Category: Theory Article Summaries

Introduction: “English Poets: The Decline Of Capitalism” By Christopher Caudwell

“English Poets: The Decline Of Capitalism” by Christopher Caudwell first appeared in the 1937 collection Illusion and Reality. This seminal work holds immense importance in literature and literary theory. It offers a Marxist interpretation of English poetry, arguing that the works of poets like Tennyson, Browning, and Arnold reflect the contradictions and crises of late capitalism. Caudwell’s analysis laid the groundwork for understanding the complex relationship between art, society, and economic structures, making his work a cornerstone of Marxist literary criticism.

Summary of “English Poets: The Decline Of Capitalism” By Christopher Caudwell

Literary Terms/Concepts in “English Poets: The Decline Of Capitalism” By Christopher

Term	Definition
Bourgeois illusion	A false perception of reality held by the middle class, which is shaped by the contradictions and crises of capitalism.
Commodity fetishism	The perception of the social relationships involved in production as relationships among things (commodities), rather than among people.
Pessimism	A general belief that things will turn out badly. In the context of the article, it refers to the poets’ sense of despair about the state of society.
Tragic	Causing great sadness and suffering. The poets are described as experiencing a tragic sense of loss and disillusionment.
Elegy	A poem that reflects on loss and death.
Individual struggle for existence	A concept derived from Darwinism, but applied to human society to justify capitalist competition and inequality.
Verbalism	The excessive use of words without clear meaning or substance.
Immanent light and beauty	A concept referring to a sense of beauty and goodness that is inherent in the world.
Philistine	A person who is uncultured or materialistic.
Commodity production	The production of goods for sale on the market, rather than for direct use.
Production for use	The production of goods to satisfy human needs, rather than for profit.

Contribution of “English Poets: The Decline Of Capitalism” By Christopher Caudwell to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “English Poets: The Decline Of Capitalism” By Christopher Caudwell

Literary Work	Author	Caudwell’s Critique	Supporting Analysis
In Memoriam	Alfred Tennyson	Tennyson’s work reflects profound pessimism and a shattered Keatsian ideal as he grapples with harsh realities.	Caudwell argues that Tennyson’s portrayal of nature’s ruthlessness mirrors the capitalist struggle and societal despair.
The Ring and the Book	Robert Browning	Browning romanticizes the past, particularly the vigor of the Italian bourgeoisie, avoiding contemporary issues.	Caudwell criticizes Browning for escaping into historical nostalgia rather than addressing the contradictions of his own time.
Atalanta in Calydon	Algernon Swinburne	Swinburne’s work, while inspired by contemporary revolutions, is ultimately shallow and lacks depth.	According to Caudwell, Swinburne’s response to bourgeois-democratic revolutions is superficial, reflecting the era’s decline.
Dover Beach	Matthew Arnold	Arnold’s work embodies the pessimism of the bourgeois class, struggling against the Philistine but doomed to fail.	Caudwell notes that Arnold’s battle against the Philistine is futile, as it reflects the inherent contradictions of his society.

Criticism Against “English Poets: The Decline Of Capitalism” By Christopher Caudwell

Suggested Readings: “English Poets: The Decline Of Capitalism” By Christopher Caudwell

Representative Quotations from “English Poets: The Decline Of Capitalism” By Christopher Caudwell with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Arnold, Swinburne, Tennyson and Browning, each in his own way, illustrate the movement of the bourgeois illusion in this ‘tragic’ stage of its history.”	Caudwell argues that these poets collectively represent the decline of bourgeois ideals during a critical period of social and economic change. The “tragic” stage signifies the realization that bourgeois capitalism’s promises are unachievable, and these poets’ works reflect this growing disillusionment.
2. “The unconscious ruthlessness of Tennyson’s ‘Nature’ in fact only reflects the ruthlessness of a society in which capitalist is continually hurling down fellow capitalist into the proletarian abyss.”	Caudwell critiques Tennyson’s portrayal of nature, suggesting it symbolizes the brutal competition within capitalist society. The “unconscious ruthlessness” mirrors the harsh survival mechanisms of capitalism, where individuals are forced into relentless struggles, echoing societal brutality.
3. “Browning revolts from the drab present not to the future but to the glories of the virile Italian springtime of the bourgeoisie.”	Caudwell criticizes Browning for his nostalgic retreat into the past, particularly the glorification of the Italian bourgeoisie’s vigor, instead of addressing contemporary social issues. This evasion of present realities is seen as a significant flaw in Browning’s work.
4. “Swinburne is profoundly moved by the appeal of the contemporary bourgeois-democratic revolutions…but the purely verbal and shallow character of his response reflects the essential shallowness of all such movements in this late era…”	While Swinburne is emotionally stirred by the democratic revolutions, Caudwell argues that his poetic response is shallow and fails to meaningfully engage with the core issues. This reflects the declining impact of such movements in a period where the proletariat is becoming more prominent.
5. “As soon as the pessimism of Arnold and the young Tennyson…made it inevitable that the poet quit the contemporary scene, it was equally inevitable that the poet should fall a victim to commodity-fetishism.”	Caudwell highlights how the retreat from contemporary social issues by poets like Arnold and Tennyson leads to the commodification of their art. Their pessimism drives them away from reality, resulting in their work becoming detached from its social roots, a phenomenon Caudwell identifies as “commodity-fetishism.”
6. “Because this is the fundamental contradiction, the poet ‘revolts’ against the system of profit-making or production for exchange-value as crippling the meaning and significance of art.”	Caudwell notes the contradiction in bourgeois society, where poets attempt to revolt against the capitalist system that commodifies their art. However, their inability to break free from bourgeois ideology limits the effectiveness of their protest, reducing their critique to a superficial level.

Introduction: “Critical Realism And Socialist Realism” by Georg Lukacs

“Critical Realism and Socialist Realism” by Georg Lukács was first published in the 1938 collection Studies in European Realism. This essay holds significant importance in literature and literary theory as it offers a comparative analysis of two distinct artistic approaches. Lukács explores the evolution of realism from its bourgeois origins to its socialist manifestation, arguing that while critical realism provided valuable insights into the contradictions of capitalist society, socialist realism offered a more comprehensive and progressive understanding of social reality. This work has been influential in shaping Marxist literary criticism and continues to provoke debate about the relationship between art and society.

Summary of “Critical Realism And Socialist Realism” by Georg Lukacs

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Critical Realism And Socialist Realism” by Georg Lukacs

Term	Definition
Critical Realism	A literary approach analyzing the contradictions of capitalist society.
Socialist Realism	A literary method aiming to depict reality in a way that promotes socialist ideals.
Typical Hero	A character whose inner being is determined by objective social forces.
Naturalism	A literary style emphasizing the influence of environment and heredity on individuals.
Revolutionary Romanticism	A literary movement combining revolutionary ideals with romantic elements.

Contribution of “Critical Realism And Socialist Realism” by Georg Lukacs to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Critical Realism And Socialist Realism” by Georg Lukacs

Literary Work	Potential Critique Based on Lukács
Leo Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina	While acknowledging Tolstoy’s realism, Lukács might argue that the novel’s focus on individual tragedy rather than broader social forces limits its capacity to fully engage with the critical or socialist realist project.
Emile Zola’s Germinal	Lukács might praise Zola’s attempt to depict social conditions realistically but criticize the novel’s naturalistic tendencies, which reduce characters to mere products of their environment, thereby limiting their agency and the potential for social transformation.
Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment	Lukács might acknowledge Dostoevsky’s psychological depth but criticize the novel’s focus on individual psychology at the expense of a broader social analysis. He might argue that the novel’s characters are not sufficiently grounded in their social context.
George Orwell’s 1984	While acknowledging Orwell’s critique of totalitarianism, Lukács might argue that the novel’s dystopian vision lacks a concrete foundation in socialist realism. He might suggest that the novel’s pessimistic outlook undermines the potential for revolutionary action and hope.

