological Reductionism

Critics could accuse Bloom of reducing many of Andersen’s characters and stories to psychological conflicts, particularly sexual frustration and sublimation, which may not fully account for the narrative complexity or broader thematic concerns.
His focus on psychoanalytic criticism may overshadow other interpretive possibilities, such as sociocultural, ecological, or historical readings of Andersen’s work.

Representative Quotations from “Trust the Tale, Not the Teller: Hans Christian Andersen” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Trust the tale, not the teller.”	This central theme, borrowed from D.H. Lawrence, emphasizes that the meaning of Andersen’s stories should be derived from the text itself, not from the author’s biography or intentions.
2. “Goethean ‘renunciation’ was central to Andersen’s art, which truly worships only one god, who can be called Fate.”	Bloom highlights how themes of renunciation and fate pervade Andersen’s work, showing his existential struggle with control, destiny, and personal sacrifice.
3. “There is no consistent allegory in ‘The Little Mermaid,’ and whoever finds a moral in it should be shot.”	This hyperbolic statement underlines Bloom’s disdain for reductive moral or allegorical readings of Andersen’s stories, favoring more complex interpretations that resist easy categorization.
4. “Andersen’s imagination is as cruel as it is powerful.”	Bloom emphasizes the darker, more disturbing elements in Andersen’s stories, which often explore suffering, emotional pain, and cruelty alongside their more fantastical elements.
5. “Like Walt Whitman’s, Andersen’s authentic sexual orientation was homoerotic.”	Bloom compares Andersen and Whitman, arguing that both writers sublimated their homoerotic desires into their creative work, influencing their narratives and emotional depth.
6. “I myself see no distinction between children’s literature and good or great writing for extremely intelligent children of all ages.”	Bloom dismisses the idea that Andersen’s work is only for children, suggesting that his stories have deep, complex layers that appeal to readers of all ages and should be treated as high art.
7. “The aesthetic difficulty is not sentimentality but sublimation, a defense against the erotic drive.”	Bloom argues that Andersen’s use of sublimation—transforming unfulfilled desires into art—helps explain the deeper psychological and emotional complexity in his stories.
8. “Andersen covertly had a rather different project: how to remain a child in an ostensibly adult world.”	Bloom suggests that Andersen’s work reflects a hidden desire to retain childlike innocence and wonder in a world dominated by adult concerns and cynicism.
9. “J. K. Rowling and Stephen King are equally bad writers, appropriate titans of our new Dark Age of the Screens.”	Bloom critiques modern popular authors, contrasting them with Andersen, whom he considers a true literary genius, and lamenting the decline of literary standards in the digital age.
10. “Andersen’s universe is totally vitalistic, but more malign than not.”	Bloom describes the animistic, vital world of Andersen’s stories, where even objects possess life, but notes that this world is often cruel and imbued with malevolent forces.

“The Necessity Of Misreading” By Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

“The Necessity of Misreading” by Harold Bloom, first appeared in 1975 in the journal The Georgia Review, is a cornerstone of Bloom’s theory of strong poetry.

Introduction: “The Necessity Of Misreading” By Harold Bloom

“The Necessity of Misreading” by Harold Bloom, first appeared in 1975 in the journal The Georgia Review, is a cornerstone of Bloom’s theory of strong poetry, arguing that great poets achieve originality and significance by misreading and reimagining the works of their predecessors. Bloom contends that this process of “misreading” is essential for poets to establish their own unique poetic voice and contribute to the ongoing evolution of the literary tradition. His theory has had a significant impact on literary theory, influencing debates about originality, influence, and the canonization of literary works. Bloom’s emphasis on the importance of misreading has encouraged readers to approach texts with a more critical and interpretive eye, recognizing the dynamic and ongoing nature of literary creation.

Summary of “The Necessity Of Misreading” By Harold Bloom

1. The Interplay of Arbitrary and Overdetermined Forces in Reading

Reading as Life: Bloom highlights that most people read in the same way they live, oscillating between randomness and determinism, “We read seriously…in the same uneasy alternation, between the notion that we choose what we read and the notion that it is chosen for us” (p. 267).
Literary Tradition and Conventions: Readers follow established literary conventions, often questioning who controls these conventions. “Who or what is the shaper of the shape? How are the phenomena of tradition formed?” (p. 267).

2. Canon Formation and Influence

Choosing Poets for Posterity: Bloom discusses how academic critics like himself participate in canon formation by selecting which contemporary poets should be read. “However diffidently I give the answer, I am engaged in canon-formation” (p. 268).
The Role of Influence in Canon: He examines the dynamic of influence, comparing two maxims: “You are or become what you read” versus “That which you are, that only can you read” (p. 268).

3. The Necessity of Misreading

Misreading as Inevitable: Bloom asserts that misreading is a fundamental part of reading. “Reading is therefore misprision—or misreading—just as writing is falsification” (p. 269).
Tradition and Hyperbole: He describes tradition as an exaggerated form shaped by misreadings. “Tradition is always a hyperbole, and the images used to describe tradition will tend to be those of height and depth” (p. 269).

4. Revisionism and the Growth of Literary Tradition

Revisionism Through Misreading: Literature evolves through the misreading and reinterpretation of previous works. “The history of poetry is the history of misreading” (p. 271).
Canonization as the Final Misreading: Bloom explains that canonization is the final form of misreading, where works become classics through a process of distortion. “Canonization is the most extreme version of what Nietzsche called Interpretation” (p. 270).

5. The Ambivalence of Influence

Influence as Both Powerful and Distorting: Bloom compares influence to the Kabbalistic concept of Keter, signifying both absence and presence. “Influence…is as complex a trope as language affords” (p. 271).
Defensive Mechanism in Reading: He proposes that reading is an act of defense against the overwhelming influence of prior texts, comparing it to warfare. “Reading is defensive warfare” (p. 273).

6. The Primacy of Tropes in Literary Interpretation

Tropes as Defense Mechanisms: Bloom views literary tropes as essential tools in the defensive process of reading. “Poems are apotropaic litanies, systems of defensive tropes and troping defenses” (p. 278).
Poetry and Perspective: In analyzing Wallace Stevens’ “Anecdote of the Jar,” Bloom argues that metaphors in poetry inevitably shift perspectives. “As soon as you troped your jar you mutilated it, and it took dominion only by self-reduction” (p. 278).

7. Misreading as Creative Necessity

Strong Poets Must Be Misread: Misreading is not just inevitable but necessary for strong poets, whose works must be misinterpreted to survive. “Strong poets must be mis-read; there are no generous errors to be made in apprehending them” (p. 273).
Poetry as Schizophrenia: Bloom provocatively suggests that poetry thrives on contradiction, where a poem must force readers into misreading it. “Schizophrenia is disaster in life, and success in poetry” (p. 278).

8. The Fallacy of Fixed Meaning in Texts

Relational Nature of Meaning: Bloom argues that texts do not have inherent meanings but are understood in relation to other texts. “A single text has only part of a meaning; it is itself a synecdoche for a larger whole” (p. 274).
Meaning of a Poem is Another Poem: He emphasizes that the meaning of a poem is not contained within itself but in its connection to other works. “The meaning of a poem could only be another poem” (p. 276).

9. Criticism as Autobiography

Criticism as an Extension of the Critic: Bloom, referencing Oscar Wilde, asserts that criticism is a form of autobiography, where the critic’s interpretation is a reflection of their own perspective. “Criticism, as the record of the critic’s soul, is called by Wilde ‘the only civilized form of autobiography'” (p. 287).
Misreading in Criticism: Strong criticism, like strong poetry, relies on misreading as a form of revisionism. “A reading, to be strong, must be a misreading, for no strong reading can fail to insist upon itself” (p. 287).

10. The Futility of Seeking Objective Truth in Literature

Interpretation as Revisionism: In Bloom’s view, all interpretation is inherently revisionist, shaped by the critic’s subjectivity. “Interpretation is revisionism, and the strongest readers so revise as to make every text belated” (p. 287).
Criticism and Poetic Survival: He concludes that both strong poems and strong criticism must “lie against time” by revising prior interpretations. “A strong poem lies against time, and against the strong poems before it, and a strong criticism must do the same” (p. 287).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Necessity Of Misreading” By Harold Bloom

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference/Quote
Misreading (Misprision)	The act of interpreting a text differently, usually by misunderstanding or willfully altering its meaning. Bloom asserts this is necessary for literary growth.	“Reading is therefore misprision—or misreading—just as writing is falsification” (p. 269).
Influence	The impact of earlier works on the creation and interpretation of new literary works. For Bloom, influence is ambivalent, acting both as a guide and an obstacle.	“Influence…is as complex a trope as language affords” (p. 271).
Canon Formation	The process by which certain works are selected as classics, determining which authors and texts are given enduring significance.	“I am engaged in canon-formation, in trying to help decide a question that is ultimately of sad importance: ‘Which poet shall live?'” (p. 267).
Tradition	The accumulation of literary works and ideas that influence current and future writers, often described as a “hyperbole” or exaggerated idealization.	“Tradition is always hyperbole, and the images used to describe tradition will tend to be those of height and depth” (p. 269).
Defensive Reading	The idea that readers and writers protect themselves from being overwhelmed by the influence of previous texts, turning reading into an act of defense.	“Reading is defensive warfare, however generously or joyously we read” (p. 273).
Tropes	Figures of speech or symbolic expressions used in literature. In Bloom’s theory, tropes function as defenses that mediate a reader’s or writer’s relationship to tradition.	“Poems are apotropaic litanies, systems of defensive tropes and troping defenses” (p. 278).
Belatedness	The sense of coming after influential works or authors, where a writer or reader feels the pressure of preceding achievements.	“Every act of reading is an exercise in belatedness” (p. 268).
Revisionism	The reinterpretation of texts or traditions, often involving a creative misreading that alters how a text is understood within its literary context.	“Canonization is the final or transumptive form of literary revisionism” (p. 270).
Poetic Influence	The relationship between poets, particularly how newer poets are influenced by and reinterpret the works of their predecessors. Bloom argues that strong poets misread their predecessors to assert their own originality.	“Every strong poet caricatures tradition and every strong poet is then necessarily mis-read by the tradition that he fosters” (p. 273).
Schizophrenia in Poetry	A metaphor Bloom uses to describe the inherent contradictions in strong poetry, which forces readers to adopt conflicting interpretations.	“Schizophrenia is disaster in life, and success in poetry” (p. 278).
Intertextuality	The interconnectedness of literary texts, where the meaning of one text is influenced by and relates to others. In Bloom’s view, no text stands alone in meaning; it is always part of a network of interpretations.	“Texts don’t have meanings, except in their relations to other texts” (p. 274).
Error as Creative Force	The idea that mistakes or misinterpretations in reading are necessary for the evolution of literature. Bloom sees error as a driving force behind the production of new works and interpretations.	“Error about life is necessary for life; error about a poem is necessary if there is to be yet another strong poem” (p. 269).
Apotropaic Literature	Literature that functions to ward off or defend against influences or threats. Bloom describes poems as rituals that protect themselves from being fully understood or consumed by prior traditions.	“Poems are apotropaic litanies, systems of defensive tropes and troping defenses” (p. 278).
Proleptic Representation	A rhetorical strategy where a future event is represented as if it has already happened. In canon formation, critics often project a work’s future classic status before it has proven itself in posterity.	“Proleptic representation is the inevitable rhetorical resource of all canonizing discourse” (p. 270).
Will-to-Power	Nietzschean concept applied to literary interpretation, where reading and writing are seen as exercises of power over texts. Canon formation and misreading become forms of exerting dominance over literary tradition.	“Canonization is the most extreme version of what Nietzsche called Interpretation, or the exercise of the Will-to-Power over texts” (p. 270).
Hermeneutic Circle	A concept in literary theory that suggests the meaning of a text is derived from understanding the whole in relation to its parts, and vice versa. Bloom applies this to the relationship between misreading and textual meaning.	“A poem can be about previous poems only by misreading them, which completes our bewilderingly perverse revision of a hermeneutic circle” (p. 278).
Metaphor and Perspective	Metaphors, in Bloom’s view, are rhetorical devices that change the perspective of readers, and thus, every metaphor is a failed attempt at unity because it always involves a shift in meaning.	“A jar may be a unity, and you can do with Tennessee what you will, but as soon as you troped your jar you mutilated it” (p. 278).

Contribution of “The Necessity Of Misreading” By Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Reader-Response Theory

Contribution: Bloom emphasizes the role of the reader in creating meaning, positioning the act of reading as central to the interpretive process. He argues that reading is always a misreading and that interpretation is an active, creative process rather than a passive reception of the text.
Reference: “Every act of reading is an exercise in belatedness, yet every such act is also defensive, and as defense it makes of interpretation a necessary misprision” (p. 268).
Impact on Theory: Bloom extends Reader-Response Theory by asserting that readers, like poets, are engaged in a process of influence and misreading, and meaning is generated not from the text alone but from the reader’s active reinterpretation.

2. Influence Theory

Contribution: Bloom’s theory of poetic influence, particularly articulated in his earlier works like The Anxiety of Influence, is further elaborated in The Necessity of Misreading. He contends that strong poets must misread their precursors to assert their originality, and this process is fundamental to literary evolution.
Reference: “Strong poets must be mis-read; there are no generous errors to be made in apprehending them” (p. 273).
Impact on Theory: This notion introduces the idea of creative misreading, wherein influence is not simply about imitation but about deliberate distortion and revision, shaping how later poets and critics interpret earlier works.

3. Intertextuality

Contribution: Bloom argues that texts do not have meanings in isolation but derive meaning through their relationships with other texts, a key element of intertextuality. His view aligns with poststructuralist theories of language and meaning, particularly those of Roland Barthes and Julia Kristeva.
Reference: “Texts don’t have meanings, except in their relations to other texts, so that there is something uneasily dialectical about literary meaning” (p. 274).
Impact on Theory: By framing reading as an inherently relational act, Bloom reinforces the intertextual nature of literature, suggesting that every text is a response to and a reworking of prior texts. His work intersects with structuralist and poststructuralist notions of the text as a part of a larger network of meaning.

4. Deconstruction

Contribution: Bloom’s concept of misreading resonates with deconstructionist theories, particularly in its rejection of fixed meanings and the emphasis on the instability of interpretation. He suggests that interpretation is always revisionist and that texts resist any final, stable meaning.
Reference: “The history of poetry is also governed by the primacy of the trope, and by the defensive nature of the trope” (p. 285).
Impact on Theory: This mirrors Jacques Derrida’s assertion that meaning is always deferred and never fully present. Bloom contributes to deconstruction by framing misreading as a necessary and ongoing process of reinterpretation, thereby destabilizing any notion of a definitive reading.

5. Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism

Contribution: Bloom draws on psychoanalytic concepts, particularly Freud’s ideas of repression and defense mechanisms, to describe the processes of reading and writing. He argues that reading is an act of defense, often akin to the psychoanalytic concept of denial or repression.
Reference: “Defense is always against influence. But the inter-poetic… is only a trope for the reading-process, and so I propose the unhappy formula that reading is always a defensive process” (p. 273).
Impact on Theory: Bloom’s use of Freudian psychoanalysis deepens our understanding of how readers and writers psychologically interact with texts, treating literary influence as a kind of Oedipal struggle. His work intersects with psychoanalytic criticism, suggesting that literary creation and interpretation are acts of psychic negotiation with powerful precursors.

6. Poststructuralism and the Death of the Author

Contribution: Bloom aligns with poststructuralist theories that challenge the notion of a singular, authoritative authorial voice. He argues that poets are not self-begotten and that texts do not originate in a vacuum, thus contributing to the poststructuralist critique of authorial intent.
Reference: “The more ‘tradition’ is exalted, the more egregious the mistakes become. I will venture the formula that only minor or weak poets… can be read accurately” (p. 273).
Impact on Theory: Bloom’s insistence that all authors and texts are in conversation with previous works complicates traditional notions of authorship, aligning his work with Roland Barthes’ The Death of the Author and Michel Foucault’s What is an Author?.

7. Hermeneutics

Contribution: Bloom’s theory of misreading revises traditional hermeneutics, particularly the idea of the hermeneutic circle (understanding a text by relating its parts to the whole). He argues that the interpretation of a text is an inherently flawed and incomplete process, rooted in the reader’s psychological and historical context.
Reference: “A poem can be about previous poems only by misreading them, which completes our bewilderingly perverse revision of a hermeneutic circle” (p. 278).
Impact on Theory: Bloom’s contribution to hermeneutics lies in his assertion that interpretation is never neutral or objective but is always shaped by prior texts and misreadings, thus challenging traditional hermeneutic practices that seek coherence and unity in interpretation.

8. Romanticism and Imagination

Contribution: Bloom explores Romanticism’s concept of imagination but challenges the Romantic ideal of originality. He suggests that even the Romantics were engaged in acts of misreading, over-completing or hyperbolizing nature and their predecessors.
Reference: “Romanticism being antithetical or contra naturam had to acknowledge that nature retained priority, that nature was the primary” (p. 271).
Impact on Theory: Bloom contributes to Romantic studies by recasting the role of imagination not as the creation of something entirely new but as an act of revision and re-interpretation of previous texts, adding complexity to Romantic notions of originality.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Necessity Of Misreading” By Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Critique Through “The Necessity of Misreading”	Explanation of Misreading (Bloom’s Concept)	Reference to Bloom’s Theory
John Milton’s Paradise Lost	Milton’s Satan has been misread as a heroic figure, especially by Romantic poets like Blake and Shelley, who transformed him into a symbol of rebellion and individuality.	Strong poets like Blake misread Milton by transforming Satan into a symbol of defiance, contrary to Milton’s original moral framework.	“Strong poets must be mis-read; there are no generous errors to be made in apprehending them” (p. 273).
William Wordsworth’s The Prelude	Wordsworth has been misread as a nature-healer and a poet of simple pastoral beauty, rather than as a poet deeply engaged with inner psychological struggles and crises.	Romantic readers and critics over-idealized Wordsworth’s connection with nature, missing the deeper psychological and philosophical themes in his work.	“Wordsworth, a wholly antithetical poet, has been read as a primary healer, a nature-thaumaturgist” (p. 273).
Wallace Stevens’ The Snow Man	Stevens’ poem is often misread as purely ironic or detached, but Bloom argues that it must be seen as engaging deeply with the romantic sublime and the defense of poetic transcendence.	Critics misread Stevens as an ironist, but Stevens was more concerned with maintaining a transcendental perspective within the constraints of modernity.	“Stevens, a qualified but still incessant Transcendentalist, is being read as an ironist and as an exposer of poetry’s pretensions” (p. 273).
T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land	Eliot’s The Waste Land has been misread as a work of despair and disintegration, but Bloom suggests it should be viewed as Eliot’s attempt to misread and outdo his poetic predecessors.	Eliot’s poem reworks literary tradition, not as an act of despair, but as a powerful misreading and revision of earlier texts, creating something new.	“Every strong poet caricatures tradition, and every strong poet is then necessarily misread by the tradition that he fosters” (p. 273).

Criticism Against “The Necessity Of Misreading” By Harold Bloom

Overemphasis on Strong Poets

Critics argue that Bloom’s focus on “strong poets” marginalizes lesser-known or “weaker” poets, implying that only significant, canonical figures are worthy of critical attention.
Critique: This hierarchical view reduces the literary field to a few influential figures and dismisses a broader diversity of voices in literature.

Subjective and Elitist Approach

Bloom’s theory suggests that interpretation and misreading are subjective, which some scholars see as overly elitist because it places too much emphasis on the critic’s interpretive power.
Critique: This undermines the idea of objective or shared meaning in texts, making literary criticism seem like a closed game only for experts or “strong readers.”

Neglect of Historical and Social Context

Bloom’s focus on textual misreading and poetic influence often neglects the broader historical, social, and cultural contexts that shape literature.
Critique: His approach minimizes the importance of external factors like race, gender, class, and historical events in shaping both texts and their interpretation.

Psychoanalytic Determinism

Bloom’s use of Freudian psychoanalysis, particularly the Oedipal framework, is viewed as reductive and deterministic, with critics arguing that it oversimplifies the complexities of influence and creativity.
Critique: This narrow psychoanalytic view can limit alternative interpretations of literary influence that do not align with Freudian ideas of rivalry and repression.

Ambiguity in Defining Misreading

Bloom’s concept of misreading is seen by some as too vague and flexible, leading to concerns that it can justify any interpretation as valid, regardless of textual evidence.
Critique: This opens the door to interpretive anarchy, where there are no guidelines for what constitutes a valid or invalid reading of a text.

Undermining Authorial Intent

Some critics feel that Bloom’s theory completely disregards the importance of authorial intent, reducing authors to mere participants in a continuous cycle of misreading.
Critique: This downplays the significance of what authors themselves aim to express through their works, ignoring their conscious choices and messages.

Excessive Focus on Western Canon

Bloom’s arguments in “The Necessity of Misreading” heavily favor the Western literary canon, especially Romantic and modernist poets.
Critique: This emphasis excludes non-Western literary traditions and overlooks the rich diversity of global literary influences and interpretations.

Circular Reasoning

Critics have pointed out that Bloom’s idea that all interpretation is misreading can lead to circular reasoning, as it assumes that no reading can ever be entirely accurate or correct.
Critique: This undermines the critical project by negating the possibility of understanding texts on their own terms, leading to an endless loop of reinterpretation without any firm conclusions.

Representative Quotations from “The Necessity Of Misreading” By Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Every act of reading is an exercise in belatedness, yet every such act is also defensive, and as defense it makes of interpretation a necessary misprision.” (p. 268)	Bloom argues that all readings are influenced by prior texts (belatedness) and involve some form of misreading (misprision), as readers defensively shape their understanding in relation to previous interpretations.
“You are or become what you read” and “That which you are, that only can you read.” (p. 267)	These two maxims highlight Bloom’s idea that reading and interpretation are subjective, with the reader’s identity influencing their understanding of a text, and vice versa. Both reader and text transform through this interaction.
“Reading is therefore misprision—or misreading—just as writing is falsification, in Oscar Wilde’s sense of ‘lying’.” (p. 268)	Bloom likens the act of reading to misreading, paralleling it with Wilde’s idea that writing is a form of artistic falsification or creative “lying,” meaning that both reading and writing are inherently transformative and interpretive.
“Strong poets must be mis-read; there are no generous errors to be made in apprehending them.” (p. 273)	Bloom asserts that powerful poets create such profound work that misreading them is inevitable. The strength of their influence forces readers to misinterpret them in ways that continue their legacy through revision and reinterpretation.
“Canonization is the most extreme version of what Nietzsche called Interpretation, or the exercise of the Will-to-Power over texts.” (p. 270)	Bloom compares the process of canon formation to Nietzsche’s idea of interpretation as an act of power, where the elevation of certain texts to “classic” status is itself an act of imposing meaning and authority over literary history.
“All canonizing of literary texts is a self-contradictory process, for by canonizing a text you are troping upon it, which means that you are misreading it.” (p. 271)	Canonization involves imposing a fixed meaning on a text, which is a form of misreading because it limits the text’s interpretive possibilities, contradicting the dynamic nature of literary meaning.
“Tradition is itself then without a referential aspect, like the Romantic Imagination or like God. Tradition is a daemonic term.” (p. 269)	Bloom argues that literary tradition, like the Romantic notion of the Imagination or the concept of God, is indefinable and operates as a “daemonic” force, shaping texts without any clear origin or reference.
“Influence, as I employ it, is not a doctrine of causation. It does not mean that an earlier poem causes a later one.” (p. 280)	Bloom clarifies that his concept of influence is not about direct causation but about a complex relationship between texts, where later works misread and transform the meaning of earlier ones, rather than being simply caused by them.
“Poetry begins, always, when someone who is going to become a poet reads a poem.” (p. 275)	Bloom emphasizes the cyclical nature of poetic creation, where a poet’s writing starts from their act of reading and misreading other poets, suggesting that all poetry is born from prior literary engagement.
“A strong poem starts out strong by knowing and showing that it must be mis-read, that it must force the reader to take up a stance that he knows to be untrue.” (p. 278)	Bloom suggests that strong poems deliberately invite misreading, as their complexity compels readers to adopt interpretive stances that they know might be flawed, which adds to the ongoing creative dialogue between text and reader.

“The Function of Criticism” by Matthew Arnold: Summary and Critique

“The Function of Criticism” by Matthew Arnold first appeared in 1864 as part of his collection Essays in Criticism.

Introduction: “The Function of Criticism” by Matthew Arnold

“The Function of Criticism” by Matthew Arnold first appeared in 1864 as part of his collection Essays in Criticism. This seminal work is considered one of Arnold’s most important contributions to the field of literary criticism. Arnold emphasizes the critic’s role in fostering intellectual growth and guiding public opinion, arguing that criticism is not merely a passive reflection on art but an active, creative force that shapes cultural development. He highlights the importance of disinterestedness, suggesting that critics should approach literature with objectivity, free from personal bias or emotional attachment. Arnold’s ideas significantly influenced later critical theories, advocating for criticism as a crucial tool in understanding and elevating literature, making it essential for the broader progress of society.

Summary of “The Function of Criticism” by Matthew Arnold

The Role of Criticism in Literature: Arnold begins his essay by asserting the essential role of criticism in literature. He argues that criticism should be an “endeavour to see the object as in itself it really is.” For Arnold, the goal of criticism is to approach literature and art with intellectual objectivity and detachment, avoiding personal bias or immediate practical concerns. As he says, “the critical power is of lower rank than the creative,” but nonetheless necessary to prepare the intellectual foundation upon which great literary works are built. He stresses that criticism must analyze ideas disinterestedly, separate from personal or political motives. Arnold laments that English literature lacks this depth of criticism, in contrast to French and German literature, which actively engage in this intellectual pursuit.
The Relationship Between Criticism and Creative Power: Arnold makes a case that while creativity is the highest form of literary achievement, it relies on a foundation of ideas that criticism provides. He explains that “the creative power works with elements, with materials” and without these materials, literary creativity is often stunted or misdirected. For Arnold, the critic’s task is to ensure that these intellectual materials—ideas, philosophical or social understandings—are refined and available. He illustrates this with the comparison between Byron and Goethe, noting that Goethe’s work endured because it was supported by critical reflection, whereas Byron’s lacked such a foundation. “The creation of a modern poet… implies a great critical effort behind it,” Arnold argues, emphasizing the inseparable link between criticism and literary creation.
Criticism as an Intellectual Necessity: Arnold presents criticism as an intellectual endeavor that serves society by fostering a climate of “the best ideas” and enabling cultural progress. Criticism’s ultimate goal is to establish “an order of ideas,” allowing for creative literary genius to flourish. He contrasts eras of great literary production with those of intellectual barrenness, linking this to the presence or absence of robust criticism. For Arnold, criticism is a process of intellectual preparation: “Labour may be vainly spent in attempting it, which might with more fruit be used in preparing for it, in rendering it possible.”
Criticism and Disinterestedness: Arnold emphasizes that true criticism must be disinterested, or free from political, religious, or social biases. It must aim to create “a current of fresh and true ideas,” without being swayed by practical, polemical, or partisan motives. He critiques English criticism for often being polemical, serving the needs of particular factions rather than engaging with ideas on a purely intellectual level. For Arnold, the essence of criticism is a “free play of the mind on all subjects it touches,” an unencumbered intellectual activity that exists solely to illuminate truth.
Criticism as Preparation for Future Creative Epochs: Finally, Arnold suggests that criticism is the precursor to great creative periods. Without the groundwork of criticism, creative genius lacks the “atmosphere” or “intellectual situation” necessary for its full development. He argues that England’s creative stagnation during the 19th century was due to a lack of such critical preparation. He concludes with an optimistic vision that criticism, if properly practiced, will eventually lead to a new era of literary creation, saying, “Criticism first; a time of true creative activity, perhaps—hereafter.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Function of Criticism” by Matthew Arnold

Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Arnold’s Context
Criticism	The practice of analyzing, evaluating, and interpreting literature, art, or ideas.	Arnold views criticism as an intellectual effort to see things as they truly are, rather than through personal biases.
Disinterestedness	Objective and impartial analysis, free from political, religious, or personal motivations.	A central tenet of Arnold’s argument, where he asserts that criticism should focus on truth and not serve ulterior ends.
Creative Power	The ability to create original works of literature or art.	While Arnold acknowledges the superiority of creative power, he argues that it depends on a foundation of critical thought.
Intellectual Atmosphere	The prevailing ideas, culture, and intellectual environment that influence creativity.	Arnold believes that creative power thrives only in an atmosphere rich with well-developed ideas, established by critics.
Epochs of Expansion	Periods in history characterized by intellectual and artistic growth.	Arnold argues that these creative periods are rare and result from thorough critical preparation and intellectual groundwork.
Intellectual Preparation	The role of criticism in cultivating ideas and refining intellectual materials for future creative work.	Criticism, according to Arnold, must precede and prepare the way for significant creative achievements.
Synthesis vs. Discovery	The act of combining existing ideas to form new, harmonious creations (synthesis) rather than uncovering new ideas (discovery).	Arnold emphasizes that literature often synthesizes ideas already present, rather than inventing new ones, unlike philosophy.
Objective Truth	A reality that exists independent of individual perceptions, emotions, or political motives.	Arnold insists that criticism’s role is to pursue and reflect objective truth, devoid of personal or partisan agendas.
Polemical Criticism	Criticism that serves a political or ideological purpose, often aggressive or controversial.	Arnold critiques this form of criticism as being too narrow and focused on practical concerns, rather than on intellectual ideals.
Best Ideas	The highest and most valuable intellectual concepts and insights that should prevail in society.	For Arnold, the critic’s task is to promote these “best ideas” by evaluating and spreading them through society.

Contribution of “The Function of Criticism” by Matthew Arnold to Literary Theory/Theories

Foundation for Modern Literary Criticism
- Arnold’s work is a cornerstone for later developments in literary theory, especially emphasizing the importance of criticism in understanding and shaping literature. His notion that criticism should be a disinterested intellectual activity laid the groundwork for literary analysis as a serious academic discipline. He writes that criticism’s role is to “learn and propagate the best that is known and thought in the world.”
Development of Disinterested Criticism
- Arnold introduced the concept of disinterestedness in criticism, meaning that criticism should be objective and free from personal or political bias. This idea influenced later theoretical approaches, such as New Criticism, which emphasized the importance of examining texts without external influence. Arnold states, “The rule may be summed up in one word—disinterestedness.”
Influence on New Criticism
- Arnold’s emphasis on the critic’s duty to focus on the text itself, to see it “as in itself it really is,” foreshadowed New Criticism’s focus on close reading and intrinsic analysis of literary works, without reference to historical or biographical context. His critique of “practical” or “polemical” criticism also anticipated the New Critics’ rejection of external social or political concerns in literary analysis.
Literature as a Moral and Social Force
- Arnold argued that literature has the capacity to shape society and that criticism plays a role in ensuring that the best ideas prevail. This perspective influenced later theories, such as moral and ethical criticism, that see literature as a vehicle for social change. He writes, “It tends to establish an order of ideas, if not absolutely true, yet true by comparison with that which it displaces; to make the best ideas prevail.”
Preparation for Creative Power
- Arnold’s idea that criticism prepares the way for creative power influenced structuralist and poststructuralist theories, which argue that texts are built on the foundation of pre-existing structures, ideas, and critical reflection. He asserted that “the creative power works with elements, with materials,” which are provided through the efforts of critical thought.
Criticism as a Cultural Force
- Arnold’s work contributed to cultural criticism by suggesting that criticism helps shape intellectual and cultural life. His view that criticism not only evaluates literature but also aids in the intellectual progress of society prefigured cultural studies and critical theory, which see literature and criticism as intertwined with broader cultural and ideological forces.
Criticism and Intellectual Climate
- Arnold’s argument that literary creation depends on the intellectual atmosphere provided by criticism had a strong impact on later thinkers in the field of literary theory, especially in terms of how criticism creates a space for ideas to flourish. His statement that “the grand work of literary genius is a work of synthesis and exposition, not of analysis and discovery” highlights the relationship between criticism and creative work.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Function of Criticism” by Matthew Arnold

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Arnold’s Lens & Key Arnoldian Concept Applied
“The Prelude” by William Wordsworth	Arnold would critique The Prelude for its deep personal insights but might argue that Wordsworth’s isolation from intellectual currents limits its breadth. “Wordsworth cared little for books,” Arnold notes, implying that his poetry could have been richer with more critical reflection on the intellectual atmosphere of the time. Key Concept: Intellectual Preparation – Criticism supplies ideas and perspectives necessary for deeper literary expression.
“Don Juan” by Lord Byron	Arnold would likely critique Byron’s Don Juan for its energy and wit but argue that it lacks lasting depth due to Byron’s detachment from critical ideas and intellectual preparation. Byron, Arnold claims, “had not those materials” from criticism to work with, resulting in a work that “had so little endurance in it.” Key Concept: Criticism as Intellectual Atmosphere – Byron’s work lacked the intellectual context and critical groundwork for enduring literary value.
“Faust” by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe	Arnold would praise Faust for its integration of critical thought and creative power. Goethe’s immersion in intellectual and philosophical criticism allowed Faust to be a profound and lasting work. Arnold admires Goethe’s work, saying “Goethe knew life and the world… much more comprehensively and thoroughly than Byron.” Key Concept: Synthesis of Criticism and Creation – Faust exemplifies the successful integration of creative genius with critical ideas, enriching its value.
“Prometheus Unbound” by Percy Bysshe Shelley	Arnold might critique Prometheus Unbound for its incoherence, despite its lyrical brilliance. He would argue that Shelley’s lack of engagement with the critical environment resulted in a work that lacked the intellectual grounding to support its lofty aspirations. As Arnold says, “Shelley… so incoherent.” Key Concept: Creative Power and Criticism – Shelley’s work illustrates Arnold’s view that creative efforts unmoored from criticism risk incoherence.

Criticism Against “The Function of Criticism” by Matthew Arnold

· Overemphasis on Disinterestedness: Arnold’s insistence on disinterestedness in criticism has been critiqued as unrealistic and overly idealistic. Critics argue that no criticism can be entirely free from personal, cultural, or political biases, and that attempting to do so may strip criticism of its relevance and engagement with the issues of its time.

· Neglect of the Social and Political Context:Arnold’s focus on criticism as an intellectual endeavor, detached from social and political concerns, has been challenged by critics who believe that literature and criticism are inherently connected to the social and political climates in which they are produced. This view is particularly opposed by Marxist and cultural critics who argue that literature cannot be separated from its socio-political context.

· Undervaluing the Creative Power: Arnold’s distinction between the creative and critical powers, where he places criticism in a supporting role to creativity, has been criticized for undermining the originality and power of literary creation itself. Some argue that by focusing too much on the preparation for creativity, Arnold downplays the importance of raw, innovative artistic expression that can exist without the intellectual groundwork of criticism.

· Elitism and Exclusion of Popular Culture: Arnold’s emphasis on high culture and the “best that is known and thought in the world” has been critiqued for its elitism. His focus on the intellectual elite and classical literature excludes popular culture and diverse voices, thereby limiting the scope of literary criticism to a narrow and traditional canon, which critics argue reinforces existing cultural hierarchies.

· Over-reliance on European Models: Arnold’s admiration for French and German criticism, which he holds as a standard for English literature to follow, has been critiqued as overly Eurocentric. His approach excludes the contributions of other cultures and literatures, particularly non-Western literary traditions, from the global literary conversation.

· Limited Focus on Innovation in Criticism: Critics argue that Arnold’s framework limits the role of criticism to a preparatory function rather than allowing it to be a site of innovation. Poststructuralists and deconstructionists, in particular, critique Arnold for reducing criticism to a passive role, rather than recognizing it as an active force that can reshape literary meaning and interpretation.

Representative Quotations from “The Function of Criticism” by Matthew Arnold with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The critical power is of lower rank than the creative.”	Arnold acknowledges the higher status of creative genius but emphasizes that criticism still plays a vital role in shaping and preparing creativity.
“The endeavor, in all branches of knowledge, to see the object as in itself it really is.”	This defines Arnold’s concept of disinterestedness, where criticism seeks to understand literature and ideas objectively, without external bias.
“Without criticism, there is no satisfactory creation.”	Arnold argues that great creative works are often dependent on a foundation of ideas and intellectual atmosphere developed through critical thought.
“To make the best ideas prevail.”	The critic’s task, according to Arnold, is to identify and promote the highest intellectual and moral ideas, which ultimately influence society.
“The grand work of literary genius is a work of synthesis and exposition, not of analysis and discovery.”	Arnold views the role of literature as synthesizing and presenting ideas, while criticism’s role is to analyze and refine those ideas beforehand.
“Our English poetry of the first quarter of this century, with plenty of energy, plenty of creative force, did not know enough.”	Arnold criticizes early 19th-century English poetry for lacking intellectual depth and critical grounding, which weakened its long-term impact.
“Two powers must concur, the power of the man and the power of the moment.”	For Arnold, great literary works emerge when the creative genius of the individual aligns with the intellectual and cultural conditions of the time.
“The best that is known and thought in the world.”	Arnold emphasizes that criticism should aim to identify and propagate the most valuable and enduring ideas, ensuring they shape cultural and intellectual life.
“Disinterestedness is the essential condition of criticism.”	Arnold insists that critics must remain impartial, detached from practical or political considerations, to pursue truth in literature and ideas.
“The business of criticism is simply to know the best that is known and thought in the world, and to make this known.”	Arnold sees criticism as an intellectual pursuit that spreads the highest forms of knowledge, contributing to the moral and cultural improvement of society.

“The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

“The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom, first appeared in 1974 in the journal boundary 2, is known for its focus on the “anxiety of influence” concept.

Introduction: “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom

“The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom, first appeared in 1974 in the journal boundary 2, is known for its focus on the “anxiety of influence” concept, explores the main qualities and importance of a continuous Western literary tradition. Bloom argues that new writers grapple with and attempt to surpass the works of their predecessors, creating a dynamic interplay that shapes the course of literature. This theory, central to Bloom’s critical framework, has been highly influential in literary theory, sparking debate and shaping how we understand the relationship between authors and their literary heritage.

Summary of “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom

The Tension Between Tradition and Innovation

Bloom highlights the inherent tension in literary tradition, emphasizing that it stifles creativity as much as it nurtures it: “Tradition is now valuable precisely because it partly blocks, because it stifles the weak, because it represses even the strong.”
This tension drives the creative process, as writers must contend with their precursors, consciously working against past forms to create something new.

Belatedness and Literary Tradition

Bloom argues that modern writers are “latecomers” and must grapple with the legacy of those who came before them: “Nothing is now more salutary than such a sense [of belatedness]. Without it, we cannot distinguish between the energy of humanistic performance and merely organic energy.”
He opposes Nietzsche’s idea that feeling like a latecomer is detrimental, instead seeing it as a crucial component of literary creation in the modern age.