Criticism Against “Critical Realism And Socialist Realism” by Georg Lukacs

 Suggested Readings: “Critical Realism And Socialist Realism” by Georg Lukacs

1. Lee, TG. “The Politics of Realism.” Anachronist, 2004.
   https://www.academia.edu/download/37182672/2004Lee.pdf
2. Szerdahelyi, I. “From ‘Great Realism’ to Realism.” Hungarian Studies on Gyorgy Lukacs, 1993: https://huebunkers.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/szerdahelyi-great-realism-1.pdf
3. Stahl, T. “Georg Lukács.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2013. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/lukacs/
4. Congdon, Lee. “Revivifying Socialist Realism: Lukács’s Solschenizyn.” Studies in East European Thought, 2019. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11212-019-09328-3
5. Orr, John. “Georg Lukács.” The Sociological Review, 1977. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-954X.1977.tb03234.x
6. Burgoyne, NG. “Georg Lukács and the World Literature of Socialist Realism: A Case Study of Cold War Cultural Conflict.” Journal of Narrative Theory, 2022. https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/38/article/869776/summary
7. Keller, Edmund. “GEORG LUKÁCS’ CONCEPT OF LITERARY REALISM.” Journal of the Australasian Universities Language and Literature Association, 1977. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1179/aulla.1977.47.1.003
8. Schulenberg, Ulf. “Resuscitating Georg Lukács: Form, Metaphysics and the Idea of a New Realism.” Culture, Theory and Critique, 2017. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14735784.2016.1185955
9. Shneyder, Vladislav. “On the Hegelian Roots of Lukács’s Theory of Realism.” Studies in East European Thought, 2013.https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11212-014-9194-1

Representative Quotations from “Critical Realism And Socialist Realism” by Georg Lukacs with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Socialist realism is concerned to locate those human qualities which make for the creation of a new social order.”	This quotation highlights the aim of socialist realism to identify and portray the human attributes that contribute to building a socialist society, distinguishing it from other forms of realism.
“A correct aesthetic understanding of social and historical reality is the precondition of realism.”	Lukács emphasizes that realism in literature must be grounded in an accurate comprehension of social and historical contexts, underscoring the importance of materialist analysis in art.
“The theoretical basis of this alliance is socialism’s concern for the truth.”	This statement underlines the alliance between critical and socialist realism, which is based on a shared commitment to truth in depicting reality, a central tenet of Marxist aesthetics.
“The scope of critical realism will narrow as a society comes into being the portrayal of which is beyond the grasp of the critical realist.”	Lukács predicts the decline of critical realism in a fully developed socialist society, arguing that only socialist realism can fully capture the new social realities.
“Typical heroes of literature are determined by objective forces at work in society.”	This quote reflects Lukács’ concept of “typical” characters in socialist realism, whose behavior and characteristics are shaped by the larger societal and historical forces, not just individual traits.
“Naturalism, socialist or otherwise, deprives life of its poetry, reduces all to prose.”	Lukács critiques naturalism for its inability to capture the richness and complexity of life, contrasting it with the more nuanced and poetic approach of socialist realism.

Introduction: “The Problem of Interpretation” by Morse Peckham

“The Problem of Interpretation” by Morse Peckham first appeared in 1968 in the collection Twentieth-Century Literary Theory. This seminal essay profoundly influenced discussions around the nature of meaning and the interpretive process in literature. Peckham’s assertion that meaning is primarily a product of the reader’s response rather than an inherent quality of the text challenged traditional notions of authorial intent and objective interpretation. By shifting the focus to the reader, he paved the way for a more reader-centered approach to literary analysis, significantly impacting the development of reader-response theory and other contemporary critical methodologies.

Summary of “The Problem of Interpretation” by Morse Peckham

• Interpretation Extends Beyond Words and Verbal Behavior: Interpretation in literature cannot be confined to just words or verbal behavior, as these elements always occur within a situational context that significantly influences how they are understood. Peckham argues that “verbal behavior always takes place in some kind of situational context, and that context obviously plays a part in the act of interpretation.” To fully grasp the interpretation of literature, one must adopt a broader perspective, incorporating a theory of signs or semiotics, where meaning only arises through a response to the signs presented.
• Uncertainty as the Foundation of Interpretation: The variability of interpretations in literature arises from the inherent uncertainty in how individuals respond to signs. Peckham emphasizes that “uncertainty is the very condition of interpretation,” challenging the traditional notion that there is a single correct interpretation of a text. This uncertainty allows for multiple, sometimes conflicting interpretations, as meaning is not fixed but depends on the response of the interpreter.
• The Role of Context in Controlling Responses: Responses to signs are not random; they are influenced by various contextual factors that shape how meaning is constructed. Peckham notes that “there are factors which prevent such extremes, which control response; that is, control meanings.” These controlling factors can include the immediate situational context or broader cultural and economic matrices, which guide and limit how signs are interpreted.
• Constructing Intent as a Means of Interpretational Control: In literary interpretation, the concept of an author’s intent is not something that can be objectively discovered but is rather constructed by the interpreter to guide the understanding of the text. Peckham asserts that “the establishment of a literary intention is not a discovery; it is… the construction of a matrix which will serve to control our interpretation of the text.” This construction of intent helps to manage the inherent uncertainty in interpretation by providing a framework within which meaning can be stabilized.
• Historical-Philological Model as a Guide for Interpretation: Peckham advocates for the historical-philological approach to interpretation, which seeks to reconstruct the situational context in which a text was created. He argues that “interpretation in the presence of the generator of an utterance and judged by him to be appropriate is the proper model for the interpretation of an utterance in the absence of the generator of that utterance.” This approach mirrors how one would seek clarification in face-to-face interaction and applies it to literary texts, aiming to understand the conditions under which a work was produced.
• The Development of Situational Thinking in Interpretation: The historical shift towards situational thinking, evident in both historiography and art, marked a move to place events and creations within their original context. Peckham highlights that “what was in common to both of these radical changes… was the effort to place the historical event in a situation in which it might have taken place.” This shift underpins the modern approach to interpretation, where understanding a text involves reconstructing the original matrix of its creation.
• Endless Nature of Interpretation Due to Inherent Uncertainty: Peckham acknowledges that interpretation, especially when dealing with distant historical or literary texts, is inherently uncertain and thus, perpetually ongoing. He states that “interpretation at a distance is inherently uncertain,” leading to the endless nature of historical-philological research, where scholars continually strive to reconstruct the original context that generated the text.
• Differences Between Scientific and Literary Interpretation: Unlike scientific theories, which aim for parsimony and elegance, literary interpretation grapples with the complexity and discontinuity inherent in language. Peckham points out that “not semantic continuity but discontinuity is the character of literary art,” which means that a single interpretive framework or matrix cannot adequately capture the full meaning of a complex literary work. This complexity requires multiple approaches to interpretation.
• Conclusion on the Nature of Literary Interpretation: Peckham concludes that the most effective model for interpreting literature is one that mirrors the interpretational dynamics of everyday verbal communication. He asserts that “the most appropriate model for the interpretation of literature is the model offered by interpretation in such interaction.” This approach acknowledges the complexity and variability of literary texts, suggesting that interpretation should be flexible and responsive to the nuances of the text, much like in ordinary verbal exchanges.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Problem of Interpretation” by Morse Peckham

Term	Definition
Interpretation	The process of assigning meaning to a text or sign.
Sign	Any perceptual configuration to which there is a response.
Signification	The meaning or significance of a sign.
Response	The reaction or understanding of a sign by an individual.
Categorization	The process of assigning a sign to a pre-existing category based on perceptual attributes.
Analogy	The comparison of two things based on similarities.
Matrix	The context or situation in which a sign is presented.
Semiotic configuration	A combination of signs that create meaning.
Semiotic behavior	The use of signs to communicate.
Interpretation deviance	The practice of interpreting a text in a way that is not consistent with the author’s intended meaning.
Historical-philological interpretation	A method of interpretation that focuses on the historical and linguistic context of a text.
Situational thinking	The process of understanding a text within its historical and cultural context.

Contribution of “The Problem of Interpretation” by Morse Peckham to Literary Theory/Theories

• Reader-Response Theory: Morse Peckham’s assertion that meaning is primarily a product of the reader’s response rather than an inherent property of the text is a foundational principle of reader-response theory. By shifting the critical focus from the text to the reader, Peckham initiated a paradigm shift in literary studies. His work encouraged critics to explore how individual readers engage with texts, bringing their own experiences, knowledge, and perspectives to bear on the interpretive process.
• Deconstruction: Peckham’s emphasis on the instability of meaning and the impossibility of definitive interpretation aligns with key tenets of deconstruction. His rejection of the notion of a fixed or stable meaning in a text resonates with Jacques Derrida’s concept of différance, which suggests that meaning is always deferred and displaced. Peckham’s work contributed to the deconstructionist critique of traditional literary analysis, which often sought to uncover a single, authoritative interpretation.
• Cultural Studies: Peckham’s exploration of the cultural context of interpretation anticipates the concerns of cultural studies. His understanding of meaning as shaped by social and historical factors aligns with the discipline’s focus on the interplay between text and culture. By emphasizing the role of cultural factors in shaping interpretation, Peckham helped lay the groundwork for the study of literature as a cultural product.
• Poststructuralism: Peckham’s skepticism towards fixed meanings and his emphasis on the reader’s role in constructing meaning resonate with poststructuralist thought. His work can be seen as a challenge to the structuralist emphasis on language as a closed system. By highlighting the indeterminacy of language and the multiplicity of possible interpretations, Peckham contributed to the poststructuralist critique of structuralism and its reliance on fixed binary oppositions.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Problem of Interpretation” by Morse Peckham