The Myth of Continuity in Tradition

Bloom critiques the notion of continuity in tradition, especially as framed by critics like Northrop Frye, who claim that tradition includes all writers and perspectives: “Frye’s reduction… is a noble idealization, and as a lie against time will go the way of every other noble idealization.”
He suggests that literary tradition is selective and exclusive, shaped by cultural forces and canonical judgments rather than any inherent inclusivity.

Canon Formation and Revisionism

Bloom discusses how literary canons are both created and dismantled over time. The process of canon formation, beginning with figures like Aristarchus in Alexandria, is central to the Western literary tradition: “We are Alexandrians still, and we may as well be proud of it, for it is central to our profession.”
He also critiques the current state of literary revisionism, arguing that it has become dominant, to the point where traditional standards of literature are “fading into the light of a common garishness.”

The Role of the Teacher in Tradition

Bloom reflects on the role of the teacher as both a bearer and challenger of tradition, emphasizing the teacher’s responsibility to confront the weight of tradition: “The teacher of literature… is condemned to teach the presentness of the past, because history, philosophy, and religion have withdrawn as agents from the Scene of Instruction.”
He presents teaching as an inherently erotic act, in the Platonic sense of desiring what one does not yet possess: “Teaching, as Plato knew, is necessarily a branch of erotics, in the wide sense of desiring what we have not got, of redressing our poverty, of compounding with our fantasies.”

Belatedness and the Dialectics of Tradition

Bloom explores the psychological burden of belatedness, especially in Romanticism, where writers felt haunted by their predecessors: “Romantic tradition is consciously late, and Romantic literary psychology is therefore necessarily a psychology of belatedness.”
This sense of coming after, or trespassing upon sacred literary ground, becomes a central theme in modern literary works, exemplified by figures like Pynchon.

The Inescapability of Tradition

Bloom asserts that no writer or thinker can escape tradition, as it informs all creation and education: “You cannot write or teach or think or even read, without imitation, and what you imitate is what another person has done.”
This handing over of knowledge, or “traditio,” is essential to the survival of literary and cultural forms, even as each generation reshapes what it has inherited.

The Power of Repression in Tradition

Bloom emphasizes the repressive function of literary tradition, which forces new authors into conflict with their predecessors: “The Milton who made his great poem identical with the process of repression that is vital to literary tradition.”
He advocates for embracing this repression as a necessary condition for meaningful literary creation.

Conclusion: The Burden of Tradition

Bloom concludes by noting the immense burden literary tradition places on both writers and teachers, who must navigate the dialectics of tradition while fostering new creation: “Instruction, in our late phase, becomes an antithetical process almost in spite of itself, and for antithetical teaching you require antithetical texts.”
He calls for a deeper engagement with this burden rather than attempts to evade it, seeing it as crucial to both the survival and renewal of literary tradition.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Explanation from Bloom’s Text
Tradition	The handing down of literary works, styles, and values across generations.	Bloom explores how tradition both enables and stifles creativity, describing it as a “handing-over” or transmission that includes repression, which challenges new authors to struggle against their past.
Belatedness	The feeling of coming after great predecessors in literature.	Bloom highlights the anxiety of influence felt by modern writers, arguing that this sense of being a latecomer is essential for distinguishing meaningful literary creation from mere “organic energy.”
Canon Formation	The process by which certain works are selected and deemed as classics.	Bloom critiques the historical process of canon formation, noting how it started in Alexandria and has continued through selective inclusion and exclusion, creating literary standards across generations.
Revisionism	The reinterpretation or reshaping of established literary works or canons.	Bloom argues that the current dominance of revisionism has led to the weakening of traditional literary standards, as constant revision leads to “a fading into the light of a common garishness.”
Dialectics	The interaction of opposing forces that leads to progress or development.	The central theme of Bloom’s essay is the “dialectics of tradition,” where he examines the dynamic struggle between tradition and new literary creation, resulting in both tension and transformation.
Influence	The impact of previous writers and their works on later writers.	Bloom describes how all writers are influenced by their precursors, and tradition is defined by the continuous influence passed down from one generation to the next.
Repression	The act of suppressing earlier literary forms or ideas to create something new.	Bloom discusses how repression is vital to the literary process, where new authors must repress their predecessors’ forms to forge their own identity and creativity.
Romantic Tradition	A literary movement emphasizing emotion, nature, and the sublime, often feeling late in history.	Bloom critiques Romanticism for its deep sense of belatedness and its obsessive grappling with literary predecessors, calling it a tradition “appalled by its own overt continuities.”
Modernism	A movement aimed at breaking away from traditional forms to express new ideas.	Bloom claims that Modernism never fully existed but was rather a myth turned dogma by critics like Hugh Kenner, transforming the experimental into an entrenched literary period.
The Scene of Instruction	The relationship between teacher and student in the transmission of knowledge.	Bloom discusses this concept in relation to literary tradition, likening it to a primal scene where teaching and literary influence occur, often with “internalized violence” between student and teacher.
Antithetical Teaching	Teaching that challenges both the students’ and teachers’ assumptions.	Bloom suggests that in the current phase of tradition, teaching must become antithetical, using texts that challenge the established norms of both teacher and student.
Myth of Continuity	The belief that literary tradition is a continuous, unbroken chain of influence.	Bloom critiques the idea of tradition as an inclusive continuum, arguing that tradition involves discontinuities and breaks, and the myth of continuity is a “lie against time” passed by critics on themselves.

Contribution of “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Contribution to the Theory of Influence and Anxiety of Influence

Key Idea: Bloom expands on his broader theoretical framework, often referred to as the “anxiety of influence,” where writers are in constant struggle with their literary precursors.
From the Text: “To study literary tradition today is to achieve a dangerous but enabling act of the mind that works against all ease in fresh ‘creation.'”
Contribution: This essay reinforces Bloom’s notion that creativity arises from a writer’s confrontation with tradition, where literary production is shaped by a tension between emulation and rebellion against past masters.

2. Contribution to Canon Formation and Canonical Criticism

Key Idea: Bloom critiques the formation of literary canons and the selective process of which works are deemed “classics.”
From the Text: “How are canons of accepted classics formed, and how are they unformed?… When Homer became a schoolbook, literature became a school subject quite permanently.”
Contribution: This essay contributes to canonical criticism by examining the historical, cultural, and pedagogical processes through which certain texts are elevated to canonical status, while others are marginalized. He argues that canons are shaped not by inherent literary value but by cultural forces and institutional practices.

3. Contribution to Postmodernism and Revisionist Criticism

Key Idea: Bloom critiques both Modernism and Postmodernism, framing them as myths perpetuated by critics and writers.
From the Text: “Post-Modernism also has its canons and its canonizers; and I find myself surrounded by living classics, in recently dead poets of strong ambition and hysterical intensity.”
Contribution: By deconstructing the myth of Modernism and critiquing Postmodernism, Bloom contributes to the broader discourse in literary theory about the fluidity of literary movements and the often arbitrary nature of the boundaries drawn between them.

4. Contribution to Hermeneutics and Interpretation Theory

Key Idea: Bloom touches on the interpretative act within tradition, discussing how readers and writers engage with texts from the past through reinterpretation and revision.
From the Text: “Literary tradition, once we even contemplate entering its academies, now insists upon being our ‘family history,’ and inducts us into its ‘family romance.'”
Contribution: His discussion of literary tradition as a “family romance” highlights the psychoanalytic underpinnings of interpretative practices, connecting the reading of texts with the psychological dynamics of influence, Oedipal struggles, and familial relationships.

5. Contribution to Romanticism and the Concept of Belatedness

Key Idea: Bloom emphasizes the Romantic tradition’s fixation on belatedness, a feeling of being chronologically and creatively late in comparison to literary precursors.
From the Text: “Romantic tradition is consciously late, and Romantic literary psychology is therefore necessarily a psychology of belatedness.”
Contribution: This essay advances the theory that Romanticism, and its descendants, is rooted in the anxiety of coming after great predecessors, contributing to a broader understanding of how time, history, and lateness shape literary production and identity.

6. Contribution to Deconstruction and the Challenge to Continuity

Key Idea: Bloom challenges the idea of seamless continuity in literary tradition, advocating for a recognition of discontinuities and breaks in the evolution of literary works.
From the Text: “The fiction of continuity is a noble idealization, and as a lie against time will go the way of every other noble idealization.”
Contribution: This critique aligns with deconstructionist approaches to literature, where presumed structures or grand narratives (like continuity in tradition) are exposed as constructed and often misleading.

7. Contribution to Pedagogical Theory in Literature

Key Idea: Bloom offers a reflection on the role of teachers in transmitting literary tradition and shaping the way students engage with literature.
From the Text: “The teacher of literature… is condemned to teach the presentness of the past.”
Contribution: This essay contributes to pedagogical theory by framing the teaching of literature as an “erotic” and dialectical process where both teachers and students are engaged in the struggle between the weight of tradition and the creation of new meaning.

8. Contribution to the Theory of Repression in Literary Creation

Key Idea: Bloom argues that repression is a necessary aspect of literary tradition, where new writers must suppress earlier forms to produce original work.
From the Text: “The Milton who made his great poem identical with the process of repression that is vital to literary tradition.”
Contribution: Bloom extends psychoanalytic ideas of repression into literary theory, suggesting that creativity is bound up with the act of suppressing earlier influences, a vital process in shaping strong literary voices.

9. Contribution to the Debate on Tradition vs. Innovation

Key Idea: Bloom asserts that tradition is not only a source of continuity but also a force that obstructs and challenges innovation.
From the Text: “Literary tradition appears powerless to justify its own selectivities… it moves from an idealized function to a stifling or blocking tendency.”
Contribution: This essay contributes to debates in literary theory on how tradition both facilitates and hinders literary innovation, reinforcing the view that the dialectical relationship between tradition and new creation is central to literary progress.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Critique Through Bloom’s Lens	Explanation from the Text
“Gravity’s Rainbow” by Thomas Pynchon	Critique of Belatedness and Tradition Inversion	Bloom uses Pynchon as an example of a modern writer grappling with the weight of tradition, describing Gravity’s Rainbow as a work of “sado-masochistic parody,” reflecting the dark humor and inversion of traditional literary archetypes. He sees Pynchon’s work as a reaction to literary predecessors.
“Self-Reliance” by Ralph Waldo Emerson	Romantic Belatedness and Guilt of Tradition	Bloom admires Emerson but critiques his failure to overcome the Romantic guilt of belatedness. Bloom asserts that Self-Reliance reflects the struggle to assert originality while being haunted by literary predecessors: “Whitman follows Emerson…yet the guilt of belatedness haunts him.”
“Paradise Lost” by John Milton	Tradition of Repression and Authority	Bloom highlights Paradise Lost as a central example of literary tradition as repression. Milton’s Satan is described as an artist whose act of creation is limited by repression, a figure embodying the struggle against a powerful predecessor: “Milton made his great poem identical with repression.”
“Aurora Leigh” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning	Critique of Canonical Misjudgment	Bloom critiques the once-high canonical status of Aurora Leigh, using it as an example of how literary greatness is often misjudged by contemporaries. “Ruskin…proclaimed Aurora Leigh by Mrs. Browning to be the best long poem of the Nineteenth Century,” but this judgment did not stand the test of time.

Criticism Against “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom

1. Overemphasis on Belatedness and Anxiety of Influence

Criticism: Some critics argue that Bloom’s focus on belatedness and the anxiety of influence limits the understanding of literary creation, reducing the complex dynamics of literary production to a psychological struggle between the writer and their predecessors.
Issue: This perspective can overlook the social, political, and cultural factors that also influence literary works, simplifying the creative process into a one-dimensional conflict.

2. Elitism in Canon Formation

Criticism: Bloom’s defense of the canon and his preference for established literary traditions have been seen as elitist and exclusionary, often disregarding marginalized voices and alternative literary traditions.
Issue: By championing a Eurocentric literary canon, Bloom is criticized for neglecting the contributions of non-Western, minority, and women writers, reinforcing hierarchical structures in literature.

3. Dismissal of Modernism and Postmodernism

Criticism: Bloom’s claim that Modernism never existed as a literary movement, and his dismissive attitude towards Postmodernism, has been met with resistance by scholars who see both movements as critical to understanding 20th-century literature.
Issue: His critique of Modernism and Postmodernism as mere myths diminishes the significance of the literary innovations and thematic explorations brought forward by these movements, such as fragmentation, subjectivity, and the challenge to grand narratives.

4. Neglect of Social and Historical Contexts

Criticism: Bloom’s focus on tradition and the personal psychological struggle between authors neglects the role of historical and social contexts in shaping literary works and movements.
Issue: His theory of influence tends to abstract literature from its socio-political environment, ignoring how external factors such as class, race, and gender can profoundly shape literary creation and reception.

5. Resistance to Feminist and Multicultural Criticism

Criticism: Bloom has been resistant to feminist and multicultural critiques, which aim to expand the literary canon and include more diverse perspectives.
Issue: By dismissing movements like Woman’s Liberation and other identity-based literary movements, Bloom risks alienating critics and readers who seek a more inclusive and representative literary tradition.

6. Overreliance on Psychoanalytic Frameworks

Criticism: Bloom’s application of psychoanalytic ideas, particularly Freud’s Oedipal complex, to literary tradition has been critiqued for being overly reductive.
Issue: This reliance on psychoanalysis may obscure other literary, theoretical, and structural insights, limiting the scope of literary criticism to familial and psychological models of influence.

7. Limited Engagement with Contemporary Literary Forms

Criticism: Bloom’s preference for classical literature and established canonical figures leaves little room for contemporary literary experimentation, including newer forms like digital literature or genre fiction.
Issue: His reluctance to engage with these evolving literary forms creates a gap between traditional literary criticism and the current literary landscape, which increasingly incorporates diverse voices and innovative genres.

8. Idealization of the Literary Tradition

Criticism: Bloom’s idealization of literary tradition as a guiding force may romanticize the past, overlooking how tradition can also serve to oppress or marginalize innovative voices.
Issue: His view of tradition as both enabling and repressing new literary creation can be seen as overly deterministic, leaving little space for more fluid or collaborative approaches to literary development.

Representative Quotations from “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Tradition is now valuable precisely because it partly blocks, because it stifles the weak, because it represses even the strong.”	Bloom argues that literary tradition serves as both an obstacle and a source of strength for writers, forcing them to contend with and overcome the influence of predecessors.
“The myth of Modernism has aged into a dogma, and Post-Modernism also has its canons and its canonizers.”	Bloom critiques the institutionalization of both Modernism and Postmodernism, suggesting that what was once revolutionary has become rigid and canonized, losing its original vitality.
“Nothing is now more salutary than such a sense [of belatedness]. Without it, we cannot distinguish between the energy of humanistic performance and merely organic energy.”	Bloom redefines belatedness as an essential part of literary creativity, where the awareness of coming after great predecessors spurs writers toward more deliberate innovation.
“The teacher of literature… is condemned to teach the presentness of the past, because history, philosophy, and religion have withdrawn as agents from the Scene of Instruction.”	This reflects Bloom’s view of literary instruction, where teachers must focus on how the past is ever-present in literature, as other disciplines have lost their central role in education.
“We are Alexandrians still, and we may as well be proud of it, for it is central to our profession.”	Bloom acknowledges the ongoing influence of Alexandrian scholarship, which set the precedent for canon formation and literary criticism, shaping how we classify and teach literature today.
“Romantic tradition is consciously late, and Romantic literary psychology is therefore necessarily a psychology of belatedness.”	Bloom describes Romanticism as a literary movement deeply aware of its place in history, burdened by a sense of coming after past greatness and haunted by the desire to transcend it.
“Tradition, the Latin traditio, is etymologically a handing-over or a giving-over, a delivery, a giving-up and so even a surrender or a betrayal.”	Bloom emphasizes the complex nature of tradition, suggesting that it involves both the transmission of knowledge and a form of surrender or betrayal of past literary achievements.
“Literary tradition appears powerless to justify its own selectivities… it moves from an idealized function to a stifling or blocking tendency.”	Bloom critiques the notion that literary tradition inherently justifies the inclusion of certain works, arguing that it often becomes a restrictive force rather than a liberating one.
“We cannot write or teach or think or even read, without imitation, and what you imitate is what another person has done.”	This underscores Bloom’s belief that all literary creation is influenced by imitation, with tradition acting as a continuous force that shapes new works, whether consciously or unconsciously.
“All continuities possess the paradox of being absolutely arbitrary in their origins, and absolutely inescapable in their teleologies.”	Bloom points out that literary traditions often arise arbitrarily, yet once established, they become inescapable forces, shaping how future generations engage with literature.

“Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

“Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” by Harold Bloom appeared in the Fall 1976 issue of The Georgia Review (495-524).

Introduction: “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

“Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” by Harold Bloom appeared in the Fall 1976 issue of The Georgia Review (495-524). He explores the intricate relationship between rhetoric and psychology within the realm of poetry. Bloom argues that poets strategically employ language and figurative devices to manipulate the reader’s experience. The essay opens with a thought-provoking juxtaposition of quotes, hinting at the exploration of veiled aspects within the creative process of poetry. Bloom then utilizes Wallace Stevens’ poem “Domination of Black” as a springboard for his analysis. Through this example, he demonstrates how Stevens utilizes deceptively simple descriptions, imbued with figurative language and a psychological defense mechanism known as “reaction-formation,” to imbue the poem with profounder themes of mortality and the anxieties surrounding death.