Literary Work	Critique Through Peckham’s “The Problem of Interpretation”
Oliver Twist by Charles Dickens	Interpretation of Intention: Peckham’s theory suggests that the perceived intention behind Oliver Twist, such as Dickens’ desire to protest against the treatment of orphans, is a constructed matrix rather than an objective truth. This constructed intention helps guide interpretation but is not inherently correct. Uncertainty and Interpretational Variety: The different readings of Oliver Twist—as social critique, moral tale, or sensational story—illustrate the inherent uncertainty in interpretation. According to Peckham, “uncertainty is the very condition of interpretation,” and each interpretation is a response rather than a definitive meaning.
Moby-Dick by Herman Melville	The Role of Context and Semiotic Matrices: Peckham’s idea that interpretation is controlled by situational context applies to Moby-Dick. Interpretations of the novel, such as viewing it as an exploration of obsession or an allegory of America’s development, depend on the reader’s cultural, historical, or personal context. Constructing a Matrix of Intention: Critics often assert Melville’s intent in Moby-Dick as a profound philosophical work. Peckham would argue that this is a constructed matrix, not a discovery of Melville’s true intent, shaped by the cultural assumptions of the interpreter.
Ulysses by James Joyce	Deviant Interpretation and Cultural Control: Ulysses invites numerous interpretations due to its modernist techniques and fragmented narrative. Peckham’s idea of interpretational deviance applies here, as readers bring various cultural controls to their interpretations, leading to a wide range of readings. Complexity and the Limits of a Single Matrix: Given Ulysses’ complexity, Peckham’s assertion that “no single matrix can be successfully used to control the interpretation of a work of literature” is particularly relevant. Different aspects of the novel, such as its stream-of-consciousness or mythological references, highlight the limitations of a singular interpretative framework.
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Situational Thinking in Historical-Philological Interpretation: A critique of Hamlet through Peckham’s lens would consider the historical and cultural context of Elizabethan England, aligning with the historical-philological approach. Understanding the semiotic matrix that influenced Shakespeare aids in guiding interpretation. Judgment of Appropriateness: Interpretations of Hamlet’s character vary widely. Peckham would argue that these interpretations are not about right or wrong but are judgments of appropriateness, influenced by individual and cultural contexts.

Criticism Against “The Problem of Interpretation” by Morse Peckham

Suggested Readings: “The Problem of Interpretation” by Morse Peckham

1. Eco, Umberto. The Limits of Interpretation. Indiana University Press, 1990.
2. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1980.
3. Hirsch, E.D. Validity in Interpretation. Yale University Press, 1967.
4. Kermode, Frank. The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction. Oxford University Press, 1967.
5. Peckham, Morse. Explanation and Power: The Control of Human Behavior. University of Minnesota Press, 1979.
6. Peckham, Morse. Man’s Rage for Chaos: Biology, Behavior, and the Arts. Schocken Books, 1967.
7. Peckham, Morse. “The Problem of Interpretation.” College Literature, vol. 6, no. 1, 1979, pp. 1-17.
8. Ricoeur, Paul. Interpretation Theory: Discourse and the Surplus of Meaning. Texas Christian University Press, 1976.
9. Schleiermacher, Friedrich. Hermeneutics and Criticism and Other Writings. Cambridge University Press, 1998.

Representative Quotations from “The Problem of Interpretation” by Morse Peckham with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Uncertainty is the very condition of interpretation.”	This quote encapsulates Peckham’s central argument that interpretation is inherently uncertain. Meaning is not fixed or absolute but is generated through the interaction between the text and the reader, making variability and uncertainty integral to the interpretive process.
“A sign… can scarcely say something unless there is somebody to receive and respond to what it wants to say.”	Here, Peckham emphasizes the importance of the reader’s role in creating meaning. A sign or text only gains significance through the response of an interpreter, highlighting the relational nature of meaning-making.
“We cannot say that… one interpretation is right and others are wrong.”	Peckham challenges the traditional notion of a correct interpretation, arguing that without fixed criteria, interpretation cannot be judged in terms of right or wrong. Instead, the appropriateness of an interpretation is subjective and context-dependent.
“The establishment of a literary intention is not a discovery; it is… the construction of a matrix which will serve to control our interpretation of the text.”	This quotation underscores Peckham’s view that literary intention is not an inherent quality to be uncovered but a construct used to guide interpretation. It reflects the idea that meaning is shaped by the interpretive frameworks we impose on a text.
“Any work of literature can be interpreted any way you want to.”	This provocative statement highlights the potential for limitless interpretation, suggesting that the reader’s cultural and situational context allows for a wide range of responses. Peckham illustrates the flexibility and subjectivity of literary interpretation.
“Interpretation in the presence of the generator of an utterance and judged by him to be appropriate is the proper model for the interpretation of an utterance in the absence of the generator.”	Peckham argues for a model of interpretation based on direct interaction with the author or speaker. In the absence of the author, readers must construct the contextual matrix as best they can, reflecting the historical-philological approach to interpretation.

Introduction: “The Content And Structure Of The Concept Of ‘Literature'” By Yury M. Lotman

“The Content And Structure Of The Concept Of ‘Literature'” by Yury M. Lotman was first published in 1976 in PTL: A Journal for Descriptive Poetics and Theory of Literature. This seminal article marked a pivotal moment in literary theory, as Lotman delved into the fundamental question of what constitutes literature. Challenging traditional definitions, he proposed a dynamic and culturally situated understanding of the literary text. By examining the interplay between form and content, Lotman laid the groundwork for a semiotic approach to literature, emphasizing the importance of context and interpretation in shaping literary meaning. His insights continue to be influential in shaping contemporary literary studies.

Summary of “The Content And Structure Of The Concept Of ‘Literature'” By Yury M. Lotman

1. Literature as Part of Culture: Lotman emphasizes that literature is a subset of the broader cultural system, existing alongside non-literary texts. He states, “The existence of literary texts implies both the simultaneous presence of non-literary texts and the ability…to distinguish between them.” This highlights that literature is defined in relation to other cultural texts.
2. Function-Based Differentiation: Literature can be differentiated from other texts based on its ability to fulfill an aesthetic function. Lotman explains, “Any verbal text which is capable…of fulfilling an aesthetic function can be counted as literature.” This differentiation allows texts not originally intended as literature to be reclassified as such based on their aesthetic reception over time.
3. Literary Texts and Aesthetic Function: The formalist perspective, which Lotman discusses, posits that literary texts focus on the “how” rather than the “what,” thereby imbuing them with “a kind of immanent sphere, which acquires independent cultural value.” However, he critiques this view, arguing that literary texts are “overloaded with meanings” rather than “purged” of them, making them richer and more complex than non-literary texts.
4. Double Coding in Literature: Literary texts are distinguished by their “double coding”—first through natural language and second through a literary code that adds layers of meaning. Lotman describes how “the recipient of information knows that this text is encoded in some other way as well,” which compels readers to seek deeper meanings in every element of the text, including seemingly trivial details.
5. Internal Organization of Literary Texts: For a text to function as literature, it must be “constructed in a specific way,” with multiple layers of encoding. Lotman notes that even if a text is not originally intended as literature, “the recipient attributes to it a literary function,” recognizing signals within the text that indicate its literary nature.
6. Correlation Between Function and Structure: Lotman points out that the relationship between a text’s function and its structure is not fixed but varies across cultures and historical periods. He observes, “The emergence of any system of culture entails the formation of a definite structure of functions,” which influences how texts are organized and interpreted.
7. Cultural Dynamics and Literature: Literature evolves in tandem with cultural and ideological shifts. Lotman illustrates this by discussing how periods of cultural stagnation can lead to “literary ossification,” where existing literary forms become rigid, prompting a “new system of ideological-artistic codifications” to emerge. This dynamic allows literature to continuously renew itself by interacting with non-literary texts and broader cultural forces.
8. Interplay Between Art and Non-Art: Lotman argues that art, including literature, requires non-art for its development, stating, “Art, being a part of culture, needs non-art for its development.” This exchange between the “external and the internal spheres” of culture is essential for the growth and transformation of literature.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Content And Structure Of The Concept Of ‘Literature'” By Yury M. Lotman

Concept/Device	Definition
Semiotic Approach	The study of signs and their meaning in culture.
Double Encoding	The idea that a literary text has two layers of meaning: one conveyed through natural language and another through literary codes.
Aesthetic Function	The purpose of a text to evoke an emotional or sensory response.
Immanent Sphere	A self-contained world within the text where form and content are intertwined.
Semantic Weighting	The richness and complexity of meaning in a text.
Supplementary Codes	Additional layers of meaning created by factors such as genre, style, and historical context.
Transcoding	The process of reinterpreting a text within the framework of literary perception.

Contribution of “The Content And Structure Of The Concept Of ‘Literature'” By Yury M. Lotman to Literary Theory/Theories

• Structuralism: Lotman’s essay is fundamentally grounded in structuralist thought, focusing on how literature functions as a system within a broader cultural framework. He argues that “the existence of literary texts implies…the ability…to distinguish between them,” which aligns with the structuralist idea that meaning arises from the relationships between elements within a system. Lotman’s exploration of “double coding” in literature further contributes to structuralism by emphasizing the layered meanings within texts, a core concept in structuralist analysis.
• Formalism: The essay engages with Formalist ideas, particularly in its discussion of the aesthetic function of literature. Lotman references the Formalist belief that “aesthetic function is realized when the text is closed in upon itself,” which resonates with the Formalist focus on the form and structure of literary works. However, Lotman critiques and extends Formalist thought by arguing that literary texts are “overloaded with meanings” rather than simply focused on form. This contribution nuances Formalist theory by suggesting that literary meaning is richer and more complex than previously thought.
• Semiotics: Lotman’s work is deeply embedded in semiotic theory, particularly in his analysis of how literary texts function as systems of signs. He discusses how “the recipient of information knows that this text is encoded in some other way as well,” emphasizing the semiotic principle that texts communicate through multiple layers of meaning. His concept of “double coding” is a significant contribution to semiotics, as it highlights the intricate interplay between different codes within a text, underscoring the complexity of meaning-making in literature.
• Reader-Response Theory: Lotman’s essay contributes to Reader-Response Theory by focusing on the role of the reader in interpreting literary texts. He argues that “the recipient attributes to it a literary function,” suggesting that the reader’s recognition of a text as literature is crucial to its interpretation. This aligns with Reader-Response Theory’s emphasis on the reader’s role in constructing meaning, highlighting how the reader’s knowledge and expectations shape their engagement with a text.
• Historical and Cultural Materialism: The essay also touches on ideas relevant to Historical and Cultural Materialism, particularly in its discussion of how literature evolves in response to broader cultural and ideological shifts. Lotman observes that “the emergence of any system of culture entails the formation of a definite structure of functions,” which reflects the Marxist idea that cultural products are shaped by and reflect the material conditions of their time. His analysis of how literature interacts with non-literary texts and cultural forces contributes to understanding literature as part of a dynamic cultural process.
• Post-Structuralism: While Lotman’s work is more closely aligned with structuralism, it also prefigures some post-structuralist ideas, particularly in its recognition of the instability of meaning. His discussion of “the indeterminancy of the correlation between the links in the chain” in the evolution of literature hints at the post-structuralist idea that meaning is never fully fixed and is always subject to change. This contribution suggests that literature, like language, is an open system, constantly evolving in response to new interpretations and cultural contexts.
  • Genre Theory: Lotman’s essay contributes to Genre Theory by discussing how texts are classified and how these classifications affect their interpretation. He points out that “a text which…does not come into the sphere of art can…belong to it,” highlighting the fluidity of genre boundaries. His exploration of how literature is defined in relation to non-literary texts provides valuable insights into how genres are constructed and how they function within the broader literary system.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Content And Structure Of The Concept Of ‘Literature'” By Yury M. Lotman

Literary Work	Lotman’s Concept Applied	Example of Critique
Ulysses by James Joyce	Double Coding & Overloaded Meaning	According to Lotman, literary texts are “overloaded with meanings” and involve “double coding.” Ulysses exemplifies this with its intricate use of multiple narrative styles and layers of symbolism, requiring readers to decode not just the literal text but the underlying cultural, historical, and linguistic references.
Leaves of Grass by Walt Whitman	Differentiation in Terms of Function	Lotman’s idea that literature functions by fulfilling an aesthetic purpose applies to Leaves of Grass, where Whitman’s poetic celebration of individuality and nature elevates everyday language into a higher aesthetic form, demonstrating the text’s capacity to function as literature through its rhythmic and expressive qualities.
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Internal Organization & Cultural Structure	Lotman’s concept of internal organization and its correlation with cultural systems can be applied to The Waste Land. The poem’s fragmented structure reflects the chaotic cultural landscape of post-World War I Europe, requiring readers to navigate through historical, literary, and religious references to grasp its deeper meanings.
One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez	Interplay Between Art and Non-Art	Lotman’s idea that literature evolves through interaction with non-literary texts is evident in One Hundred Years of Solitude. The novel blends historical events with magical realism, transcoding real-life Latin American experiences into a literary form that challenges the boundaries between history and fiction.

Criticism Against “The Content And Structure Of The Concept Of ‘Literature'” By Yury M. Lotman

Suggested Readings: “The Content And Structure Of The Concept Of ‘Literature'” By Yury M. Lotman

1. Culler, Jonathan. Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature. Cornell University Press, 1975.
2. Eco, Umberto. The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts. Indiana University Press, 1979.
3. Hawkes, Terence. Structuralism and Semiotics. University of California Press, 1977.
4. Jakobson, Roman. Language in Literature. Edited by Krystyna Pomorska and Stephen Rudy, Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1987.
5. Lotman, Yuri M. Universe of the Mind: A Semiotic Theory of Culture. Translated by Ann Shukman, I.B. Tauris, 1990.
6. Shukman, Ann. Literature and Semiotics: A Study of the Writings of Yu. M. Lotman. North-Holland Publishing Co., 1977.
7. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Poetics of Prose. Translated by Richard Howard, Cornell University Press, 1977.

Representative Quotations from “The Content And Structure Of The Concept Of ‘Literature'” By Yury M. Lotman with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The existence of literary texts implies both the simultaneous presence of non-literary texts and the ability…to distinguish between them.”	Lotman highlights the interdependent relationship between literary and non-literary texts. Literature is defined not in isolation but through its differentiation from other forms of communication within the cultural system, emphasizing the importance of context in defining literature.
“Any verbal text which is capable…of fulfilling an aesthetic function can be counted as literature.”	This quotation underscores the idea that literature is defined by its aesthetic function. A text’s literary status is determined by its ability to engage readers aesthetically, which may vary depending on historical and cultural contexts.
“Literary functioning does not produce a text which is ‘purged’ of meanings, but, on the contrary, a text which is to a maximum degree overloaded with meanings.”	Lotman critiques the Formalist view by arguing that literary texts are not merely focused on form but are rich in meaning. This “overloading” of meanings differentiates literary texts from non-literary ones, making them complex and layered.
“The recipient of information knows that this text is encoded in some other way as well.”	Here, Lotman introduces the concept of “double coding,” where literary texts contain additional layers of meaning beyond the basic linguistic code. This double coding requires readers to engage more deeply with the text, searching for underlying meanings.
“The emergence of any system of culture entails the formation of a definite structure of functions.”	Lotman suggests that the structure of literature is shaped by the broader cultural system in which it exists. The functions of literary texts are influenced by the cultural, social, and ideological frameworks of the time, reflecting the dynamic relationship between culture and literature.
“Art, being a part of culture, needs non-art for its development, just as culture…needs the dynamic process of correlation with the sphere of non-culture exterior to it.”	This quotation emphasizes the interdependence between art (including literature) and non-art. Lotman argues that literature evolves by interacting with non-literary texts and cultural forces, making the development of literature a dynamic process.

Introduction: “Semiotics As A Theory Of Reading” by Jonathan Culler

“Semiotics As A Theory Of Reading” by Jonathan Culler was first published in 1981 as part of the Cornell University Press collection. This groundbreaking work significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory by introducing a systematic approach to understanding how readers construct meaning from texts. Culler’s exploration of semiotics, the study of signs and symbols, revolutionized literary analysis by shifting focus from authorial intent to the reader’s active role in creating interpretations.