Summary of “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

Rhetorical Foundations of Poetry:
- Bloom examines poetry through a blend of rhetoric and psychology, where tropes serve as a bridge between these disciplines.
- “The language of poetry… is overdetermined in its patternings and underdetermined in its meanings” (p. 497), emphasizing poetry’s layered complexity in both expression and understanding.
Presence and Absence in Poetry:
- A recurring theme is the dialectic of presence and absence, as poems often arise from the absence of something that needs to be depicted.
- “A poem begins because there is too strong a presence, which needs to be imaged as an absence” (p. 495), highlighting how poetry addresses what is missing by making it present in language.
Stevens’ “Domination of Black” as a Case Study:
- Wallace Stevens’ “Domination of Black” is used to illustrate the psychological and rhetorical mechanisms at work in poetry.
- Bloom notes how the poem creates a “reaction-formation,” where “Stevens is vulnerable to the black dominant of the hemlocks and that other cry of mortality, of the peacocks” (p. 497), linking the tropes of color and death.
Psychology of Tropes in Poetry:
- Bloom traces tropes to Freudian psychology, identifying how they serve as defense mechanisms.
- “It was left to Freud to discover how, in a scientific age, we still feel and think in figurative formations” (p. 496). This connects metaphors, synecdoche, and metonymy to psychological states.
The Role of Repetition in Stevens’ Work:
- Repetition plays a key role in Stevens’ poetry, with the idea of repeating oneself as a trope of survival.
- “The colors of the fallen leaves are repeating themselves” (p. 496). Stevens’ repeated use of repetition symbolizes the struggle with both life’s mutability and the permanence of death.
Romantic Imagery and the Role of Memory:
- Bloom explores the Romantic image through Wordsworth and Barfield, noting how memory serves to replace lost “participation” with nature.
- “Barfield’s high evaluation of Romanticism results from his conviction that the Romantic image was an idol-smashing weapon” (p. 499), reflecting the shift from experiencing nature directly to representing it through memory-images.
Crossing of Tropes and Psychological Defenses:
- Bloom introduces the concept of “crossing”, where a poet navigates figurative and psychological conflicts.
- “A crossing is a crucial point or turning point” (p. 519), which manifests as a trope moving between ethos (character) and pathos (passion) in a poet’s work.
The Crisis of Belatedness:
- One of the essay’s central insights is the crisis of belatedness in modern poetry, where poets must deal with the weight of tradition and their position in literary history.
- “Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness” (p. 499), indicating that modern poets, including Stevens, feel the burden of following in the footsteps of earlier, great poets.
Rhetoric as the Bridge Between Thought and Will:
- The essay proposes that rhetoric is not merely a system of tropes but a mechanism for translating will into verbal action.
- “A trope is one of two possibilities: either the will translating itself into a verbal act or figure of ethos, or else the will failing to translate itself” (p. 520), illustrating how rhetoric and psychology intertwine in poetic creation.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Trope	A figurative or metaphorical use of a word or expression; often involves substitution of one thing for another.	“Tropes are perverse; they are para-phusis, unnatural, deviant.” (p. 508)
Rhetoric	The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, often analyzed through figurative language and structure.	“Rhetoric is a text in that it allows for two incompatible, mutually self-destructive points of view and therefore puts an insurmountable obstacle in the way of any reading or understanding.” (p. 511)
Crossing	A point in a poem where rhetorical and psychological tensions meet, leading to a figurative or thematic shift.	“A crossing is a crucial point or turning point, going back to the Greek krisis, which derived from krinein, ‘to separate’ or ‘to decide.'” (p. 519)
Irony	A rhetorical device or situation where meaning is opposite to what is stated or expected.	“In poetry, a trope of action is always an irony, until it is further reduced to metonymy and metaphor.” (p. 520)
Metonymy	A figure of speech in which a thing is referred to by the name of something closely associated with it.	“This reduction as an obsessive undoing of that synecdoche.” (p. 497)
Synecdoche	A figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole, or vice versa.	“Stevens must give us a synecdoche for death in the domination of the black color of the heavy hemlocks.” (p. 497)
Metaphor	A figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unlike things.	“But the peacocks, like the leaves, are in the room only as colors or turnings…” (p. 497)
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.	“The peacocks, wonderfully caught up in the synaesthesia of ‘the loud fire.'” (p. 497)
Romantic Imagery	Visual or sensory descriptions in Romantic poetry aimed at expressing emotional experience or the sublime.	“Barfield’s high evaluation of Romanticism results from his conviction that the Romantic image was an idol-smashing weapon meant to return men to their original participation in the phenomena.” (p. 499)
Pathos	A quality in writing that evokes pity, sadness, or compassion.	“Pathos or recognition becomes a defect of response, or the survival of a will-to-representation after representation has been attained.” (p. 505)
Ethos	The character or spirit of a culture, era, or community as manifested in its beliefs and aspirations.	“Ethos has become limitation, a contraction or withdrawal of meaning, that opens the way for a re-thinking that is necessarily a re-meaning.” (p. 504)
Logos	A principle of order and knowledge; often associated with logic and reason.	“Rhetoric, conceived as a text or system of tropes, is an ethos, while rhetoric-as-persuasion falls under pathos, with an aporia between them as a logos.” (p. 503)
Reaction-Formation	A Freudian defense mechanism where one expresses the opposite of their repressed desires.	“Stevens had begun his poem with what the Freudians… call a ‘reaction-formation,’ a defensive movement of the spirit.” (p. 497)
Belatedness	A sense of coming after or being influenced by predecessors, common in modern poetry.	“The length of the oncoming night’s steps renders the blackness more vividly, because the tropic ‘striding’ itself undoes an earlier trope.” (p. 499)
Sublimation	A Freudian concept where socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable actions or art.	“Sublimation and introjection… between substituting some labor for one’s own prohibited instincts.” (p. 522)
Nachträglichkeit (“Aftering”)	A Freudian term for delayed emotional processing or deferred action.	“This is very akin… to the delayed signification that Freud calls Nachträglichkeit or ‘aftering.'” (p. 504)
Gnosis	Knowledge of spiritual mysteries, often associated with esoteric traditions like Kabbalah.	“A vision that is Gnostic and Kabbalistic, in its ultimate origins.” (p. 520)
Deconstruction	A critical approach that seeks to uncover the multiple meanings and contradictions within a text.	“Deconstruction… is to indicate the precise location of its figuration of doubt, its uncertain notice of that limit where persuasion yields to a dance or interplay of tropes.” (p. 506)
Aporia	A rhetorical or philosophical puzzle or state of doubt, often signaling an impasse in understanding.	“De Man’s achievement is to have defined, following Nietzsche, the aporia or figuration of doubt that the principle of rhetorical substitution always constitutes, in any poetic text.” (p. 511)

Contribution of “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

Contribution: Bloom expands on Freudian psychoanalysis, particularly the role of defense mechanisms like reaction-formation, sublimation, and introjection in poetry. He links these psychological defenses with rhetorical figures (tropes) in poetry, suggesting that poets use language as a form of psychic defense.
Reference: “Stevens had begun his poem with what the Freudians… call a ‘reaction-formation,’ a defensive movement of the spirit that is opposed to a repressed desire” (p. 497).
Significance: By treating tropes as psychological defenses, Bloom contributes to the understanding of how unconscious desires shape poetic language and imagery. This creates a link between Freudian defense mechanisms and poetic form, positioning poetry as a sublimation of repressed desires.

2. Romanticism and Post-Romanticism

Contribution: Bloom investigates Romantic imagery and its role in poetic representation, particularly through Wordsworth and Stevens. He argues that Romantic poets transformed the representation of nature from direct experience to the internal workings of the mind, reflecting a deeper engagement with consciousness and self-reflection.
Reference: “Barfield’s high evaluation of Romanticism results from his conviction that the Romantic image was an idol-smashing weapon meant to return men to their original participation in the phenomena” (p. 499).
Significance: This exploration of Romantic imagery contributes to the understanding of how nature in Romantic poetry is not simply a reflection of the world but an internalized, psychological reality. Bloom highlights the evolution of the Romantic image from physical to metaphysical, deepening the study of Romanticism in literary theory.

3. Deconstruction and Poststructuralism

Contribution: Bloom incorporates deconstructive methods by focusing on the aporia (gaps and contradictions) within poetry, where the tension between rhetoric-as-tropes and rhetoric-as-persuasion creates multiple, contradictory meanings. He links this to Paul de Man’s deconstruction of Nietzsche’s theory of rhetoric, which reveals the instability and self-undermining nature of language.
Reference: “Rhetoric is a text in that it allows for two incompatible, mutually self-destructive points of view and therefore puts an insurmountable obstacle in the way of any reading or understanding” (p. 511).
Significance: Bloom’s focus on the figurations of doubt and the impossibility of final meaning aligns with deconstruction, contributing to poststructuralist theories that question the stability of language and meaning. This challenges traditional approaches to textual analysis by emphasizing the fluidity of interpretation and meaning in poetic texts.

4. Rhetorical Theory

Contribution: Bloom emphasizes the centrality of rhetoric in poetry, suggesting that poetry is not only a system of tropes but also a psychological act of persuasion. He aligns rhetoric with the will to create meaning, proposing that tropes are not just figures of language but figures of will.
Reference: “What is a trope? It is one of two possibilities only — either the will translating itself into a verbal act or figure of ethos, or else the will failing to translate itself” (p. 520).
Significance: This interpretation expands rhetorical theory by linking it directly to psychological processes and the will. Bloom’s theory moves beyond seeing rhetoric as a tool for persuasion and instead views it as an expression of the self’s desires and conflicts, integrating rhetoric more deeply with psychological and existential concerns.

5. The Theory of Belatedness

Contribution: Bloom’s theory of belatedness (influence and anxiety) suggests that modern poets are burdened by the achievements of their predecessors, and their work involves overcoming this anxiety through figurative language. He connects this belatedness with the use of synecdoche, metalepsis, and irony in modern poetry.
Reference: “Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness. The length of the oncoming night’s steps renders the blackness more vividly” (p. 499).
Significance: The theory of belatedness expands on Bloom’s earlier work on the anxiety of influence, offering insights into how poets respond to the pressure of tradition. This idea resonates with intertextuality in literary theory, showing how texts engage in a dialogue with past works.

6. Interplay Between Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Contribution: Bloom reinterprets Aristotle’s classical triad of ethos, pathos, and logos by framing them in a poetic and psychological context. He argues that ethos represents limitation and action, pathos represents desire and emotional response, and logos is the dynamic interplay between the two.
Reference: “Rhetoric, conceived as a text or system of tropes, is an ethos, while rhetoric-as-persuasion falls under pathos, with an aporia between them as a logos” (p. 503).
Significance: This reinterpretation offers a new lens for understanding rhetorical strategies in poetry, as Bloom ties these classical rhetorical categories to psychological and emotional conflicts. His integration of ethos, pathos, and logos with poetic form deepens the relationship between rhetoric and poetic creation.

7. Kabbalistic and Gnostic Approaches to Rhetoric

Contribution: Bloom introduces Kabbalistic and Gnostic perspectives into rhetorical theory, suggesting that all language is imbued with semantic tension. He frames rhetoric as a spiritual endeavor, where tropes represent the struggle between will and language.
Reference: “Kabbalistic rhetorical theory… leads one to consider texts not as linguistic structures but as instances of the will to utter within a tradition of uttering” (p. 520).
Significance: By incorporating Kabbalistic and Gnostic frameworks, Bloom introduces a mystical dimension to literary theory, where language becomes a vehicle for spiritual conflict and transcendence. This contributes to a metaphysical understanding of rhetoric and poetry, challenging purely linguistic or structuralist views.

8. Romantic Dialectic (Ethos and Pathos)

Contribution: Bloom suggests that Wordsworth’s dialectic is driven by a tension between ethos (character, place) and pathos (emotion, passion), reflected in the relationship between the spirit of place and the voice of the dead in his poetry.
Reference: “We can analyze Wordsworth’s originality as a poet more fully than has been done, if we continue and expand the study of the interplay of ethos and pathos in his poetry” (p. 502).
Significance: This contribution highlights the interplay of ethos and pathos as central to Romantic poetry, providing a new framework for understanding how emotion and spatial imagery converge in the Romantic tradition. It offers a nuanced reading of Romantic dialectics, particularly regarding memory and place.

Examples of Critiques Through “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Author	Critique Through Bloom’s “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric and Psychology”	Concepts/References from Bloom
“The Waste Land”	T.S. Eliot	Belatedness: Eliot’s poem reflects a crisis of belatedness, where modern poets struggle under the burden of literary tradition. The fragmented structure reveals Eliot’s anxiety about following in the footsteps of his precursors, particularly the Romantics.	“Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness” (p. 499), showing how modern poets acknowledge their lateness in the literary tradition, using tropes of fragmentation and irony to overcome their inheritance.
“Ode to a Nightingale”	John Keats	Crossing of Solipsism: Keats’ use of metonymy (nightingale as a symbol of escape) and hyperbole (idealized escape to immortality) reflects the poet’s inner conflict between wanting to transcend life and the impossibility of escaping mortality.	“The second crossing… struggles with the death of love… between metonymy and hyperbole” (p. 522). Bloom’s concept of crossings can be used to critique how Keats navigates between metonymy and hyperbole in his desire for escape from reality.
“Song of Myself”	Walt Whitman	Sublimation and Representation: Whitman’s expansive cataloging and sensory imagery reflect a sublimation of desires into language, transforming the individual into a universal figure. Whitman uses rhetorical excess to transcend individual experience.	“Sublimation and introjection… between substituting some labor for one’s own prohibited instincts” (p. 522). Whitman’s use of expansive tropes embodies sublimation, as he channels personal desires into a broader collective representation.
“To His Coy Mistress”	Andrew Marvell	Crossing of Identification: Marvell’s poem navigates between metaphor (the lover’s plea) and metalepsis (time’s constraints), reflecting a psychological conflict with mortality and unfulfilled desire. The poem’s urgency comes from the death drive.	“The dilemma here is the confrontation with mortality, with total death… the prohibited instinct is the drive towards death” (p. 522). Marvell’s metaphysical wit can be seen as navigating the tension between desire and the awareness of death’s limits.

Analysis of Critique Through Bloom’s Framework

T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land”:
- Concept Applied: Eliot’s fragmented style is interpreted through Bloom’s theory of belatedness. The poem reflects an anxiety about coming after the Romantics and the fragmentation symbolizes an inability to fully overcome that influence.
- Concept from Bloom: Bloom’s idea that modern poets feel a “defeat of belatedness” (p. 499) applies well to Eliot’s sense of fragmentation and disjunction, reflecting a crisis of inheritance from the literary past.
John Keats’ “Ode to a Nightingale”:
- Concept Applied: Keats’ desire to transcend reality through the nightingale is analyzed via the crossing of solipsism. The oscillation between metonymy and hyperbole reveals his internal struggle between staying grounded and escaping into immortality.
- Concept from Bloom: Keats’ poem represents Bloom’s second crossing, where the poet’s metonymy (symbolic language) meets his hyperbole (desire to transcend) in a confrontation with solipsism (p. 522).
Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself”:
- Concept Applied: Whitman’s use of extensive imagery and cataloging is understood as an act of sublimation. He sublimates his individual desires into a broader, collective voice, thus merging the personal and universal.
- Concept from Bloom: Bloom’s idea of sublimation and representation (p. 522) captures Whitman’s transcendence of the personal self through the expansive language of “Song of Myself”, which is an act of self-transformation via poetry.
Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress”:
- Concept Applied: Marvell’s manipulation of time, with its focus on impending death and the fleeting nature of life, is linked to Bloom’s crossing of identification, where the poet confronts mortality through metaphor and metalepsis.
- Concept from Bloom: Marvell’s urgent tone and focus on time reflect Bloom’s identification crossing, where the prohibited instinct of death drives the poem’s emotional intensity (p. 522). The tension between desire and mortality becomes a rhetorical trope.

Criticism Against “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

Over-Reliance on Psychoanalysis:
- Bloom heavily relies on Freudian concepts like reaction-formation, sublimation, and introjection to explain poetic tropes, which can be seen as an overextension of psychoanalytic theory into literary analysis. Critics might argue that this limits his approach by forcing poetry into a psychological framework that not all poems may adhere to.
Obscurity and Complexity:
- The essay is often criticized for being overly complex and difficult to follow, with dense and intricate language. Bloom’s reliance on esoteric concepts from Gnosticism, Kabbalah, and psychoanalysis may alienate readers unfamiliar with these intellectual traditions. This complexity can make his arguments less accessible to broader audiences.
Lack of Historical and Cultural Context:
- While Bloom’s focus on rhetoric and psychology is insightful, critics may argue that he neglects the broader historical, social, and cultural contexts of the poems he analyzes. His approach sometimes overlooks the external factors influencing poets, such as political or social realities, in favor of an individualistic, internalized reading of poetic language.
Reduction of Poetic Language to Tropes:
- By framing poetic language almost exclusively in terms of tropes and psychological defenses, Bloom risks reducing the richness of poetry to a technical, mechanical process. Some critics argue that his model diminishes the emotional and aesthetic impact of poetry by focusing too much on structural and figurative analysis.
Narrow Focus on the Western Canon:
- Bloom’s framework is built around canonical Western poets, particularly the Romantics and modernists. Critics might argue that his theory is Eurocentric and doesn’t adequately account for non-Western literary traditions or marginalized voices. His focus on a limited literary tradition limits the application of his theory to global or diverse poetic forms.
Neglect of Feminist or Postcolonial Perspectives:
- Bloom’s work largely ignores feminist and postcolonial approaches to literature, which critique the power dynamics and patriarchal structures present in many canonical texts. Critics may argue that Bloom’s framework doesn’t engage with how gender, race, and colonialism shape poetic expression and interpretation.
Ambiguity in Defining Key Concepts:
- Some key concepts in Bloom’s essay, such as crossings and belatedness, are vaguely defined and left open to interpretation. This ambiguity can weaken the clarity of his arguments and leave readers unsure of how to apply his theoretical models to specific poems.
Overemphasis on Intertextuality and Influence:
- Critics might argue that Bloom’s theory, particularly his emphasis on belatedness and the anxiety of influence, places too much importance on how poets relate to their predecessors. This focus on intertextuality risks downplaying the originality and individual creativity of poets, implying that all poetry is merely a response to previous works.

Representative Quotations from “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A poem begins because there is too strong a presence, which needs to be imaged as an absence.” (p. 495)	Bloom suggests that poetry arises from a tension between presence and absence—a key psychological and rhetorical concept. A poem comes into existence to give form to what is absent or what is too present, reflecting the psychological struggle at the heart of poetic creation.
“Stevens is vulnerable to the black dominant of the hemlocks and that other cry of mortality, of the peacocks.” (p. 497)	This quote captures Wallace Stevens’ use of imagery to reflect the poet’s encounter with death and mortality. The “cry of mortality” symbolizes Stevens’ struggle with life’s transience, where rhetoric and psychological defense mechanisms (like reaction-formation) come into play.
“Ethos has become limitation, a contraction or withdrawal of meaning, that opens the way for a re-thinking that is necessarily a re-meaning.” (p. 504)	Bloom argues that ethos (character or spirit) in poetry signals a limitation of meaning, but this limitation allows for a reinterpretation, creating space for new meanings. This reflects his view that rhetoric works as a dynamic process of meaning and revision in poetry.
“Rhetoric is a text in that it allows for two incompatible, mutually self-destructive points of view.” (p. 511)	Bloom highlights the inherent contradictions within rhetorical structures, influenced by deconstruction. In poetry, tropes often contain opposing meanings, leading to tensions that prevent a stable, singular interpretation, contributing to the poem’s richness and complexity.
“Deconstruction… is to indicate the precise location of its figuration of doubt, its uncertain notice of that limit where persuasion yields to a dance of tropes.” (p. 506)	This quote aligns deconstruction with poetic interpretation. Bloom explains that deconstruction reveals the limits of persuasion within a poem, leading to a space where tropes take over, reflecting the uncertainties and ambiguities that form the heart of poetic language.
“A crossing is a crucial point or turning point, going back to the Greek krisis, which derived from krinein, ‘to separate’ or ‘to decide’.” (p. 519)	Bloom introduces the concept of crossing, a critical moment in poetry where rhetorical and psychological conflicts intersect. It marks a turning point that shapes the poem’s meaning, echoing the idea that poetry is a space of decision and transformation.
“A trope is one of two possibilities: either the will translating itself into a verbal act or figure of ethos, or else the will failing to translate itself.” (p. 520)	Bloom views tropes as acts of will, either successfully expressing a poet’s intent or failing to do so. This quote emphasizes his belief that poetic language is driven by the will to meaning, where tropes function as the medium through which the poet navigates personal conflicts.
“Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness.” (p. 499)	Belatedness refers to a poet’s anxiety of being overshadowed by predecessors. Bloom suggests that Stevens accepts this defeat as part of the modern poetic condition, highlighting how poets must grapple with the weight of literary tradition and find new ways to create meaning.
“The aporia between system-of-tropes and persuasion as the logos, a valorization that audaciously redefines poetic thinking.” (p. 511)	Bloom addresses the aporia (or gap) between rhetorical tropes and persuasion, a central tension in poetry. He argues that this unresolved conflict defines poetic thinking, where meaning emerges through the interplay of logical structures and emotional persuasion.
“Pathos or recognition becomes a defect of response, or the survival of a will-to-representation after representation has been attained.” (p. 505)	Bloom describes pathos as an emotional excess or defective response that follows after the poet has achieved representation through language. This quote highlights the difficulty in fully capturing emotional depth, as language often falls short of communicating desire or feeling.

“Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

“Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom first appeared in PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association) in December 1958 (Vol. 73, No. 5, Part 1, pp. 501-504).

Introduction: “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

“Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom first appeared in PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association) in December 1958 (Vol. 73, No. 5, Part 1, pp. 501-504). This article, published by the Modern Language Association, is a critical examination of William Blake’s The Marriage of Heaven and Hell and its dialectical structure. Bloom delves into Blake’s unique interplay of contraries, emphasizing the work’s intricate blend of theological and ethical oppositions, along with its satirical and prophetic tones. Bloom highlights how Blake’s rhetoric overtakes dialectic, asserting that true comprehension of the work demands engagement with the unresolved tension between opposing ideas. This piece is significant in literary theory as it contributes to the ongoing discussion of apocalyptic literature, irony, and the role of contraries in human existence. Bloom’s analysis also serves as a crucial touchstone in the interpretation of Blake’s poetic vision, influencing subsequent readings of Blake’s works, including their dialectical complexities in the context of Romanticism and modern literary criticism.

Summary of “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

1. The Central Conflict of Contraries

Bloom argues that Blake’s The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is built upon the tension between opposing forces, what Blake termed “contraries,” rather than “negations.”
- Quotation: “The Marriage compounds ethical and theological ‘contraries’; in form it mocks the categorical techniques that seek to make the contraries appear as ‘negations.'”

2. Dialectic as a Form of Prophetic Irony

The work is described as a dialectical apocalypse that blends prophecy and satire, challenging established institutions while reflecting on the abyss between aspiration and reality.
- Quotation: “The great difficulty of dialectical apocalypse is that it has got to present itself as prophetic irony, in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”

3. The Role of Rhetoric in Blake’s Dialectic

Bloom highlights how Blake’s rhetoric subsumes the dialectic, making it difficult to determine when Blake speaks plainly and when he engages in irony.
- Quotation: “In Blake, rhetoric subsumes dialectic, and usurps its place of privilege.”

4. Visionary Satire and Northrop Frye’s ‘Anatomy’

Bloom connects Blake’s work to Northrop Frye’s concept of “anatomy,” a literary genre that mixes satire with vision, allowing the juxtaposition of serious philosophical content with mockery.
- Quotation: “The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is a miniature ‘anatomy,’ in Northrop Frye’s recently formulated sense of the term.”

5. Blake’s Critique of Christian Dualism

Blake’s work critiques traditional Christian dualism, rejecting the division of good and evil and emphasizing the necessary coexistence of contraries.
- Quotation: “Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”

6. The Role of the Prolific and the Devouring

Bloom highlights Blake’s distinction between two forces: the Prolific, which creates, and the Devouring, which restrains and limits. These forces are vital to human existence and cannot be reconciled without destroying existence itself.
- Quotation: “Thus one portion of being is the Prolific, the other the Devouring… The Prolific would cease to be Prolific unless the Devourer, as a sea, received the excess of his delights.”

7. Blake’s Non-Theism and the Rejection of Transcendence

Blake’s nontheism is underscored, as Bloom notes that God exists only in human beings and not as an abstract, transcendent being. Blake embraces a reality grounded in human experience rather than metaphysics.
- Quotation: “If God only acts and is in Men, then God has become an unnecessary hypothesis, having no abstract being beyond our powers of visualization and confrontation.”

8. Irony and the Subversion of Christian Thought

The “Proverbs of Hell” are cited as Blake’s subversion of conventional Christian wisdom through irony, presenting radical antinomianism (rejection of moral law) and glorifying energy and action.
- Quotation: “The Proverbs of Hell… where dialectic and rhetoric come together combatively in what could be judged the most brilliant aphorisms written in English.”

9. Energy, Desire, and the Boundaries of Existence

Energy and desire are central to Blake’s worldview, with Bloom noting that for Blake, energy is “Eternal Delight,” and to stifle desire or action is a form of vice.
- Quotation: “Energy is Eternal Delight… Desire which does not lead to action is also ‘accident,’ vice, and is self-destructive.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Bloom’s Analysis	Quotation/Reference
Dialectic	A method of argument that involves a dialogue between opposing forces or ideas to reveal the truth.	Bloom emphasizes how Blake’s work is inherently dialectical, showcasing the tension between opposing forces (contraries).	“The Marriage compounds ethical and theological ‘contraries’; in form it mocks the categorical techniques that seek to make the contraries appear as ‘negations.'”
Contraries	Opposing forces or concepts that coexist without negating each other.	Central to Blake’s philosophy, contraries such as good and evil are necessary for human existence and progression.	“Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”
Irony	A rhetorical device where the intended meaning is opposite of the literal meaning.	Blake uses prophetic irony in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell to challenge institutionalized systems of thought.	“The great difficulty of dialectical apocalypse is that it has got to present itself as prophetic irony, in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”
Apocalypse	A literary genre involving the revelation of hidden truths, often associated with the end of the world.	Blake’s work is described as a dialectical apocalypse that combines visionary and satirical elements.	“Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats… in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”
Rhetoric	The art of persuasive speaking or writing.	In Blake’s work, rhetoric often overtakes dialectic, making it difficult to determine when Blake speaks ironically.	“In Blake, rhetoric subsumes dialectic, and usurps its place of privilege.”
Antinomianism	A belief that rejects established moral laws, particularly in the context of religion.	The “Proverbs of Hell” embody Blake’s antinomian stance, rejecting Christian dualism and embracing rebellious energy.	“The Proverbs of Hell… where dialectic and rhetoric come together combatively in what could be judged the most brilliant aphorisms written in English.”
Satire	A genre of literature that uses humor, irony, or ridicule to criticize societal flaws or institutions.	Blake’s work contains satirical elements, especially in its critique of religious and philosophical institutions.	“The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is a miniature ‘anatomy,’ in Northrop Frye’s recently formulated sense of the term, and reserves to itself the anatomy’s peculiar right to mingle satire with vision.”
Prophetic Poetry	A form of visionary poetry that conveys predictions or warnings about the future.	Blake’s poem is considered prophetic, warning against the limitations of institutionalized religion and thought.	“The poem is a prelude, establishing the tone of prophetic fury which is to run beneath the Marriage; the indignation of Rintrah presages the turning over of a cycle.”
Dualism	The division of something into two opposing aspects.	Blake critiques traditional Christian dualism by presenting contraries as necessary and complementary forces.	“This is a dialectic without transcendence, in which heaven and hell are to be married but without becoming altogether one flesh or one family.”
Anatomy (Literary Genre)	A work that mixes philosophical ideas with satire, often presenting a broad survey of human knowledge.	Bloom associates The Marriage of Heaven and Hell with this genre, citing Northrop Frye’s use of the term “anatomy.”	“The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is a miniature ‘anatomy,’ in Northrop Frye’s recently formulated sense of the term, and reserves to itself the anatomy’s peculiar right to mingle satire with vision.”
Phenomenology	A philosophical approach that emphasizes the study of consciousness and human experience.	Bloom connects Blake’s vision to phenomenology, noting that Blake explores human existence and sensory experience.	“Blake gives a definitive statement of the phenomenology of existence, the ceaseless dialectic of daily appearance.”

Contribution of “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Contribution to Dialectical Criticism

Explanation: Bloom’s analysis of Blake’s work adds depth to the theory of dialectics in literature by emphasizing the coexistence and tension of contraries rather than their reconciliation. His interpretation broadens the understanding of dialectical relationships in literary texts, especially in their treatment of philosophical and theological themes.
- Quotation: “The Marriage compounds ethical and theological ‘contraries’; in form it mocks the categorical techniques that seek to make the contraries appear as ‘negations.’”
- Contribution: Bloom shows that The Marriage of Heaven and Hell uses dialectic to express complex philosophical ideas without necessarily resolving them into a final synthesis. This challenges the more traditional view of dialectics as a system that aims for resolution, adding nuance to the critical theory by stressing the value of unresolved tension.

2. Contribution to Deconstruction

Explanation: By highlighting Blake’s use of irony and the difficulty of determining when he speaks “straight,” Bloom anticipates the concerns of deconstructionist theory. This theory emphasizes the instability of meaning and the interplay of opposites within a text, a concept that Bloom aligns with Blake’s complex treatment of contraries.
- Quotation: “The specific difficulty in reading The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is to mark the limits of its irony: where does Blake speak straight?”
- Contribution: Bloom’s analysis supports a deconstructive reading of Blake’s work, where meaning is never fixed but constantly in flux due to the play between opposing concepts like good and evil, energy and reason. This contributes to literary theories that focus on the fluidity and indeterminacy of textual meaning.

3. Contribution to Romantic Criticism

Explanation: Bloom’s reading situates The Marriage of Heaven and Hell within the broader tradition of Romantic literature, which values imagination, visionary experience, and the critique of institutionalized religion and reason. He connects Blake’s work to other Romantic texts, such as Shelley’s Prometheus and Yeats’ A Vision, showing how these works share a dialectical approach to apocalypse and prophetic vision.
- Quotation: “Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats written out of A Vision.”
- Contribution: By framing Blake’s work as a dialectical apocalypse, Bloom deepens the understanding of Romantic literature’s philosophical engagement with societal and theological questions. His analysis underscores the role of visionary imagination in Romantic criticism and its reliance on unresolved tension between contraries.

4. Contribution to Phenomenology in Literature

Explanation: Bloom discusses how Blake’s work can be seen through a phenomenological lens, which focuses on human experience and consciousness as opposed to metaphysical transcendence. Blake’s rejection of abstract concepts in favor of the “hard given of this world” aligns with phenomenological approaches that prioritize lived experience over speculative philosophy.
- Quotation: “Blake gives a definitive statement of the phenomenology of existence, the ceaseless dialectic of daily appearance.”
- Contribution: Bloom’s analysis situates The Marriage of Heaven and Hell within phenomenological theory by emphasizing the importance of human experience and sensory perception. His reading contributes to theories that focus on the concrete and experiential aspects of existence, as opposed to abstract, metaphysical ideals.

5. Contribution to Satirical Criticism

Explanation: Bloom links Blake’s work to the genre of satire, particularly through his discussion of the “Memorable Fancies” and the “Proverbs of Hell.” He connects Blake’s satire to the tradition of using humor and irony to critique societal and religious norms, situating The Marriage of Heaven and Hell within the framework of satirical literature.
- Quotation: “The ‘Memorable Fancies,’ brilliant exercises in satire and humanism, form the bulk of the Marriage, and tend to evade Blake’s own dialectic.”
- Contribution: Bloom’s emphasis on the satirical elements of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell contributes to the understanding of how satire functions within literary texts. His analysis reveals how satire and irony work in tandem with dialectic to challenge and critique established ideas, enriching the critical conversation around satire as a form of social and philosophical commentary.

6. Contribution to Antinomianism and Religious Criticism

Explanation: Bloom identifies Blake’s antinomian stance (the rejection of moral laws, especially religious ones) as central to The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. By rejecting traditional Christian dualism and embracing energy and desire, Blake contributes to literary theories that critique religious orthodoxy.
- Quotation: “Blake does not build truth by dialectic, being neither a rational mystic like Plato nor a mystic rationalist like Hegel.”
- Contribution: Bloom’s focus on Blake’s antinomianism highlights his radical rejection of institutional religion and its moral constraints. This contributes to literary theories that explore the relationship between literature and religion, particularly those that question established religious doctrines and advocate for individual freedom.

7. Contribution to Reader-Response Theory

Explanation: Bloom’s analysis suggests that Blake’s work demands an active, interpretive engagement from readers, who must navigate the irony, rhetoric, and dialectical oppositions to uncover meaning. This aligns with reader-response theory, which emphasizes the role of the reader in constructing meaning from a text.
- Quotation: “The unity of the Marriage is in itself dialectical, and cannot be grasped except by the mind in motion, moving between the Blakean contraries of discursive irony and mythical visualization.”
- Contribution: By emphasizing the reader’s active role in making sense of Blake’s complex dialectical structure, Bloom’s analysis aligns with reader-response theory. This suggests that the text does not have a single, fixed meaning but instead requires readers to participate in the creation of meaning through their engagement with its contradictions.

Examples of Critiques Through “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Critique Through Bloom’s Framework	Key Concept from Bloom’s Analysis	Quotation from Bloom’s Article
John Milton’s Paradise Lost	Bloom suggests Blake read Paradise Lost “in its infernal or poetic sense,” seeing Satan as a tragic hero, subverting traditional readings of Satan as purely evil.	Blake’s dialectic challenges Christian dualism, viewing “evil” as necessary for progression.	“When, in another turn of the critical wheel, we go back to reading Paradise Lost in its infernal or poetic sense… we will have to condemn a generation of critical dogmatists.”
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound	Similar to Blake’s apocalyptic vision, Shelley’s work reflects a dialectical apocalypse that critiques societal and religious structures.	Bloom connects Blake’s work to other apocalyptic Romantic works, showing how they embody dialectical tensions.	“Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats written out of A Vision.”
William Butler Yeats’ A Vision	Bloom critiques Yeats’ complex visionary system, seeing it as an extension of Blake’s dialectical method, but with more systematic elements.	Bloom suggests that Blake’s epics and visionary works, while dialectical, defy systems imposed by critics such as Frye.	“The schemata of those epics, though dialectical, are yet systematic; the local life in them maddeningly (but gratefully) defies the system.”
D.H. Lawrence’s Women in Love	Bloom contrasts Lawrence’s vision of sexual energy and human conflict with Blake’s dialectic, noting that Blake doesn’t fully accept the cyclical recurrence that Lawrence embraces.	Blake’s rejection of purely cyclical views of human existence, emphasizing instead the potential for progression through contraries.	“Blake is as earnest as Lawrence, and will not tolerate the vision of recurrence, as Nietzsche and Yeats do.”
Friedrich Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra	Nietzsche’s concept of eternal recurrence is rejected by Blake’s dialectic. While both embrace contraries, Blake denies that these cycles are eternal or static.	Bloom shows how Blake’s dialectic offers a more fluid progression, rejecting Nietzschean recurrence as restrictive.	“The altogether human escapes cycle, evades irony, cannot be categorized discursively.”
John Keats’ Ode to a Nightingale	Through Bloom’s lens, Keats’ dialectic between life and death in the poem reflects Blake’s emphasis on the necessity of contraries for human experience.	The tension between opposites, such as joy and sorrow or life and death, mirrors Blake’s idea that contraries drive human existence.	“Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”
James Joyce’s Ulysses	Bloom’s critique can be extended to Joyce’s stream-of-consciousness technique, which embodies a dialectical interplay between chaos and order in human experience.	Blake’s rejection of rigid forms and reliance on the interplay of contraries can be seen in Joyce’s modernist narrative technique.	“Blake does not build truth by dialectic, being neither a rational mystic like Plato nor a mystic rationalist like Hegel.”
Franz Kafka’s The Trial	Bloom’s framework can be applied to Kafka’s vision of the absurd, where the dialectic between justice and injustice is never resolved, reflecting the tensions in Blake’s work.	Kafka’s existential view of authority and law echoes Blake’s critique of institutional systems, showing how both writers leave tensions unresolved.	“The Marriage preaches the risen body breaking bounds, exploding upwards into psychic abundance… the altogether human escapes cycle.”
T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land	The fragmented structure and tension between hope and despair in The Waste Land can be critiqued using Blake’s dialectic of contraries.	Eliot’s juxtaposition of spiritual desolation and potential rebirth mirrors the dialectical tensions in Blake’s vision of apocalypse.	“Blake seeks reality in appearances, though he rejects appearance as it is perceived by the lowest-common-denominator kind of observer.”

Summary of Key Concepts:

Contraries vs. Negations: Blake’s contraries, unlike negations, coexist and are necessary for human experience and progression.
Dialectical Apocalypse: Literary works that challenge institutional structures and present visionary or apocalyptic tensions can be critiqued using Blake’s dialectical approach.
Irony and Rhetoric: Bloom’s focus on the limits of irony in Blake’s work allows for critiques of modernist and postmodernist texts that emphasize indeterminacy and unresolved tensions.
Satirical Critique of Institutions: Blake’s work critiques religious and societal norms through satire, offering a framework for analyzing works that critique authority.

Criticism Against “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

1. Overemphasis on Blake’s Dialectic at the Expense of Other Themes

Bloom focuses heavily on the dialectical structure of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, which may lead to an underappreciation of other thematic elements such as Blake’s mysticism, spiritual vision, and social critiques.
- Criticism: Bloom’s analysis may marginalize aspects of Blake’s work that extend beyond dialectical oppositions, such as his personal religious vision and critique of political tyranny.

2. Neglect of Historical and Cultural Context

Bloom’s interpretation is primarily concerned with Blake’s philosophical and poetic frameworks, but it lacks sufficient engagement with the historical and political context in which Blake was writing (e.g., the French Revolution, Enlightenment thought).
- Criticism: By focusing on abstract dialectical analysis, Bloom may neglect the specific historical and political circumstances that influenced Blake’s work.

3. Ambiguity in Defining Dialectic and Contraries

While Bloom discusses the role of contraries in Blake’s work, he doesn’t always clarify the distinction between dialectic as a formal method of argument and Blake’s more poetic, fluid use of contraries.
- Criticism: The ambiguity in Bloom’s explanation of Blake’s dialectic might leave readers unclear on how Blake’s contraries function differently from traditional philosophical dialectics (e.g., Hegelian dialectic).

4. Overreliance on Northrop Frye’s Anatomy Framework

Bloom uses Northrop Frye’s concept of “anatomy” to interpret The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, but some critics might argue that this framework is imposed rather than inherent to Blake’s text.
- Criticism: Bloom’s reliance on Frye’s anatomy might limit alternative interpretations of Blake’s work that do not fit neatly into Frye’s categories.

5. Neglect of Blake’s Visual Art

Bloom’s critique of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell primarily focuses on the textual and poetic elements, overlooking Blake’s visual art, which is inseparable from his poetic work.
- Criticism: Ignoring the visual aspect of Blake’s illuminated works diminishes the full scope of his artistic intentions, which combine both image and text to convey meaning.

6. Insufficient Exploration of Blake’s Religious Mysticism

Blake’s unique mystical and religious views are central to his work, but Bloom’s focus on dialectic might downplay the more mystical, transcendental elements that are critical to understanding Blake’s vision.
- Criticism: Bloom does not sufficiently explore how Blake’s religious mysticism influences the dialectic, leaving out vital spiritual dimensions that are key to Blake’s philosophy.

7. Reduction of Blake’s Complexity to a Single Theoretical Lens

By focusing so intently on the concept of contraries and dialectical tensions, Bloom may reduce the complexity of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell to a single theoretical lens, limiting a more holistic interpretation.
- Criticism: Bloom’s focus on dialectic may oversimplify the broader metaphysical, social, and poetic complexities of Blake’s work.

8. Lack of Engagement with Later Critical Developments

Since the essay was published in 1958, it does not engage with later critical developments such as poststructuralism, gender theory, or postcolonial theory, which could offer new insights into Blake’s work.
- Criticism: Bloom’s analysis may feel dated or limited by its lack of engagement with more contemporary critical frameworks that could enrich the interpretation of Blake’s texts.