Summary of “Semiotics As A Theory Of Reading” by Jonathan Culler

1. The Pursuit of Knowledge in Literary Criticism: Jonathan Culler posits that the enduring engagement with literary criticism suggests an underlying belief that the discipline is fundamentally about the pursuit of knowledge. Despite the frequent failures to meet this expectation, the persistence of this belief indicates that literary criticism is seen as a discipline aiming to uncover meaningful insights. Culler writes, “We see literary criticism as a discipline that aims at knowledge,” even if this goal is more aspirational than often realized (Culler, 1981, p. 47).
2. Interpretative Challenges in Literary Studies: The shift from a focus on erudition to interpretation in literary studies brings into question whether the discipline is moving towards a clearer understanding of literary works. Culler acknowledges that acts of interpretation do not necessarily bring us closer to a definitive understanding, especially when considering the vast array of interpretations that exist. He observes, “Acts of interpretation do not necessarily seem to bring us closer to a goal such as a more accurate understanding of all the major works of European literature” (Culler, 1981, p. 47).
3. The Issue of Interpretative Proliferation: The proliferation of interpretations poses a significant challenge to the notion of achieving a singular, correct understanding of any literary work. Culler argues that the very existence of multiple competing theories only serves to exacerbate this proliferation, making it impossible to impose a uniform standard or single goal in literary studies. He notes, “The very existence of competing theories of the meaning of works encourages and reproduces the proliferation each theory was designed to cure” (Culler, 1981, p. 48).
4. Semiotics as a Method for Analyzing Literary Meaning: Semiotics offers a methodologically clear approach to understanding how literary works generate meaning by examining the conventions and processes involved in interpretation. Culler emphasizes that semiotics seeks to identify the operations through which literature, as a signifying practice, produces its observable effects of meaning. He explains, “Semiotics seeks to identify the conventions and operations by which any signifying practice (such as literature) produces its observable effects of meaning” (Culler, 1981, p. 49).
5. Challenges to Semiotic Assumptions: Culler addresses the objections to semiotics, particularly the difficulty in separating a literary work from its interpretations and the challenge of capturing the effects of signification on readers accurately. Critics argue that interpretations are influenced by external factors and may not reliably reflect the work itself. Culler acknowledges these concerns, noting, “Objections to the first assumption insist on the importance of attempting to separate the work itself from interpretations of it” (Culler, 1981, p. 50).
6. Reconceptualizing Semiotics as a Theory of Reading: Culler suggests that semiotics should focus less on determining a text’s intrinsic meaning and more on the processes through which readers make sense of texts. This shift from meaning to “making sense” emphasizes the interpretive operations that render texts intelligible, highlighting the dynamic interaction between readers and texts. Culler proposes that, “The semiotic program may be better expressed by the concepts of ‘sense’ and ‘making sense’ than by the concept of ‘meaning'” (Culler, 1981, p. 51).
7. Norms of Interpretation and Literary Competence: The concept of “literary competence” implies that interpretation is governed by certain norms, even though these norms may vary between different interpretive communities. Culler argues that the process of interpretation is inherently linked to these norms, which, while often implicit, are crucial for understanding how interpretations are formed. He asserts that, “‘Competence’ does indicate that one is dealing with an ability involving norms” (Culler, 1981, p. 52).
8. Analyzing Divergence in Interpretations: Culler finds the divergence of interpretations to be a vital area of study within literary criticism. He argues that these variations in understanding are not only inevitable but also crucial for a deeper comprehension of literary texts. Culler points out that, “Divergence of readings is more interesting than convergence,” suggesting that these differences reveal important aspects of how literature is understood and interpreted (Culler, 1981, p. 51).
9. Focus on Interpretive Practices in Semiotics: Instead of seeking to resolve interpretive disagreements, Culler believes that semiotics should analyze the practices that produce these disagreements, as they are central to the literary activity within a culture. By focusing on how readers make sense of texts, semiotics can provide insights into the cultural significance of these interpretive practices. He proposes that, “One might attempt to analyze the interpretive operations that produce these disagreements” (Culler, 1981, p. 49).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Semiotics As A Theory Of Reading” by Jonathan Culler

Term	Definition
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols, and how meaning is created through their use.
Interpretation	The process of assigning meaning to a text.
Literary Competence	The ability to understand and interpret literary works based on shared norms and conventions.
Signification	The process of creating meaning through signs and symbols.
Conventions	Established rules or practices in a particular field, such as literature.
Interpretive Operations	The mental processes involved in understanding a text.
Intelligibility	The quality of being understandable or comprehensible.

Contribution of “Semiotics As A Theory Of Reading” by Jonathan Culler to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Semiotics As A Theory Of Reading” by Jonathan Culler

Literary Work	Critique through Semiotics	Key Semiotic Concepts
William Shakespeare’s “King Lear”	A semiotic analysis would explore how the tragic impact of King Lear is constructed through its language, symbols, and character interactions. The “sense” made by audiences might vary, reflecting cultural and interpretive contexts.	Signifying Practices: Analyzing how tragedy is signified through language and narrative structures.
John Milton’s “Paradise Lost”	Semiotics would examine the ways in which Paradise Lost communicates theological and moral meanings, focusing on how readers interpret its complex narrative and allegory. Interpretation may vary based on readers’ cultural and religious backgrounds.	Interpretive Operations: Understanding how readers make sense of allegorical content.
William Wordsworth’s “A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal”	A semiotic approach would study the wide range of interpretations surrounding this poem, from its elegiac tone to its reflections on nature and mortality. The divergence in readings highlights the poem’s open-ended signification.	Divergence of Interpretations: Exploring the variety of meanings readers attribute to the poem.
Andrew Marvell’s “Horatian Ode”	Through semiotics, one could analyze how this poem’s ambiguous stance on Cromwell is constructed, looking at how linguistic choices and historical context contribute to differing readings (celebration vs. critique).	Cultural Signification: Investigating how historical and cultural contexts shape the interpretation.

Criticism Against “Semiotics As A Theory Of Reading” by Jonathan Culler

• Overemphasis on Reader Response: Culler’s theory is often criticized for excessively focusing on the reader’s role in constructing meaning, potentially neglecting the intrinsic qualities and formal elements of the text itself.
• Neglect of Authorial Intent: Critics argue that Culler’s emphasis on the reader diminishes the importance of authorial intention in shaping the text’s meaning.
• Limited Scope of Application: Some contend that Culler’s semiotic approach might not be applicable to all literary genres or periods, particularly those that prioritize authorial voice or historical context.
• Oversimplification of Complex Texts: Critics suggest that Culler’s model may oversimplify the complexities of literary works, reducing them to mere sign systems.
• Ignoring Intertextuality: While Culler acknowledges intertextuality, some critics argue that his theory does not fully explore the complex interplay of texts and their influence on interpretation.

Suggested Readings: “Semiotics As A Theory Of Reading” by Jonathan Culler

1. Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 1997.
2. Culler, Jonathan. On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism. Cornell University Press, 1982.
3. Culler, Jonathan. Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics, and the Study of Literature. Cornell University Press, 1975.
4. Eco, Umberto. A Theory of Semiotics. Indiana University Press, 1976.
5. Lentricchia, Frank, and Thomas McLaughlin, editors. Critical Terms for Literary Study. 2nd ed., University of Chicago Press, 1995.
6. Riffaterre, Michael. Semiotics of Poetry. Indiana University Press, 1978.
7. Saussure, Ferdinand de. Course in General Linguistics. Edited by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, translated by Wade Baskin, Philosophical Library, 1959.
8. Scholes, Robert. Semiotics and Interpretation. Yale University Press, 1982.
9. Silverman, Kaja. The Subject of Semiotics. Oxford University Press, 1983.

Representative Quotations from “Semiotics As A Theory Of Reading” by Jonathan Culler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“We see literary criticism as a discipline that aims at knowledge.” (Culler, 1981, p. 47)	This quotation reflects Culler’s view that literary criticism is fundamentally about seeking knowledge, even if this goal is not always achieved or clearly defined.
“Acts of interpretation do not necessarily seem to bring us closer to a goal such as a more accurate understanding of all the major works of European literature.” (Culler, 1981, p. 47)	Culler highlights the challenge of interpretation in literary studies, suggesting that multiple interpretations do not always lead to a definitive or more accurate understanding.
“The very existence of competing theories of the meaning of works encourages and reproduces the proliferation each theory was designed to cure.” (Culler, 1981, p. 48)	This quotation points to the paradox that the more theories there are about the meaning of a work, the more interpretations proliferate, complicating the pursuit of a single meaning.
“Semiotics seeks to identify the conventions and operations by which any signifying practice (such as literature) produces its observable effects of meaning.” (Culler, 1981, p. 49)	Culler describes semiotics as a methodological tool that examines how literature and other signifying practices create meaning through identifiable conventions and operations.
“The semiotic program may be better expressed by the concepts of ‘sense’ and ‘making sense’ than by the concept of ‘meaning’.” (Culler, 1981, p. 51)	Here, Culler suggests a shift from focusing on the inherent meaning of texts to understanding how readers actively make sense of texts through interpretation.
“Divergence of readings is more interesting than convergence.” (Culler, 1981, p. 51)	Culler argues that the differences in how readers interpret a text are more insightful than areas of agreement, as they reveal the diverse ways literature can be understood.

Introduction: “Structuralism And Literary Criticism” by Gerard Genette  

“Structuralism and Literary Criticism” by Gerard Genette was first published in 1966 as part of the collection Figures III. This seminal work ushered in a new era of literary analysis, emphasizing the importance of structural elements in understanding texts. Genette’s exploration of narrative, discourse, and genre laid the groundwork for contemporary literary theory, offering a rigorous and systematic approach to interpreting literary works.