Representative Quotations from “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”	This quotation encapsulates Blake’s core philosophy, emphasizing the necessity of contraries (opposing forces) for growth and human experience. Bloom uses this as the foundation for his analysis of Blake’s dialectical worldview.
2. “The Marriage compounds ethical and theological ‘contraries’; in form it mocks the categorical techniques that seek to make the contraries appear as ‘negations.’”	Here, Bloom explains how The Marriage of Heaven and Hell contrasts opposites like good and evil, but does not resolve them into a single truth. Instead, Blake mocks the tendency to simplify these contraries into mere negations.
3. “The unity of the Marriage is in itself dialectical, and cannot be grasped except by the mind in motion, moving between the Blakean contraries of discursive irony and mythical visualization.”	Bloom highlights the difficulty of interpreting Blake’s work, arguing that readers must engage with its dialectical complexity, constantly shifting between different perspectives. The “mind in motion” reflects the active nature of understanding.
4. “Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats written out of A Vision.”	This quotation links Blake’s apocalyptic vision with other Romantic and visionary writers, suggesting that Blake’s portrayal of apocalyptic transformation is deeply dialectical, like those in works by Shelley and Yeats.
5. “The great difficulty of dialectical apocalypse is that it has got to present itself as prophetic irony, in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”	Bloom emphasizes that Blake’s apocalyptic vision includes irony, wherein societal aspirations and institutions are both critiqued and anticipated. This highlights the duality of Blake’s vision, which foresees change while mocking institutions.
6. “Blake seeks reality in appearances, though he rejects appearance as it is perceived by the lowest-common-denominator kind of observer.”	This quotation shows Blake’s rejection of simplistic views of reality. According to Bloom, Blake values appearances, but only when they are interpreted through imaginative and intellectual lenses rather than through surface-level perception.
7. “Blake does not build truth by dialectic, being neither a rational mystic like Plato nor a mystic rationalist like Hegel.”	Bloom distances Blake from traditional dialectical thinkers like Plato and Hegel, arguing that Blake’s approach is neither purely mystical nor purely rational. Blake’s vision resists easy categorization and creates a unique approach to dialectic.
8. “The ‘Memorable Fancies,’ brilliant exercises in satire and humanism, form the bulk of the Marriage, and tend to evade Blake’s own dialectic.”	Bloom points out that Blake’s satirical passages, known as the “Memorable Fancies,” often escape the dialectical structure of the work. These passages playfully critique established systems, while not being bound by Blake’s own philosophical approach.
9. “Blake is as earnest as Lawrence, and will not tolerate the vision of recurrence, as Nietzsche and Yeats do.”	Bloom contrasts Blake with Nietzsche and Yeats, arguing that while all three explore the cycle of contraries, Blake rejects the idea of eternal recurrence. Blake sees human progression as capable of transcending cyclical limitations.
10. “Religion seeks to end the warfare of contraries because it claims to know a reality beyond existence; Blake wants the warfare to continue because he seeks a reality within existence.”	This quotation contrasts Blake’s view with religious orthodoxy. Bloom explains that while religion seeks to resolve or end the tension between opposites, Blake embraces the ongoing struggle of contraries as essential to human existence and experience.

“Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

“Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom first appeared in 1975 in the journal Critical Inquiry, is considered a seminal work in literary theory, particularly within the framework of American Romanticism.

Introduction: “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

“Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom first appeared in 1975 in the journal Critical Inquiry, is considered a seminal work in literary theory, particularly within the framework of American Romanticism. Bloom argues that poets engage in a process of “revisionism” against their predecessors, striving to assert their originality and poetic authority. This revisionism, however, often involves the “repression” of earlier poetic influences, which are subsequently internalized and transformed within the poet’s own work. Bloom’s essay has been influential in shaping our understanding of poetic influence, intertextuality, and the dynamics of literary tradition. It continues to be a valuable resource for scholars and students of literature.

Summary of “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

Introduction of Key Concepts
Bloom opens the essay by interrogating the relationship between psyche and text, framing poetry as a battlefield where authentic forces struggle for victory over oblivion. He emphasizes the psychoanalytical framework, notably the “psyche,” “text,” and “represented,” as key terms, arguing that poetry is not self-contained but continuously woven into the broader fabric of literary tradition.
The Will of the Strong Poet
Bloom describes strong poets as those driven by desire, a concept he attributes to Nietzsche’s philosophy. He argues that poets, particularly the strong ones, are engaged in a search for pleasure rather than truth, leading to a continuous process of interpreting past works in ways that serve their personal artistic visions. This revisionism is not a simple act of homage, but an essential struggle against the past, a battle for originality and survival in the literary canon.
Poetry as a Form of Rewriting
In Bloom’s view, every poem is inherently a “rewriting” of previous works, meaning that no poem can claim true autonomy. He introduces the idea of “poetic misprision,” where poets creatively misread their precursors to assert their individuality. This echoes Freud’s concept of “retroactive meaningfulness,” wherein meaning is constructed by selecting and repressing influences from prior texts.
Intertextuality and Influence
Drawing on the theories of Vico and Freud, Bloom outlines how poets are always belated—born into a literary tradition they cannot escape. Every poet must repress the weight of precursors, but in doing so, they create their own unique, exaggerated style that becomes their signature. The act of revision, whether conscious or subconscious, is central to poetic creation.
The Role of Rhetoric and Tropes in Poetry
Bloom emphasizes the importance of rhetoric in poetry, especially through the use of tropes such as irony, metonymy, and hyperbole. He contends that rhetoric is not merely a tool of persuasion but a mode of survival in the world of literary competition. Poets use these devices to revise and reinterpret the works of their predecessors, which he aligns with Vico’s idea that “ignorance is the mother of wonder.”
Defense Mechanisms in Poetry
He links poetic creation to psychic defense mechanisms, suggesting that poets engage in a process of repression and substitution that mirrors Freud’s concept of defense against instincts. For Bloom, poetry involves “defensive processes,” where strong poets must continually wrestle with their influences to forge new meanings.
Gnosticism and Revisionism
Bloom draws parallels between Gnosticism and poetic misprision, arguing that strong poets, much like Gnostics, seek to rewrite and reinterpret traditional narratives to claim authority over their creative output. This revisionism is presented as a struggle for poetic freedom, an attempt to transcend the limitations imposed by history and tradition.
The Sublime and the Strong Poet
Bloom concludes by exploring the concept of the Sublime, identifying Milton and Satan in Paradise Lost as exemplars of this mode. He asserts that the strongest poets achieve a kind of “Counter-Sublime” by transforming repression into creative power. In Bloom’s framework, repression is not merely a psychological burden but a source of poetic strength that allows the poet to transcend time and tradition.

Quote from Bloom:
“Poems are not psyches, nor things…they are defensive processes in constant change, which is to say that poems themselves are acts of reading.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in Bloom’s Essay
Psyche	Refers to the human mind or soul, often linked to internal forces, desires, and instincts.	Bloom explores the psyche as a battlefield where the poet’s internal desires clash with literary tradition, driving the creative process.
Text	A woven construct, a fabrication of words that engages in continuous intertextuality.	Poetry is framed as a text that exists within a broader network of literary works, always referring to or rewriting prior texts.
Revisionism	The act of reinterpreting or rewriting earlier works to assert new meanings or personal interpretations.	Central to Bloom’s theory, where poets revise their precursors’ works to create original interpretations and assert their individuality.
Misprision	A “creative misreading” of precursor texts, where poets reinterpret earlier works to forge new meanings.	Poets must misread the works of their predecessors to create space for their own creative expression, avoiding direct imitation.
Intertextuality	The idea that all texts are interconnected, and no text exists in isolation from other literary works.	Bloom emphasizes that every poem is an inter-poem, inherently tied to a network of previous texts, thus rejecting the notion of poetic autonomy.
Poetic Repression	The poet’s need to suppress certain influences or predecessors in order to create original work.	Poets selectively repress traces of their precursors’ works to assert their own voice, but this repression is always partial, leading to a complex relationship with literary history.
Strong Poet	A poet who engages deeply with tradition and struggles to assert their individuality by creatively revising past works.	The “strong poet” dares to challenge the influence of past poets, driven by personal desire rather than the pursuit of objective truth.
Tropes	Figures of speech or rhetorical devices used to shape meaning in poetry (e.g., irony, metaphor, metonymy).	Tropes are seen as central to poetic creation, with strong poets using them to revise and reinterpret previous works, thus engaging in rhetorical revisionism.
The Sublime	A concept in literature that refers to overwhelming grandeur or emotional intensity, often linked to transcendence.	Bloom discusses how strong poets, like Milton’s Satan, achieve the Sublime through their struggle with tradition, leading to a heightened, often paradoxical, form of poetic expression.
Nachträglichkeit (Retroactive Meaning)	A Freudian term referring to the process by which later events give new meanings to earlier ones.	Bloom applies this concept to poetry, where later poets reinterpret earlier works in ways that create new meanings for both the precursor and the later poet’s own work.
Rhetoric	The art of persuasion through language, often employing figures of speech or argumentation.	Bloom argues that rhetoric is central to poetry, with poets using it not just for persuasion but as a means of defending their originality and resisting the influence of their precursors.
Clinamen	A swerve or deviation in literary creation, a concept borrowed from Lucretius to describe the act of misreading or revision.	Bloom uses the term “clinamen” to explain how poets deviate from their precursors in order to assert their own creativity, representing the initial stage in the process of revision.
Tessera	A completion or “filling in” of the gaps left by precursor texts, often through reinterpretation or antithetical completion.	Tessera refers to the poet’s attempt to complete or respond to their precursors’ works, adding to or transforming the original text’s meaning, often in a contradictory or opposing manner.
Askesis	A process of self-restraint or reduction, often seen as a form of creative discipline in poetry.	Bloom uses “askesis” to describe how poets limit or restrain themselves to focus their creativity, often as a way of sublimating their struggle with their literary predecessors.
Daemonization	The stage where the poet intensifies their creative process, often through hyperbole, to assert their individuality.	In Bloom’s framework, daemonization represents the poet’s heightened struggle to overcome the influence of their precursors, often marked by extreme or exaggerated poetic expression.
Metalepsis (Transumption)	The substitution of one term for another, often in a complex chain of figurative associations that transforms earlier meanings.	Bloom sees metalepsis as a final trope in the revisionary process, where the poet transcends previous meanings by transforming and reinterpreting the works of their precursors in profound ways.
Freudian Repression	The psychological process of pushing desires or memories out of conscious awareness, often linked to creative expression.	Bloom relates Freudian repression to the poet’s need to suppress certain influences or aspects of their own creativity, using this suppression as a source of poetic power.

Contribution of “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Intertextuality

Contribution: Bloom asserts that no poem is self-contained, and every poem exists in a network of interrelated texts. He emphasizes that a poem is always a “rewriting” of previous poems, building on the idea that literature is inherently dialogical.
Reference: Bloom argues, “Any poem is an inter-poem, and any reading of a poem is an inter-reading. A poem is not writing, but rewriting, and though a strong poem is a fresh start, such a start is a starting-again” (p. 234). This statement reinforces the idea that poems are deeply enmeshed in a web of prior literary works, adding to the theory of intertextuality introduced by thinkers like Julia Kristeva and Mikhail Bakhtin.

2. Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism

Contribution: Bloom’s exploration of repression and poetic creation is heavily influenced by Freudian psychoanalysis, particularly in terms of how poets handle their influences. He adapts the Freudian concept of repression, using it to describe how poets deal with the weight of literary precursors. Bloom links the creative process to psychic defenses, arguing that poetry is a result of both conscious and unconscious processes.
Reference: Bloom discusses the role of repression in poetic creativity, asserting that “even the strongest poet must take up his stance within literary language” (p. 236), implying that repression of past influences is a key element in the creation of strong poetry. This connection to Freudian repression contributes to Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism, particularly how unconscious influences shape literary texts.

3. Anxiety of Influence and Revisionist Criticism

Contribution: Bloom’s most significant contribution to literary theory is his Anxiety of Influence, which he expands on in this essay. He argues that poets are driven by a competitive relationship with their predecessors, and the act of poetic creation is a struggle to overcome the influence of earlier poets. The process of creative misreading or misprision is how a poet establishes their own originality.
Reference: Bloom states, “The strong poet dares the error of reading all of reality as a text, and all prior texts as openings for its own totalizing and unique interpretations” (p. 233). This idea is central to his Revisionist Criticism, where poets must wrestle with and revise the works of their precursors to assert their own poetic identities. This approach influenced deconstruction and post-structuralist theories, particularly those concerning authorship and textuality.

4. Rhetorical Theory

Contribution: Bloom situates poetry as deeply rhetorical, focusing on the use of tropes and rhetoric as key mechanisms through which poets engage in revision. He argues that poetry is not merely about meaning but about persuading the reader through rhetorical strategies, suggesting that the act of writing poetry is fundamentally rhetorical.
Reference: He claims, “Rhetoric can be seconded only by rhetoric, for all that rhetoric can intend is more rhetoric” (p. 233). In this view, poetry becomes a persuasive system of tropes, aligning with the ancient rhetorical tradition while also contributing to modern rhetorical theory, where language is seen as a means of constructing reality.

5. Poetic Misprision as a Mechanism of Literary Development

Contribution: Bloom’s theory of misprision—a creative misreading of past works—positions poetic creation as an inherently revisionist act. He suggests that poets must misinterpret their predecessors to create new meanings and establish their own voices.
Reference: Bloom asserts, “This remembering is a misprision, or creative misreading, but no matter how strong a misprision, it cannot achieve an autonomy of meaning, or a meaning fully present, that is, free from all literary context” (p. 235). His theory of misprision is a crucial element of literary evolution, suggesting that literature progresses through acts of misinterpretation rather than direct influence, a concept that engages with post-structuralist notions of difference and deferral in meaning (as discussed by Derrida).

6. The Sublime in Post-Enlightenment Poetry

Contribution: Bloom revises the notion of the Sublime, which traditionally refers to an overwhelming sense of awe or grandeur in art and literature. He argues that in the post-Enlightenment era, the Sublime is achieved through the poet’s struggle with their precursors, an inner conflict that results in hyperbolic, extreme expression.
Reference: Bloom writes, “The strongest artists…prevail by reattaining the Sublime, though a greatly altered Sublime” (p. 247). This redefinition of the Sublime places it within the context of literary revisionism, suggesting that the Sublime is no longer about external grandeur but about internal, psychological struggle.

7. Poetic Immortality and Gnosticism

Contribution: Bloom incorporates Gnostic philosophy into his theory of poetic creation, arguing that strong poets, like Gnostics, seek to “divine” their own origins through their work, striving for a form of poetic immortality. This aligns with the Gnostic rejection of conventional religious tradition, mirroring the poet’s rejection of literary tradition to assert originality.
Reference: Bloom states, “A strong poet, for Vico or for us, is precisely like a gentile nation; he must divine or invent himself, and so attempt the impossibility of originating himself” (p. 237). This Gnostic approach to poetry contributes to theories of authorship and individual genius in literature, where the poet is seen as a self-creator.

Examples of Critiques Through “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Critique Through Bloom’s Lens (Poetry, Revisionism, Repression)	Key Bloomian Concepts Applied
John Milton’s Paradise Lost	Milton’s depiction of Satan reflects the strong poet’s struggle to achieve the Sublime by resisting the influence of previous epic traditions (e.g., Homer, Virgil). Satan, with his rebellious and rhetorical brilliance, represents a figure who asserts himself through creative misprision, turning the traditional model of epic heroism on its head.	Sublime, Poetic Misprision, Daemonization: Satan embodies Milton’s engagement in revisionism by hyperbolically reimagining the hero, defying predecessors like Dante’s Satan.
William Wordsworth’s Prelude	Wordsworth can be viewed as revising Milton and attempting to overcome his anxiety of influence through the creation of a deeply personal and introspective epic. His repression of Milton’s grand theological scope allows him to develop a more subjective, Romantic vision of nature and self. Wordsworth’s work is an attempt to rewrite epic poetry in his own image, emphasizing human consciousness over grand cosmological themes.	Repression, Intertextuality, Anxiety of Influence: Wordsworth represses the influence of Milton to construct a more personal, psychological epic focused on individual experience.
T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land	Eliot’s intertextuality and allusive style showcase the poet’s awareness of literary precursors and his need to engage in revisionism. Through his fragmented form and collage of references, Eliot performs a creative misreading of prior texts (e.g., Dante, Shakespeare, and the Bible). His work embodies a modernist anxiety of influence, where he both draws upon and subverts the meanings of his literary heritage.	Intertextuality, Poetic Misprision, Anxiety of Influence: Eliot consciously rewrites and revises earlier texts, creating a mosaic of fragmented influences to reflect modernity’s fractured experience.
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind	Shelley’s ode can be seen as a struggle with his Romantic precursors, particularly Wordsworth and Milton. The West Wind symbolizes a force of transformation, reflecting Shelley’s desire to assert his poetic autonomy through a powerful, elemental image. He revises Wordsworth’s naturalism by portraying nature as a revolutionary and destructive force, rather than a peaceful, pastoral presence.	Misprision, Clinamen, Revisionism: Shelley swerves from Wordsworth’s view of nature, reinterpreting it as a force for radical change, thereby asserting his own poetic vision.

Explanation of the Critiques:

John Milton’s Paradise Lost:
Through Bloom’s lens, Paradise Lost is a profound example of the Sublime achieved through poetic misprision. Satan’s rhetoric and rebellious nature are a reflection of Milton’s struggle to transcend his literary predecessors (e.g., Homer, Dante). Milton’s Satan represents a daemonization of previous epic heroes, where the protagonist’s hyperbolic self-assertion becomes a method of achieving poetic strength.
William Wordsworth’s Prelude:
Wordsworth’s Prelude rewrites the epic tradition by focusing on subjective experience rather than grand religious or cosmological themes. His approach reflects repression of Milton’s theological concerns, allowing Wordsworth to create a uniquely Romantic form of the epic that centers on the individual’s relationship with nature and consciousness. This repression enables Wordsworth to engage in poetic misprision by asserting his own vision against Miltonic influence.
T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land:
Eliot’s The Waste Land is an exemplary text for intertextuality, in which Eliot both engages with and revises a multitude of earlier texts. His use of fragmentation, allusion, and myth reflects an intense anxiety of influence where Eliot wrestles with the overwhelming presence of literary tradition. By misreading these sources, Eliot crafts a modernist work that simultaneously acknowledges and subverts its precursors.
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Ode to the West Wind:
In Ode to the West Wind, Shelley revises the naturalism of Wordsworth by presenting nature as a transformative, revolutionary force rather than a source of tranquility. This represents a clinamen, or swerve, from the Romantic tradition, where Shelley seeks to assert his own poetic power through the imagery of the West Wind. The poem embodies Bloom’s concept of revisionism by reinterpreting nature in a more dynamic, volatile manner.

Criticism Against “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom

Overemphasis on Influence and Anxiety
Critics argue that Bloom places too much importance on the concept of anxiety of influence, suggesting that it oversimplifies the creative process by reducing it to a struggle against predecessors. This focus diminishes other factors such as historical context, social influences, or personal experiences in the creative act.
Neglect of Diversity in Literary Traditions
Bloom’s theory is criticized for being overly focused on a narrow Western canon, particularly the Romantic and post-Enlightenment tradition. His exclusion of non-Western, minority, or feminist voices has been seen as limiting and outdated, ignoring the diversity of global literary traditions and how different cultural backgrounds might influence poetic creation.
Psychological Reductionism
Some critics contend that Bloom’s reliance on Freudian psychoanalysis to explain the poet’s creative process is overly reductive. They argue that framing poetry as a battle of repressed desires and misreadings limits the broader understanding of literary creativity and fails to account for other psychological, philosophical, or aesthetic influences beyond repression and revision.
Elitism and Canon Worship
Bloom’s focus on “strong poets” and his promotion of the Western literary canon have been criticized as elitist. His valorization of canonical figures (e.g., Milton, Wordsworth) tends to dismiss contemporary, experimental, or non-canonical writers, reinforcing traditional literary hierarchies rather than opening up space for new voices.
Obscurantism and Complexity
Some critics find Bloom’s writing unnecessarily dense, with his use of terms like misprision, daemonization, and clinamen perceived as arcane or overly complex. This has led to accusations that Bloom’s work is inaccessible and obscures rather than clarifies the process of poetic creation.
Lack of Engagement with Formalist or Structuralist Criticism
Bloom’s theory is often criticized for its lack of attention to formalist and structuralist concerns. By focusing predominantly on the relationship between poets and their precursors, he neglects to consider the formal and structural aspects of the text itself, such as language, syntax, and narrative technique.
Gender Bias and Marginalization of Female Poets
Bloom’s critical framework is seen by some as marginalizing female poets, focusing predominantly on male figures within the Western canon. His theory, critics argue, does not adequately address how female poets may engage with literary tradition and influence differently, nor does it challenge patriarchal structures within the literary canon.

Representative Quotations from “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A poem is not writing, but rewriting, and though a strong poem is a fresh start, such a start is a starting-again.”	Bloom emphasizes that all poetry is inherently intertextual and revisionist, building on previous works rather than emerging as wholly original creations.
“The strong poet dares the error of reading all of reality as a text, and all prior texts as openings for its own totalizing and unique interpretations.”	This highlights the boldness of strong poets, who reinterpret reality and previous literary works through their personal, often unique, perspectives, turning tradition into opportunity.
“Any poem is an inter-poem, and any reading of a poem is an inter-reading.”	Bloom reinforces the idea that every poem exists within a network of other texts, denying the notion of a self-contained or isolated literary work.
“Rhetoric can be seconded only by rhetoric, for all that rhetoric can intend is more rhetoric.”	Bloom suggests that poetry is a series of rhetorical acts, and one rhetorical system can only be answered or revised by another. This places rhetoric at the heart of poetic creation.
“Even the strongest poet must take up his stance within literary language.”	A strong poet cannot escape the confines of literary tradition, but must work within it to create something new and individual through the act of revision.
“Poetry lives always under the shadow of poetry.”	This quote reflects Bloom’s belief that influence is unavoidable in poetry, and every new poem is haunted by the works of previous poets.
“Repression becomes contaminated by instinct, and so becomes compulsive and at least partly repressed, which rhetorically means hyperbolical or Sublime.”	Bloom links Freudian repression to the poetic process, arguing that repression leads to the Sublime, a heightened or exaggerated poetic expression driven by unconscious forces.
“The curse of an increased belatedness, a dangerously self-conscious belatedness, is that creative envy becomes the ecstasy, the Sublime, of the sign-system of poetic language.”	This describes how modern poets are increasingly aware of their belatedness (coming after a long literary tradition), and their creative envy manifests as intense, Sublime expression.
“Every poet is belated, that every poem is an instance of what Freud called Nachträglichkeit or ‘retroactive meaningfulness.'”	Bloom applies Freud’s notion of retroactive meaning to poetry, arguing that every poem gains significance through its relationship with, and revision of, earlier works.
“Poems are not psyches, nor things, nor are they renewable archetypes in a verbal universe… They are defensive processes in constant change.”	Bloom argues that poems are not static objects but dynamic processes, continuously evolving through revision and misprision as they engage with both the past and the present.

Explanation of the Quotations:

These quotes and their explanations showcase the core ideas of Bloom’s theory from “Poetry, Revisionism, Repression”. Central to Bloom’s framework are the concepts of revisionism, intertextuality, and repression, where strong poets engage in a struggle with their precursors, misreading and revising earlier works to assert their own creative voices. Bloom also emphasizes the dynamic and rhetorical nature of poetry, asserting that it is always a process of rewriting and reinterpretation rather than an isolated act of creation.

“First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

“First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom appeared in 1970 in the journal Studies in Romanticism, is considered a seminal work in the field of Romanticism studies.

Introduction: “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

“First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom appeared in 1970 in the journal Studies in Romanticism, is considered a seminal work in the field of Romanticism studies. Bloom argues that the Romantic poets, particularly William Blake, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats, represent the “first and last” Romantics because they embody the essence of the Romantic spirit more fully than any other writers. He further highlights their main qualities as their emphasis on the individual imagination, their rejection of traditional authority, and their exploration of the mysteries of existence. These arguments of Bloom have had a profound influence on literature and literary theory, shaping the way we understand and appreciate Romantic literature and its legacy.

Summary of “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

Romanticism as Quest and Journey:
- Bloom begins by exploring the idea that the “Odyssey” is the original Romantic poem, embodying the essential characteristics of a quest romance. The hero embarks on a journey not just toward home, but toward an ideal home, or a “supreme trial,” and this motif becomes a defining element of Romantic literature.
- He states that “romance is a journey towards home, the hero’s home though not the reader’s” and this journey, in Romanticism, is more about the process than the destination, as exemplified by works like Browning, Kafka, and Yeats (“Demonic romance values the journey more than the destination”).
Romanticism as Fusion of Romance and Prophecy:
- Bloom argues that Romanticism blends traditional romance with prophetic vision, creating a new form of artistic and spiritual expression. He contrasts Romanticism with earlier literary forms by emphasizing its prophetic nature, drawn from figures like St. John the Apocalyptic rather than just ancient poets like Homer.
- “Romanticism fused romance and prophecy,” suggesting that Romantic poets were not merely telling stories but were attempting to create new visions of reality, where prophecy plays a critical role.
Historical Perspective on Romanticism:
- Bloom discusses the idea that both “First” and “Last” Romantics can be freely chosen by critics, as every critic situates their understanding of Romanticism in relation to their own context. By choosing one’s first Romantic figure, Bloom argues, one also reveals the kind of last Romantic or anti-Romantic one might aspire to be.
- He notes, “Choose your first Romantic, or your first Romanticism, and you tell us what kind of last Romantic you yourself are,” highlighting the subjectivity involved in defining Romanticism.
Romanticism as Renaissance of the Renaissance:
- Bloom identifies English Romanticism as a revival of the Renaissance tradition, looking back to poets like Spenser and Shakespeare rather than the Augustan poets such as Pope and Johnson. He emphasizes how this selective return to Renaissance ideals was central to shaping Romantic imagination.
- He explains, “English Romanticism, as opposed to Continental, was a renaissance of the Renaissance,” stressing the Romantic movement’s continuity with earlier literary traditions.
Tensions with Anti-Romanticism:
- Bloom addresses the counter-arguments of critics like Dr. Samuel Johnson, who viewed the Romantic celebration of the marvelous with skepticism. Johnson dismissed such invention as “fabulous appendages of spectres and predictions” and called for poetry that engages with the real and the imitable.
- Johnson’s criticism of Gray’s “The Bard” exemplifies this anti-Romantic stance, wherein he valued “original invention” grounded in realism over the supernatural elements Romantic poets cherished.
Romanticism and the Divine or Eternal:
- A recurring theme in Romanticism, as Bloom notes, is the poet’s quest for divination or immortality, often expressed through the symbolism of gods, myths, and visionary experiences. Bloom references Borges, who illustrates this with a parable about scholars joyfully killing degenerate gods, showing both the allure and the danger of the Romantic return to divine themes.
- Bloom describes Romantic poets as “Olympian bards who sung divine ideas below,” poets seeking a form of eternal life through their imaginative powers and divinatory abilities.
Shamanism and Romanticism:
- The essay explores the influence of shamanistic traditions on certain strands of Romanticism, particularly in poets like Yeats and Lawrence, whose works show elements of ritual and psychic transformation. However, Bloom notes that the High Romantics (e.g., Blake, Browning) largely moved beyond these magical elements to embrace a more rational, imaginative catharsis.
- “The shamanism of Empedocles, so strangely re-born in Yeats’s A Vision,” illustrates how mystical traditions permeate the work of later Romantics, though Bloom points out that this is less central to the High Romanticism of the earlier nineteenth century.
Invention as Divination:
- Bloom asserts that for the strongest Romantic poets, invention itself becomes a form of divination—a way of creating new realities through imagination. This contrasts with the shamanistic, magical forms of divination, which seek control over nature. Romantic invention, he argues, creates a “world in which the Real Man, the Imagination, can never die.”
- He notes, “Invention is a positive mode of divination… since it seeks not the heterocosm, but actual power over nature,” thereby elevating the Romantic poet’s creative powers to a quasi-divine status.
Conclusion: Romanticism’s Legacy:
- Bloom concludes by discussing the enduring legacy of Romanticism, asserting that modern poets must align themselves with the right precursors within the Romantic tradition to avoid the pitfalls of illusion and phantasmagoria. He names poets like Hardy and Stevens as examples of those who have successfully inherited this tradition without succumbing to its excesses.
- He emphasizes that the “dark luminous” quality of Romantic poetry can help navigate challenging times, provided poets draw from the right Romantic ancestors.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference in Text
Quest Romance	A narrative centered around a hero’s journey toward an idealized goal, often more about the process and challenges than the final destination.	“Romance is a journey towards home… a supreme trial, after which home is possible, or else homelessness will suffice.”
Demonic Romance	A subversion of traditional romance where the quest’s goal is revealed to be delusive or unattainable, focusing more on the journey’s value than the destination’s fulfillment.	“Demonic romance values the journey more than the destination, and leaves us something other than a sense of loss.”
Prophetic Vision	The role of prophecy in Romanticism, blending the visionary aspect with poetic imagination to create a new form of spiritual and artistic revelation.	“Romanticism fused romance and prophecy… What the late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Romantics named as vision might better be termed a making and a hearing.”
Anxiety of Influence	A term coined by Bloom referring to a poet’s struggle to assert originality in the shadow of predecessors, dealing with the creative pressure exerted by earlier literary giants.	“Johnson, who wrote only a few strong poems, had felt deeply the anxiety of influence, as yet another variety of melancholy to add to his afflictions.”
Renaissance of the Renaissance	The idea that English Romanticism was a revival of the Renaissance tradition, selectively returning to figures like Spenser, Shakespeare, and Milton rather than more recent predecessors.	“English Romanticism, as opposed to Continental, was a renaissance of the Renaissance.”
Shamanism	A concept describing mystical, magical elements in literature, often involving rituals or psychic transformations. Bloom explores its presence in Romantic poetry.	“The shamanism of Empedocles, so strangely re-born in Yeats’s A Vision…”
Divination	The act of gaining insight or knowledge, often supernatural or prophetic, a central theme in Romanticism’s quest for immortality and transcendence.	“The return of the Gods means then, for Romanticism, the divination of immortality for and by poets…”
Phantasmagoria	A sequence of real or imagined images, often surreal, used by Bloom to describe illusions in Romantic poetry that poets must navigate or resist.	“Every Romantic has a tendency to drink unnecessarily from the Circean cup of illusion…”
Invention	Refers to the poet’s creative originality, seen by Bloom as a positive mode of divination, where the Romantic poet creates new worlds or realities through imagination.	“Invention is a positive mode of divination… The strong Romantic poet, when he is most himself, makes a world in which his Real Man, the Imagination, can never die.”

Contribution of “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

Development of the “Anxiety of Influence” Theory:
- Bloom expands on his theory of poetic influence in this work, emphasizing how Romantic poets struggled to assert their originality in the shadow of literary giants like Homer, Milton, and Shakespeare.
- He writes that poets like Samuel Johnson felt “deeply the anxiety of influence,” revealing how later poets were burdened by their predecessors’ achievements, which shaped their own creative processes.
Romanticism as Fusion of Romance and Prophecy:
- Bloom’s contribution includes defining Romanticism as a unique fusion of the traditional quest romance with prophetic vision. This idea adds to the understanding of Romantic poetry not just as storytelling but as a form of visionary literature.
- He explains, “Romanticism fused romance and prophecy,” and by doing so, Romantic poets became creators of new spiritual and imaginative realms, marking a shift in the purpose of poetry.
Elevation of Imaginative Creation as Divination:
- Bloom highlights the Romantic poet’s creative process as a form of divination, where invention itself becomes a mystical act. This emphasizes the poet’s role as a visionary who creates new worlds through imagination, contributing to theories of literary creation and originality.
- “Invention is a positive mode of divination… The strong Romantic poet, when he is most himself, makes a world in which his Real Man, the Imagination, can never die.”
Concept of the “Demonic Romance”:
- Bloom introduces the idea of “demonic romance,” where the quest’s goal becomes delusive or unattainable, yet the journey remains valuable. This concept enriches literary theory by challenging the traditional hero’s journey and reinterpreting the Romantic quest as inherently ambiguous.
- He discusses how works like Hart Crane’s The Bridge exemplify this idea, with “quest fulfilled to no consequence, or fulfillment revealed as a parody of the goal.”
Return to the Renaissance as Source of Romantic Imagination:
- Bloom redefines the lineage of English Romanticism by arguing that it is a “renaissance of the Renaissance,” positioning the Romantics as heirs to Renaissance figures like Spenser and Shakespeare. This perspective reframes Romanticism within a broader historical and literary tradition, influencing how later critics understand its roots.
- He writes, “English Romanticism, as opposed to Continental, was a renaissance of the Renaissance,” placing Romantic poets in a selective dialogue with their Renaissance predecessors.
Critique of Anti-Romanticism and Traditional Invention:
- Bloom engages with anti-Romantic critics, particularly Samuel Johnson, who viewed the Romantic imagination with skepticism. This dialogue adds depth to literary theory by juxtaposing Romantic ideals with realist, rational critiques, showing the tension between invention and imitation in poetic creation.
- Johnson’s dismissal of Romantic invention as “fabulous appendages of spectres and predictions” represents this critical tension.
Influence of Shamanism and Myth in Romanticism:
- Bloom introduces the idea that Romantic poets engage with shamanistic traditions, connecting their poetic inspiration to ancient forms of psychic transformation and ritual. This links Romanticism to broader theories of myth and archetype in literature, offering a framework to analyze mystical elements in poetry.
- “The shamanism of Empedocles, so strangely re-born in Yeats’s A Vision,” exemplifies this mystical aspect of Romanticism that Bloom explores.
Incorporation of Psychological and Philosophical Elements:
- Bloom’s essay contributes to the intersection of literary theory with psychology and philosophy, particularly through his analysis of how poets like Byron and Shelley grappled with existential and metaphysical themes, such as immortality, self-recognition, and divination.
- He delves into the poets’ “obsessive need for a literal immortality,” positioning Romanticism as a response to human existential concerns, thereby influencing psychoanalytic and existential readings of literature.

Examples of Critiques Through “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work and Author	Critique through Bloom’s Lens	Reference in Text
*The Odyssey* by Homer	Bloom identifies The Odyssey as the “first Romantic poem” and a foundational quest romance, where the journey (more than the destination) defines the Romantic essence of the hero’s narrative.	“The Odyssey is the fundamental quest romance, and the first Romantic poem… Romance is a journey towards home.”
*The Bard* by Thomas Gray	Bloom critiques Johnson’s dismissal of The Bard as overly fantastical and disconnected from reality, highlighting the tension between Romantic imagination and anti-Romantic realism.	“To select a singular event, and swell it to a giant’s bulk by fabulous appendages of spectres and predictions, has little difficulty…”
*The Bridge* by Hart Crane	Bloom interprets The Bridge as a “demonic romance” in which the quest is fulfilled with no meaningful consequence, reflecting Romanticism’s focus on the journey and disillusionment with the goal.	“Hart Crane’s The Bridge… would be seen more clearly as demonic romance, quest fulfilled to no consequence, or fulfillment revealed as a parody of the goal.”
*Paradise Lost* by John Milton	Bloom examines Milton’s work in relation to his anxieties about poetic divination, interpreting Paradise Lost as an epic where the poet cannot evade the fall or death, unlike other Romantic works.	“Milton… feared from the start that a demon of transformations would mock his career. Lycidas laments the loss of the poetic power of divination…”

Criticism Against “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

Overemphasis on Poetic Influence:
- Critics argue that Bloom’s focus on the “anxiety of influence” overshadows the individuality of Romantic poets, reducing their originality by framing their work primarily as responses to predecessors like Milton, Homer, and Shakespeare.
- This perspective diminishes the cultural, social, and historical contexts that shaped Romanticism, prioritizing literary lineage over broader influences.
Neglect of Non-Western and Female Voices:
- Bloom’s analysis primarily centers on Western male poets, ignoring significant contributions from female writers and non-Western literary traditions. This exclusion limits the scope of his definition of Romanticism, which could benefit from a more diverse range of voices.
- By focusing mainly on figures like Byron, Keats, and Shelley, Bloom’s study is criticized for reinforcing a narrow, Eurocentric view of literary history.
Romanticism as Too Mystical and Abstract:
- Some scholars argue that Bloom’s interpretation of Romanticism, especially his emphasis on divination, prophecy, and shamanism, pushes the concept into a mystical, abstract realm that detaches it from the real-world concerns of Romantic poets.
- Romanticism often addressed political, social, and personal struggles, but Bloom’s focus on the visionary and supernatural aspects risks overlooking the grounded, human elements of the movement.
Simplification of Anti-Romanticism:
- Bloom’s treatment of anti-Romantic critics like Samuel Johnson is seen as overly simplified. By positioning Johnson as a foil to Romantic creativity, Bloom reduces the complexity of anti-Romantic criticism, which often addressed significant concerns about realism and moral values in literature.
- His portrayal of Johnson’s skepticism as merely anti-Romantic downplays the nuanced critical perspectives of the period.
Subjectivity in Defining First and Last Romantics:
- Bloom’s suggestion that critics can choose their “First and Last Romantics” according to personal preference has been criticized for its subjectivity. This approach implies that Romanticism’s boundaries are flexible and potentially arbitrary, weakening the theoretical foundation of his argument.
- Critics argue that literary movements need clearer historical and thematic definitions rather than being open to individual interpretation.

Representative Quotations from “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The Odyssey is the fundamental quest romance, and the first Romantic poem.”	Bloom identifies The Odyssey as the archetypal Romantic journey, establishing a connection between classical literature and Romanticism’s themes of quests, trials, and idealized homecomings.
“Romanticism fused romance and prophecy.”	This phrase captures Bloom’s central thesis that Romantic poets combined the narrative form of romance with the visionary qualities of prophecy, creating a new genre of imaginative expression.
“Demonic romance values the journey more than the destination.”	Bloom introduces the concept of “demonic romance,” where the process of the quest is valued over its conclusion, reflecting the Romantic disillusionment with traditional notions of fulfillment.
“Choose your first Romantic, or your first Romanticism, and you tell us what kind of last Romantic you yourself are.”	This quote suggests the subjective nature of defining Romanticism, where identifying a “First Romantic” reflects a critic’s own biases and intellectual positioning within literary history.
“English Romanticism, as opposed to Continental, was a renaissance of the Renaissance.”	Bloom argues that English Romanticism revived Renaissance ideals and looked to figures like Spenser and Shakespeare, rather than later poets, as primary influences.
“Invention is a positive mode of divination… The strong Romantic poet, when he is most himself, makes a world in which his Real Man, the Imagination, can never die.”	This reflects Bloom’s view that poetic creation (invention) in Romanticism is a form of divination, where imagination transcends mortality, linking creativity to immortality.
“Johnson, who wrote only a few strong poems, had felt deeply the anxiety of influence.”	Bloom highlights Samuel Johnson’s experience of the “anxiety of influence,” which he argues is central to understanding the struggles of Romantic poets in relation to their predecessors.
“Every Romantic has a tendency to drink unnecessarily from the Circean cup of illusion.”	This metaphor refers to the Romantics’ temptation to indulge in illusion and fantasy, drawing from the myth of Circe, a recurrent theme of transformation and seduction in Romantic literature.
“The return of the Gods means then, for Romanticism, the divination of immortality for and by poets.”	Bloom associates Romanticism with a quest for divination and immortality, framing poets as creators of visionary worlds that challenge the limitations of mortality.
“Romantic poetry, in its long history, has been saved from those worst difficulties by its sense of its own tradition, by the liberating burden of poetic influence.”	Bloom emphasizes that Romanticism’s strength lies in its awareness of and dialogue with its literary tradition, even as poets struggle under the “burden” of influence from past greats.