Summary of “Structuralism And Literary Criticism” by Gerard Genette  

1. Mythical Thought, Bricolage, and Literary Criticism: Gérard Genette begins by drawing a parallel between Claude Lévi-Strauss’s notion of mythical thought as “a kind of intellectual bricolage” and the practice of literary criticism. Just as the bricoleur creatively uses available materials, literary critics work with the same materials—language—as the texts they analyze. Genette emphasizes that literary criticism is unique in that it “speaks the same language as its object,” functioning as a “metalanguage, ‘discourse upon a discourse,'” or what can be seen as “a literature of which literature itself is the imposed object.”
2. The Structuralist Foundation of Literary Criticism: Genette positions literary criticism as inherently a “structuralist activity,” arguing that it involves uncovering the internal structures of literary works rather than focusing on external contexts such as psychology or history. He suggests that structuralism is not just a method but also “a general tendency of thought,” where the critic’s task is to explore how literature as a system of signs generates meaning. By doing so, structuralism emphasizes the connection between form and meaning, moving beyond traditional realist approaches.
3. Beyond Formalism: Reconnecting Form and Meaning: Structuralism, according to Genette, moves beyond the reductionist approach of Formalism by reconnecting form with meaning. While Formalism might focus solely on linguistic elements, structuralism seeks to “uncover the connection that exists between a system of forms and a system of meanings.” This approach enables a deeper understanding of literature by analyzing larger structural units such as narrative and description, rather than merely focusing on individual linguistic features.
4. The Ambitious Scope of Structuralism: The structuralist approach is ambitious in its scope, aiming to tackle not only linguistic elements but also the “semantic phenomena” that constitute the essence of poetic language and literary semiology. Genette argues that structuralism should extend its analysis beyond the sentence to encompass the “large unities” of discourse, such as narrative and description, which he suggests could lead to the development of a “new rhetoric” necessary for literary analysis.
5. Structuralism in the Context of Literary History: Genette highlights that structuralism offers a novel way to understand literary evolution through synchronic analysis, focusing on the functions of elements within the literary system rather than their diachronic presence. He asserts that “literary history becomes the history of a system,” where the evolution of functions is more significant than the mere presence or absence of elements. This approach allows for a richer understanding of how literary systems evolve over time.
6. Structuralism and Hermeneutics: A Complementary Relationship: Contrary to viewing structuralism and hermeneutics as mutually exclusive, Genette suggests that they can be complementary. He posits that while structuralism offers a distant, analytical perspective, hermeneutics can provide a more interpretive and creative approach to literary criticism. The “relation that binds structuralism and hermeneutics together might not be one of mechanical separation and exclusion, but of complementarity,” allowing each approach to enrich the other.
7. The Structuralist Approach to Literary Coherence: Genette argues that when literary criticism focuses on the internal structure of a work, it naturally aligns with structuralist principles. This method provides a way to understand the coherence of a literary work by analyzing the network of themes within it. Structuralism thus serves as “a refuge for all immanent criticism against the danger of fragmentation,” enabling a deeper exploration of the unity and coherence of literary texts.
8. The Risks and Rewards of Structuralist Analysis: While Genette acknowledges the power of structuralism as a tool for literary analysis, he also warns of its potential risks. He notes that “structures are not directly encountered objects…they are systems of latent relations, conceived rather than perceived,” highlighting the interpretative nature of this approach. Critics must be cautious not to “invent” structures where none exist, maintaining a balance between discovery and interpretation.
9. Understanding Literary Evolution through Functional Analysis: Finally, Genette emphasizes the importance of understanding literary evolution through the analysis of functions rather than elements. He argues that the “evolution of the functions…is significant, not that of the elements,” and that a thorough understanding of synchronic relations is essential before exploring diachronic changes. This approach to literary history allows for a more nuanced understanding of how literary forms and themes change over time, contributing to the richness of literary analysis.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Structuralism And Literary Criticism” by Gerard Genette  

Term/Concept	Definition
Bricolage	The process of making use of available materials and tools, rather than specialized ones, for a specific task. Genette applies this concept to literary criticism, suggesting that critics use the same materials (language) as the works they analyze.
Metalanguage	A language used to describe or analyze another language. In literary criticism, it is the language used to discuss and analyze literary works.
Metaliterature	A literature that has literature itself as its primary object of study.
Structuralism	A method of analysis that focuses on the underlying structures of a system, rather than its individual elements. In literature, it involves studying the relationships between elements within a text.
Formalism	A literary movement that focuses on the form and structure of a literary work, rather than its content or meaning.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols and their meaning. In literary criticism, it involves analyzing the meaning of literary texts as systems of signs.
Discourse	A unit of language larger than a sentence, often encompassing a complete thought or idea. In literary criticism, it refers to the overall structure and organization of a text.
Hermeneutics	The theory and practice of interpretation, especially of texts.
Structural Dynamics	The study of how literary structures change over time.

Contribution of “Structuralism And Literary Criticism” by Gerard Genette  to Literary Theory/Theories

• Introduction of Structuralism as a Method in Literary Criticism: Gérard Genette significantly contributes to literary theory by positioning literary criticism as a structuralist activity. He argues that structuralism provides a method for uncovering the underlying structures within literary texts, rather than focusing on external factors like authorial intent or historical context. This approach shifts the focus of criticism to the internal mechanics of the text itself, emphasizing that “literary criticism speaks the same language as its object: it is a metalanguage, ‘discourse upon a discourse.'”
• Reconceptualization of Literature as a System of Signs: Genette’s application of structuralist theory to literature redefines literary works as systems of signs that generate meaning through their structure. This reconceptualization moves away from viewing literature as a reflection of reality or a vehicle for expressing an author’s thoughts. Instead, it emphasizes the formal and structural aspects of texts, where “what was a sign for the writer (the work) becomes meaning for the critic.”
• Bridging the Gap between Formalism and Structuralism: Genette bridges the gap between Formalism and Structuralism by emphasizing the need to reconnect form with meaning. While Formalism focused primarily on the linguistic elements of texts, Genette argues that structuralism goes further by uncovering the connections between these forms and their meanings within the broader literary system. He asserts that “structural analysis must make it possible to uncover the connection that exists between a system of forms and a system of meanings.”
• Expansion of Structural Analysis Beyond Linguistics: Genette expands the scope of structuralist analysis beyond the linguistic level to encompass larger units of discourse, such as narrative and description. This broadens the potential for literary analysis, addressing the limitations of earlier structuralist approaches that focused solely on linguistic elements. As Genette suggests, “one would thus study systems from a much higher level of generality, such as narrative, description, and the other major forms of literary expression.”
• Contribution to the Development of Literary Semiotics: Genette’s work significantly contributes to the development of literary semiotics by advocating for the analysis of the “large unities” of discourse. He emphasizes the importance of understanding the relationship between code and message, which is central to the study of literary semiotics. He notes that “the ambition of structuralism is not confined to counting feet and to observing the repetitions of phonemes: it must also attack semantic phenomena which…constitute the essence of poetic language.”
• Challenge to Traditional Realism and Positivism: Genette challenges traditional realism and positivism in literary criticism by advocating for a focus on the internal structure of literary works. By moving away from the search for external causes and conditions, he encourages an understanding of literature as an autonomous system. In doing so, he connects structuralism with “the general movement away from positivism, ‘historicizing history’ and the ‘biographical illusion.'”
• Introduction of the Concept of Synchronic Literary Analysis: Genette introduces the concept of synchronic literary analysis, which involves studying the structures of a literary work at a specific moment in time. This approach contrasts with diachronic analysis, which focuses on the historical development of literary forms and themes. Genette emphasizes the importance of synchronic analysis by noting that “an element can remain while changing function, or on the contrary disappear while leaving its function to another.”
• Integration of Structuralism and Hermeneutics: Rather than viewing structuralism and hermeneutics as opposing approaches, Genette suggests that they can be complementary. This integration allows for a more holistic understanding of literary texts, where structural analysis provides a distant, objective perspective, and hermeneutic analysis offers a more interpretive, subjective understanding. He posits that “the relation that binds structuralism and hermeneutics together might not be one of mechanical separation and exclusion, but of complementarity.”
• Reinforcement of the Coherence and Unity of Literary Works: Genette’s structuralist approach reinforces the idea that literary works possess an inherent coherence and unity. By analyzing the internal structure of a text, critics can uncover the underlying principles that give the work its consistency and meaning, countering the fragmentation that might result from thematic analysis alone. Genette asserts that “structuralism…would appear to be a refuge for all immanent criticism against the danger of fragmentation.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Structuralism And Literary Criticism” by Gerard Genette  

Literary Work	Structural Analysis
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Shakespeare’s Hamlet exhibits a complex structure centered around binary oppositions. These antithetical elements, such as life and death, revenge and inaction, and sanity and madness, create a dynamic tension that underpins the narrative. The play’s structure can be analyzed through a lens of dramatic irony, where the audience possesses knowledge concealed from characters, further emphasizing the play’s structural integrity.
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	Austen employs a structured narrative framework based on societal norms and expectations of the Regency era. The novel’s plot revolves around the marriage market and the characters’ navigation of these social structures. The interplay between individual desires and societal constraints forms the core of the work’s structural integrity.
Moby Dick by Herman Melville	Melville’s Moby Dick presents a complex narrative structure that interweaves multiple genres, including adventure, philosophy, and allegory. The novel’s episodic structure and the symbolic significance of the white whale contribute to its overall structural complexity. The work can be analyzed through the lens of binary oppositions, such as man versus nature, good versus evil, and reality versus illusion.
Ulysses by James Joyce	Joyce’s Ulysses is renowned for its innovative and experimental structure, mirroring the structure of Homer’s Odyssey. The novel employs a stream-of-consciousness narrative, paralleling the complex and multifaceted nature of the human mind. The work’s structure can be analyzed through its use of motifs, symbols, and archetypes, which contribute to the overall thematic coherence.