Suggested Readings: “First and Last Romantics” by Harold Bloom

Bloom, Harold. “First and Last Romantics.” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 9, no. 4, 1970, pp. 225–32. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/25599769. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024
Altevers, Nannette. “The Revisionary Company: Harold Bloom’s ‘Last Romanticism.’” New Literary History, vol. 23, no. 2, 1992, pp. 361–82. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/469241. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.
Giraldi, William. “Bloomian Stride.” The Kenyon Review, vol. 35, no. 2, 2013, pp. 175–85. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24242006. Accessed 4 Oct. 2024.

“Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

“Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom first appeared in Diacritics, Spring 1972″ and explores the complex relationship between Samuel Taylor Coleridge and his literary influences, particularly the towering figure of John Milton. Bloom argues that Coleridge, despite possessing the potential to be a strong poet, never fully developed his abilities due to the anxiety he felt about living up to his predecessors.

Key points:

Source Study vs. Influence: Bloom criticizes traditional source studies that simply identify influences on a poet’s work. Instead, he proposes a concept of “poetic misprision,” where the later poet actively reinterprets and challenges the work of the earlier one.
Revisionary Ratios: Bloom outlines six stages (“revisionary ratios”) a strong poet goes through as they grapple with their influences. These include clinamen (swerving away), tessera (completing and contrasting), kenosis (self-emptying), daemonization (creating a counter-sublime), askesis (self-purgation), and apophrades (the return of the dead).
Coleridge’s Case: Bloom argues that Coleridge never fully engaged with these revisionary ratios. While he attempted to escape Milton’s influence through poems like “Frost at Midnight,” he ultimately shied away from the full confrontation necessary to become a truly strong poet.
Later Works: In Coleridge’s later works, like “Dejection: an Ode” and “To William Wordsworth,” Bloom sees an attempt to create an askesis, purging himself of the combined influence of Milton and Wordsworth. However, this effort ultimately led to a decline in his poetic ambitions. It offers a valuable framework for understanding the complex relationship between poets and their influences. Bloom’s concept of “anxiety of influence” has been influential in literary criticism, prompting scholars to examine how poets negotiate their relationship with literary giants of the past.

Summary of “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

Coleridge’s Poetic Ambition and Anxiety

Harold Bloom focuses on why Samuel Taylor Coleridge did not fully realize his potential as a “strong poet” comparable to Milton, Blake, or Wordsworth.
Quote: “Coleridge could have been a strong poet… another mighty antagonist for the Great Spectre Milton to engage.”

Anxiety of Influence Theory

Bloom introduces his theory of the “anxiety of influence,” wherein poets struggle with the overwhelming influence of their precursors. This theory is applied to Coleridge’s work, showing his anxiety over the dominant poetic tradition, particularly Milton’s influence.
Quote: “Coleridge’s Counter-Sublime, his answer to the anxiety of influence, in strong poets.”

Pater’s Criticism of Coleridge

Walter Pater critiqued Coleridge’s fixation on the “absolute,” arguing that it limited his poetic capacity by focusing too rigidly on philosophical absolutes rather than engaging with the relative, mutable nature of reality.
Quote: “Coleridge failed in that attempt, happily even for him, for it was a struggle against the increasing life of the mind itself.”

Coleridge’s Struggle with Miltonic Influence

Coleridge admired and envied Milton’s poetic grandeur, but his attempt to emulate Milton often led him into a creative paralysis, inhibiting his own poetic development.
Quote: “Milton’s greatness is purchased at the cost of something dear to Coleridge, a principle of difference.”

The Organic Analogue and Its Limitations

Coleridge’s belief in the “organic analogue,” the idea that poetry grows naturally from within, was both a strength and a limitation. Bloom, following Pater, argues that this concept hindered Coleridge by preventing him from confronting the creative struggle necessary for poetic development.
Quote: “That exaggerated inwardness is barren… it cheats the senses and the emotions of their triumph.”

Poetic Influence and Misprision

Bloom outlines six “revisionary ratios” that describe how later poets misread and revise the works of their predecessors. These steps reflect the complex relationship between a poet and their precursors, which in Coleridge’s case led to both emulation and resistance.
Quote: “Poetic influence, in this sense, is actually poetic misprision, a poet’s taking or doing amiss of a parent-poem.”

Coleridge’s Revisionary Struggle

Coleridge’s early poetry, such as “Religious Musings,” demonstrates his struggle to move beyond Milton’s influence. However, his mature works like “Frost at Midnight” and “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” show more successful revisionary strategies, though often incomplete.
Quote: “What was Coleridge trying… to do for himself by writing the poem… trying to free himself from the inhibitions of Miltonic influence.”

Daemonization in “Kubla Khan” and “Christabel”

In “Kubla Khan” and “Christabel,” Coleridge moves into what Bloom calls the “Counter-Sublime,” engaging with daemonic forces that offer a break from Milton’s overwhelming influence.
Quote: “Poetic Genius, the genial spirit itself, Coleridge must see as daemonic when it is his own, rather than when it is Milton’s.”

Coleridge’s Retreat from the Strong Poet Path

Despite his potential, Coleridge withdrew from the full development of a “strong poet,” stopping short of the ferocity required to fully transcend his influences, particularly Milton’s. His later works, including fragments like “Limbo” and “Ne Plus Ultra,” reflect a negative sublime rather than a completed poetic vision.
Quote: “Coleridge could have become, at last, the poet of the Miltonic abyss, the bard of Demogorgon.”

Supported Quotations

“Coleridge could have been a strong poet… another mighty antagonist for the Great Spectre Milton to engage.”
This reflects Bloom’s central argument about Coleridge’s missed potential as a powerful poet who could have stood alongside Milton and Wordsworth.
“Milton’s greatness is purchased at the cost of something dear to Coleridge, a principle of difference.”
Coleridge’s admiration of Milton created an internal conflict that hindered his own poetic development.
“That exaggerated inwardness is barren… it cheats the senses and the emotions of their triumph.”
Pater’s critique of Coleridge’s obsession with the “absolute,” which ultimately stifled his creative expression.
“Poetic influence, in this sense, is actually poetic misprision, a poet’s taking or doing amiss of a parent-poem.”
Bloom’s theory of poetic influence as a creative misinterpretation, essential to Coleridge’s struggle with his predecessors.
“Trying to free himself from the inhibitions of Miltonic influence.”
Coleridge’s attempt to overcome the overwhelming shadow of Milton through his own poetic output.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Bloom’s Essay
Anxiety of Influence	The psychological struggle of a poet to overcome the influence of their predecessors in order to create original work.	Bloom applies this concept to Coleridge, suggesting that his poetic ambition was inhibited by his reverence for Milton and Wordsworth.
Poetic Misprision	A creative misreading or misinterpretation of a precursor’s work by a later poet.	Coleridge’s poetry, according to Bloom, involves a series of misreadings of Milton, in which he tries to revise or alter Milton’s legacy.
Clinamen	The swerve or deviation of a poet from their precursor’s work to assert originality.	Bloom argues that Coleridge executed a “swerve” away from Milton in poems like “Frost at Midnight.”
Tessera	A term for completing or antithetically extending a precursor’s work, using its elements but altering their meaning.	Bloom suggests that Coleridge attempts this in moments of philosophical divergence, but often fails to fully break free of Milton’s shadow.
Kenosis	A deliberate self-emptying or reduction in poetic power to resist the overwhelming influence of a precursor.	In “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” Coleridge humbles himself by reducing the concept of sin from Milton’s grandiose vision to mere ignorance.
Daemonization	A poet’s engagement with a “Counter-Sublime” force, often dark or daemonic, to counteract the precursor’s influence.	Coleridge attempts this in “Kubla Khan” and “Christabel,” where he confronts darker, daemonic aspects of poetic genius.
Askesis	A self-purgation or curtailment of certain poetic faculties in order to achieve solitude or independence from a precursor.	Coleridge’s later poems, like “Dejection: An Ode,” reflect a self-limiting move to distance himself from the overwhelming influence of Milton and Wordsworth.
Apophrades	The “return of the dead,” where the later poet’s work seems to be haunted by the presence of the precursor’s influence.	Bloom interprets Coleridge’s late fragments, such as “Limbo,” as haunted by Milton’s influence, marking Coleridge’s inability to escape it.
Organic Analogue	The belief that a work of art grows naturally and organically, without external influence, like a living organism.	Bloom critiques Coleridge’s reliance on this concept, arguing that it limited his ability to engage fully with the creative struggle needed to overcome his predecessors.

Contribution of “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Influence Theory / Anxiety of Influence

Contribution: Bloom’s essay is pivotal in advancing his theory of the “anxiety of influence”, which explores the psychological struggle that poets face when they engage with their literary predecessors. This concept revolutionized the understanding of how poets relate to their influences, emphasizing the tensions between originality and imitation.
Reference: “Poetic influence, in this sense, is actually poetic misprision, a poet’s taking or doing amiss of a parent-poem.” Bloom argues that Coleridge’s career was shaped by his engagement with Milton, and this struggle led to both creative limitations and breakthroughs.
Impact on Theory: Bloom’s model of influence is now a foundational concept in literary theory. It suggests that all literature is dialogical, meaning that later works are responses to and revisions of earlier ones. This idea challenges earlier notions that viewed literary works as self-contained or purely original.

2. Intertextuality

Contribution: Bloom’s analysis of Coleridge is deeply rooted in intertextuality, the idea that texts are interconnected and that no text exists in isolation. His discussion of how Coleridge’s poetry is a response to Milton’s influence highlights the complex web of literary connections that exist across time.
Reference: “The meaning of a strong poem is another strong poem, a precursor’s poem which is being misinterpreted, revised, corrected, evaded, twisted askew…” Bloom suggests that Coleridge’s poetry can only be fully understood by examining its relationship to Milton’s work.
Impact on Theory: This contribution reinforces the concept of dialogic relationships between texts (as later expanded by theorists like Julia Kristeva and Mikhail Bakhtin). Bloom’s insights into Coleridge emphasize how literary texts derive meaning through their engagement with previous works, shaping the broader study of intertextuality.

3. Romanticism and Poetic Legacy

Contribution: Bloom redefines the relationship between Romanticism and its predecessors, particularly through Coleridge’s struggles with Milton. He asserts that the central task of the Romantic poet was to humanize the Miltonic Sublime, yet Coleridge, unlike Blake or Wordsworth, was overwhelmed by the grandeur of Milton.
Reference: “Milton’s greatness is purchased at the cost of something dear to Coleridge, a principle of difference.” Bloom shows how Coleridge’s poetic identity was formed and constrained by Milton’s shadow.
Impact on Theory: Bloom’s reading reshapes how scholars understand Romanticism. Instead of seeing Romantic poets as merely reacting against Enlightenment ideas or creating in isolation, Bloom highlights their deep, anxious engagement with their literary ancestors, which enriches the understanding of Romantic intertextuality and continuity within literary traditions.

4. Revisionary Ratios / Creative Struggle

Contribution: Bloom introduces his revisionary ratios, six stages in which poets engage with and revise their predecessors. These include clinamen (swerve), tessera (completion), kenosis (emptying), daemonization, askesis (self-purgation), and apophrades (return of the dead).
Reference: “These are six revisionary ratios, and I think they can be observed, usually in cyclic appearance, in the life’s work of every Post-Enlightenment strong poet…” Bloom identifies Coleridge’s use of kenosis in “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,” where he humbles himself by revising Milton’s grand narrative of sin and disobedience.
Impact on Theory: This theoretical framework offers a structured approach to understanding how poets engage with influence. It has been widely influential in the study of literary inheritance and innovation, helping scholars trace how poets revise and transform their precursors’ work.

5. Organic Analogue and its Critique

Contribution: Bloom critiques Coleridge’s adherence to the Organic Analogue, the belief that poems grow naturally from within like living organisms. While Coleridge viewed this as central to his creative process, Bloom and others argue that this concept inhibited Coleridge from fully realizing his creative potential.
Reference: “The Organic Analogue… appealed so overwhelmingly to Coleridge because it seemed to preclude the anxiety of influence.”
Impact on Theory: This critique of the organic theory of creation challenges idealistic notions of natural, effortless artistic creation. Bloom’s argument suggests that the true creative process involves struggle, revision, and conscious engagement with external influences rather than natural growth alone.

6. Romantic Sublime and Counter-Sublime

Contribution: Bloom explores the Romantic poet’s relationship to the Sublime, particularly how Coleridge’s attempt to humanize the Sublime faltered. Bloom contrasts Coleridge’s failures with the successful humanization of the Sublime in poets like Blake and Wordsworth.
Reference: “Kubla Khan” and “Christabel” represent Coleridge’s attempt at a Counter-Sublime, wherein he engaged with darker, daemonic forces, but ultimately failed to sustain this engagement.
Impact on Theory: This concept of the Counter-Sublime offers a new way to understand the Romantic poet’s struggle with the overwhelming grandeur of the Sublime, adding nuance to the study of Romantic aesthetics and the psychological dimensions of poetic creation.

Examples of Critiques Through “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Author	Critique Through “The Anxiety of Influence”	Explanation
“Paradise Lost”	John Milton	Coleridge is haunted by Milton’s overwhelming influence, which stifles his own poetic ambition.	Milton represents the pinnacle of the Sublime, and Coleridge’s admiration and envy for Milton inhibit him from fully realizing his own potential as a strong poet.
“The Prelude”	William Wordsworth	Coleridge struggles to match Wordsworth’s poetic achievements, resulting in both admiration and creative paralysis.	Wordsworth serves as both friend and rival. Coleridge seeks to revise and respond to Wordsworth’s greatness, especially regarding the themes of nature and the self.
“Frost at Midnight”	Samuel Taylor Coleridge	This poem represents Coleridge’s clinamen (swerve) away from Milton by softening and domesticating the Miltonic Sublime.	Instead of confronting Milton directly, Coleridge finds his own voice by focusing on personal and domestic themes, avoiding Milton’s grand, cosmic vision.
“Kubla Khan”	Samuel Taylor Coleridge	Coleridge engages with the Counter-Sublime through daemonic and visionary forces but fails to sustain this revisionary step.	In “Kubla Khan,” Coleridge attempts to counteract Milton’s influence by invoking daemonic powers, but his retreat from full engagement reveals his creative anxiety.

Summary:

This table illustrates how “The Anxiety of Influence” manifests in Coleridge’s relationship with Milton and Wordsworth, as well as his own works. Coleridge’s poetry reflects Bloom’s revisionary steps, such as clinamen (a swerve from Milton in “Frost at Midnight”) and daemonization (in “Kubla Khan”). These critiques highlight the tension between admiration for poetic precursors and the struggle for creative independence.

Criticism Against “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom

· Overemphasis on the Influence of Predecessors: Critics argue that Bloom’s theory places too much importance on the influence of earlier poets, reducing the autonomy of later poets like Coleridge. This limits the interpretation of their creativity as merely reactive rather than independent or innovative.

· Neglect of Historical and Social Context: Bloom’s approach tends to overlook the historical, social, and political contexts in which poets like Coleridge were writing. His psychological model of influence may ignore the broader factors that shaped Coleridge’s poetry and career.

· Undermines Coleridge’s Philosophical Contributions: Some critics claim that Bloom’s focus on Coleridge’s anxiety over Milton minimizes Coleridge’s significant contributions to philosophy, particularly in works like Biographia Literaria, where his originality and intellectual depth are evident.

· Limited View of Romanticism: Bloom’s theory might oversimplify Romanticism by framing it as a struggle against the legacy of Milton. This perspective may fail to capture the diversity of Romantic poetics and the different philosophical and aesthetic concerns that influenced poets like Coleridge.

· Psychological Reductionism: Critics have argued that Bloom’s theory reduces the creative process to a psychological struggle with influence, neglecting other aspects of poetic inspiration and the role of imagination, which were central to Coleridge’s own literary theory.

· Overreliance on Revisionary Ratios: Bloom’s six revisionary ratios (clinamen, tessera, kenosis, etc.) have been criticized as overly rigid and formulaic, forcing all poetic development into a predetermined pattern. This can sometimes obscure the unique aspects of Coleridge’s creative process.

· Inadequate Attention to Coleridge’s Later Work: Bloom’s focus on the early struggles of Coleridge with influence largely ignores his later philosophical writings and theological poetry, which some scholars believe show Coleridge moving beyond the anxieties that Bloom emphasizes.

Representative Quotations from “Coleridge: The Anxiety of Influence” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Coleridge could have been a strong poet… another mighty antagonist for the Great Spectre Milton.”	Bloom sets the stage for his analysis, arguing that Coleridge had the potential to rival Milton but was inhibited by the overpowering influence of Milton’s poetic legacy.
“Poetic influence, in this sense, is actually poetic misprision.”	This is the core of Bloom’s theory, suggesting that influence involves a creative misinterpretation of predecessor poets, where the later poet both revises and resists them.
“The meaning of a strong poem is another strong poem.”	Bloom argues that great poetry derives its meaning in dialogue with other great works, reinforcing his theory of influence and intertextuality.
“Milton’s greatness is purchased at the cost of something dear to Coleridge, a principle of difference.”	Bloom emphasizes how Milton’s influence overwhelmed Coleridge’s ability to establish his own unique poetic voice, leading to creative tension and struggle.
“That exaggerated inwardness is barren… it cheats the senses and the emotions of their triumph.”	Bloom, referencing Pater, critiques Coleridge’s tendency toward philosophical inwardness, which Pater saw as limiting his ability to express a full range of emotions in poetry.
“Coleridge’s Counter-Sublime, his answer to the anxiety of influence, in strong poets.”	Bloom introduces the idea of the “Counter-Sublime,” showing how Coleridge attempted to respond to the overwhelming Sublime of Milton by engaging with darker, daemonic forces.
“Frost at Midnight swerves away from Milton by softening him, by domesticating his style.”	Bloom uses clinamen, the idea of a “swerve,” to explain how Coleridge moved away from Milton’s grand themes, focusing on more personal, intimate settings in his poetry.
“Kubla Khan” represents Coleridge’s attempt to counteract Milton’s influence by invoking daemonic powers.”	Coleridge’s “Kubla Khan” reflects Bloom’s concept of daemonization, where the poet interacts with otherworldly forces to challenge the influence of a powerful precursor.
“Coleridge had the potential of the strong poet, but declined the full process of developing into one.”	Bloom suggests that Coleridge, unlike Blake or Wordsworth, did not fully embrace the necessary struggles to become a “strong poet” and reach his highest creative potential.
“The Organic Analogue… appealed so overwhelmingly to Coleridge because it seemed to preclude the anxiety of influence.”	Bloom critiques Coleridge’s reliance on the Organic Analogue, arguing that this concept allowed him to avoid facing the creative tension posed by the anxiety of influence.