Key Structuralist Concepts: This analysis primarily focuses on the works’ underlying structures, binary oppositions, narrative frameworks, and symbolic elements. A more in-depth study would explore other structuralist concepts such as character roles, plot development, and thematic patterns.

Criticism Against “Structuralism And Literary Criticism” by Gerard Genette  

• Overemphasis on Structure at the Expense of Substance: Critics argue that Genette’s structuralist approach places too much emphasis on the structural elements of literary works, potentially neglecting the substantive content, themes, and broader socio-political contexts that are also crucial for understanding literature.
• Risk of Reductive Analysis: The structuralist method, as described by Genette, can lead to reductive interpretations of literary texts by focusing primarily on formal structures. This approach might overlook the complexities and nuances of literary meaning that go beyond mere structural elements.
• Potential for Inventing Structures: Genette himself acknowledges that “structures are not directly encountered objects…they are systems of latent relations, conceived rather than perceived,” which raises the concern that structuralist analysis might invent structures rather than discover them, leading to subjective or arbitrary interpretations.
• Marginalization of Historical and Biographical Contexts: By advocating for a focus on the internal mechanics of texts, Genette’s structuralism risks marginalizing important historical, biographical, and cultural contexts that can provide valuable insights into a literary work’s meaning and significance.
• Limited Engagement with Reader Response: Structuralism, as presented by Genette, tends to focus on the text as an autonomous entity, potentially ignoring the role of the reader in constructing meaning. This limits engagement with reader-response theories, which emphasize the interaction between the text and its audience.
• Ambiguity in Methodology: Some critics find Genette’s structuralist methodology to be somewhat ambiguous, particularly in how it should be applied consistently across different literary texts. The lack of a clear, systematic approach can lead to varied and potentially inconsistent interpretations.
• Dismissal of Authorial Intent: Genette’s structuralism downplays or dismisses the relevance of authorial intent in literary analysis, which some critics believe is essential for understanding the deeper meanings and motivations behind a text.
• Potential for Dehumanization of Literature: The emphasis on structure and form over content and meaning may lead to what some critics see as the dehumanization of literature, where the emotional and human aspects of literary works are overshadowed by an over-analytical focus on technical structures.
• Challenges in Addressing Dynamic Literary Evolutions: While Genette discusses the importance of synchronic analysis, some critics argue that structuralism struggles to adequately address the dynamic and evolving nature of literature, particularly in terms of how literary forms and meanings change over time.

Suggested Readings: “Structuralism And Literary Criticism” by Gerard Genette  

1. Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1980.
2. Barthes, Roland. Image-Music-Text. Translated by Stephen Heath, Hill and Wang, 1977.
3. Culler, Jonathan. Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics, and the Study of Literature. Cornell University Press, 1975.
4. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. 2nd ed., University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
5. Levi-Strauss, Claude. Structural Anthropology. Translated by Claire Jacobson and Brooke Grundfest Schoepf, Basic Books, 1963.
6. Rimmon-Kenan, Shlomith. Narrative Fiction: Contemporary Poetics. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2002.
7. Saussure, Ferdinand de. Course in General Linguistics. Edited by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, translated by Wade Baskin, Philosophical Library, 1959.
8. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Poetics of Prose. Translated by Richard Howard, Cornell University Press, 1977.
9. Waugh, Patricia. Literary Theory and Criticism: An Oxford Guide. Oxford University Press, 2006.

Representative Quotations from “Structuralism And Literary Criticism” by Gerard Genette  with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Literary criticism speaks the same language as its object: it is a metalanguage, ‘discourse upon a discourse.'”	This quotation highlights the unique nature of literary criticism within structuralist theory, where criticism operates as a “metalanguage” that reflects or reinterprets literature at a higher level of abstraction.
“What was a sign for the writer (the work) becomes meaning for the critic.”	Genette emphasizes the shift from the writer’s perspective to the critic’s. For the writer, the work is a sign conveying meaning; for the critic, this sign becomes an object of study, with the critic’s role being to interpret this meaning.
“Structural analysis must make it possible to uncover the connection that exists between a system of forms and a system of meanings.”	This quotation captures the goal of structuralist criticism: to reveal how the forms within a literary work are connected to its meanings, thereby offering a deeper understanding of how literature functions as a system of signs.
“One would thus study systems from a much higher level of generality, such as narrative, description, and the other major forms of literary expression.”	Genette advocates for expanding structuralist analysis to larger units of discourse, like narrative and description, which allows for insights into the broader organizational principles and overall meaning of a text.
“Structuralism is bound up with the general movement away from positivism, ‘historicizing history’ and the ‘biographical illusion’.”	This quotation positions structuralism as part of a broader intellectual shift away from positivist approaches, focusing on the autonomy of the literary text and its internal structures rather than external historical or biographical contexts.
“An element can remain while changing function, or on the contrary disappear while leaving its function to another.”	Genette discusses the dynamic nature of literary systems, where elements within a structure can change their function over time or be replaced by others, reflecting the fluid and evolving nature of literary forms.

Introduction: “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

“Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler was first published in 1981 as part of the collection Criticism. This seminal work was instrumental in shifting the focus of literary analysis from formalist approaches to a discourse-oriented perspective. By treating literature as a form of social interaction rather than an isolated aesthetic object, Fowler’s work opened up new avenues for exploring the relationship between language, power, and ideology within texts. This paradigm shift significantly impacted the trajectory of literary theory, leading to a more socially and culturally engaged mode of literary criticism.

Summary of “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

• Critique of Linguistic Formalism: Fowler challenges “linguistic formalism,” particularly its focus on “distinctive syntactic and phonological shape,” as seen in Roman Jakobson’s work. He argues that this approach is “of limited significance” and “educationally restrictive” in literary studies.
• Literature as Discourse: Fowler proposes viewing literature as “discourse,” emphasizing the “interactional dimensions of texts.” This approach considers literature as “mediating relationships between language-users,” including “consciousness, ideology, role, and class.”
• Rejection of Formal Autonomy: Fowler rejects the idea that literary works possess “formal autonomy” and insists that literature is “part of social process” and subject to “causal and functional interpretations” similar to those in the sociology of language.
• Functional Linguistic Approach: Fowler advocates for a “functional theory of language,” as opposed to purely formalist approaches. He references Halliday’s functional grammar, which includes “ideational, interpersonal, and textual” functions, asserting that language’s purpose is rooted in its “communicative purposes.”
• Critique of Jakobson’s Poetic Function: Fowler criticizes Jakobson’s emphasis on the “phonetic and syntactic features” of poetry, arguing that it “suppresses” other language functions and reflects the “formalist goals” of a “historically specific culture.”
• Literature’s Responsibility: Fowler emphasizes that literature is not “exempt” from its “responsibility to work in the real world.” He argues that literature must acknowledge its “interpersonal function” and cannot be “cocooned” from its “relationship with society.”
• Speech Act Theory in Literary Criticism: Fowler introduces John Searle’s revision of Austin’s speech act theory, suggesting that “every utterance” in literature involves “locutionary, propositional, and illocutionary acts.” He uses Blake’s “Tyger” as an example to show how understanding these acts is “prerequisite to interpretation.”
• Focus on Interactional Features: Fowler concludes that analyzing literature as discourse allows critics to focus on “features of language” that “signal the interaction of consciousnesses.” This approach challenges “evasive critics’ strategies” that attempt to separate literature from “communicative transactions.”
• Literature as an Answerable Discourse: The essay argues that viewing literature as discourse makes it “inevitably answerable” and “responsible,” opposing the notion that literature can be an “objective” or “depersonalized” entity detached from society.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

Literary Device/Concept	Definition	Example
Formalism	A literary theory that focuses on the text as an independent object, emphasizing its structure and form.	Jakobson’s analysis of poetry, concentrating on phonetic and syntactic features.
Discourse	Language in use, focusing on the interaction between language users and the social context.	Fowler’s approach to treating literature as a process of communication between implied speakers.
Ideational Function	The function of language that conveys a worldview and structures experience.	The transmission of a particular perspective through the use of nouns, predicates, and logical connectives.
Interpersonal Function	The function of language that establishes and maintains relationships between people.	The use of questions, assertions, and status markers to signal the relationship between speaker and listener.
Textual Function	The function of language that creates well-formed and coherent texts.	The use of grammatical structures and cohesive devices to create a complete and understandable message.
Speech Act	A unit of language that performs an action, such as stating, promising, or questioning.	Blake’s rhetorical questions in “Tyger” which challenge the reader’s understanding of power and beauty.
Illocutionary Act	The intended meaning of a speech act, such as requesting, informing, or promising.	The implied meaning behind Blake’s rhetorical questions, which is to persuade the reader of the error and inscrutability of power and beauty.

Contribution of “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	Supporting Quoted Phrases
Formalism	Challenges the focus on form, syntax, and structure as the primary elements of literary analysis.	“Linguistic formalism is of limited significance in literary studies, and educationally restrictive.”
Structuralism	Criticizes the reduction of literature to formal structures, advocating for a broader view of text as discourse.	“The text ceases to be an object and becomes an action or process.”
Marxism	Aligns with Marxist perspectives by recognizing literature’s connection to social and economic structures.	“The values are neither universal… They derive from the economic and social structures of particular societies.”
Sociolinguistics	Introduces the idea of literature as part of social discourse, focusing on its interactional dimensions.	“To treat literature as discourse is to see the text as mediating relationships between language-users: not only relationships of speech, but also of consciousness.”
Pragmatics	Applies speech act theory to literature, examining how language functions within texts to convey actions.	“Every utterance is simultaneously three language acts… locutionary, propositional, and illocutionary acts.”
Post-Structuralism	Questions the stability and universality of meaning, emphasizing literature’s role in social processes.	“No plausible essentialist or intrinsic definition of literature has been or is likely to be devised.”
Reader-Response Theory	Suggests that literature involves the reader in a communicative process, highlighting the role of interaction.	“These unanswerable questions bounce off the tiger towards the implied reader of the poem, and so a discourse is established.”
Discourse Analysis	Positions literature as a form of discourse that cannot be isolated from social communication and power relations.	“Literature isn’t exempt from language’s general responsibility to work in the real world of conflicts and sympathies.”
Cultural Studies	Recognizes literature as a product of cultural values, subject to historical and ideological influences.	“What literature is, can be stated empirically, within the realm of sociolinguistic fact… recognized by a culture as possessing certain institutional values.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

Literary Work	Critique (using Fowler’s concepts)
William Blake’s “Tyger”	Blake’s poem “Tyger” is a prime example of how discourse analysis can illuminate a text’s meaning. The speaker’s questions, though directed at the tiger, are infelicitous (violating the conditions of normal communication) and function rhetorically. These unanswerable questions (“What the hammer? what the chain?”) are not meant to elicit information from the tiger but rather to create a sense of disorientation in the reader. By highlighting the limitations of language to comprehend the tiger’s existence (“What the anvil? what dread grasp / Dare its deadly terrors clasp?”), the poem challenges our understanding of power and beauty.
Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”	Through the lens of discourse analysis, Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” can be seen as a commentary on social class and its impact on communication. The characters’ language choices and interactions reveal their social standing and influence their relationships.   For instance, Mr. Darcy’s initial aloofness and Elizabeth Bennet’s spirited retorts reflect the societal expectations and power dynamics between the landed gentry and the middle class. The witty banter and underlying tension highlight the importance of interpersonal function in the novel, where language is used not just to convey information but also to establish dominance and negotiate social positions.
Charles Dickens’ “Oliver Twist”	Charles Dickens’ “Oliver Twist” utilizes language to convey a particular ideology and critique social injustices. The impoverished characters’ limited vocabulary and the use of slang reflect their marginalization within society.   Dickens employs the ideational function extensively, shaping the reader’s worldview by depicting the harsh realities of poverty and the power imbalances between the rich and the poor. The narrative exposes the hypocrisy of Victorian society through the characters’ language and actions.
Modern Dystopian Novel	In a modern dystopian novel, the manipulation of language by the ruling class becomes a central theme. The government restricts vocabulary and enforces specific forms of discourse to control the population’s thoughts and behavior.   This suppression of free speech and critical thinking exemplifies Fowler’s concept of discourse as a tool for social control. By analyzing the limited language choices available to the characters, we can understand the oppressive nature of the regime and the characters’ potential resistance strategies.

Criticism Against “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

• Overemphasis on Social Context: Critics argue that Fowler places too much emphasis on the social and ideological context of literature, potentially overshadowing the aesthetic and artistic qualities of the text.
• Neglect of Literary Autonomy: Fowler’s rejection of the formal autonomy of literature is seen by some as diminishing the unique qualities that distinguish literary texts from other forms of discourse.
• Reduction of Literature to Discourse: Some critics believe that treating literature solely as discourse may oversimplify complex literary works, reducing them to mere social or ideological functions rather than appreciating their multifaceted nature.
• Potential Undervaluation of Formalist Insights: By dismissing linguistic formalism as “of limited significance,” Fowler may overlook valuable insights that formalist approaches can offer in understanding the structure and technique of literary works.
• Risk of Ideological Bias: Fowler’s approach, which emphasizes literature’s role in reflecting and mediating social relationships, might introduce an ideological bias that interprets texts primarily through a political or social lens, potentially skewing interpretations.
• Challenge to Traditional Aesthetics: Fowler’s challenge to conventional literary aesthetics, such as the notion of “objective” or “depersonalized” literature, is seen by some as an undermining of well-established critical frameworks that have long been valued in literary studies.
• Complexity of Speech Act Theory Application: The application of speech act theory to literature, as advocated by Fowler, might be viewed as overly complex or impractical, especially for literary works that do not fit neatly into the framework of locutionary, propositional, and illocutionary acts.

Suggested Readings: “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler

1. Culler, Jonathan. Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics, and the Study of Literature. Cornell University Press, 1975.
2. Fowler, Roger. Essays on Style and Language: Linguistics and Critical Approaches to Literary Style. Routledge, 1966.
3. Fowler, Roger. Literature as Social Discourse: The Practice of Linguistic Criticism. Batsford Academic and Educational, 1981.
4. Halliday, M.A.K. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and Meaning. Edward Arnold, 1978.
5. Jakobson, Roman. “Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics.” Style in Language, edited by Thomas A. Sebeok, MIT Press, 1960, pp. 350-377.
6. Lodge, David. The Modes of Modern Writing: Metaphor, Metonymy, and the Typology of Modern Literature. Cornell University Press, 1977.
7. Richards, I. A. Practical Criticism: A Study of Literary Judgment. Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1929.
8. Searle, John R. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge University Press, 1969.
9. Widdowson, H.G. Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature. Longman, 1975.

Representative Quotations from “Literature As Discourse” by Roger Fowler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The text ceases to be an object and becomes an action or process.”	This quotation highlights Fowler’s central thesis that literature should be seen as an interactive discourse, not merely as a static, formal structure.
“To treat literature as discourse is to see the text as mediating relationships between language-users.”	Fowler emphasizes that literature plays a role in shaping and reflecting social relationships, making it a dynamic participant in communication and society.
“Linguistic formalism is of limited significance in literary studies, and educationally restrictive.”	Fowler critiques the traditional focus on formalist approaches in literary studies, arguing that they fail to account for the broader social and communicative functions of literature.
“What literature is, can be stated empirically, within the realm of sociolinguistic fact.”	This statement reflects Fowler’s view that literature’s definition is not fixed but is shaped by cultural and social contexts, which can be observed and analyzed empirically.
“Literature isn’t exempt from language’s general responsibility to work in the real world of conflicts and sympathies.”	Fowler argues that literature, as a form of language, must engage with real-world issues, and cannot be isolated from social and ethical responsibilities.
“A text is treated as a process, the communicative interaction of implied speakers and thus of consciousnesses and of communities.”	This quotation encapsulates Fowler’s approach to literary analysis, which focuses on understanding texts as active communicative processes that involve multiple perspectives and social interactions.

Introduction: “Linguistics And Poetics” by Roman Jakobson

“Linguistics and Poetics” by Roman Jakobson was first published in 1960 as part of the collection A Linguist’s Handbook. This seminal essay revolutionized literary theory by bridging the gap between linguistics and poetics. Jakobson argued that poetic language is not fundamentally different from everyday language but rather represents a heightened focus on the message itself. By introducing the concept of the poetic function and exploring the six elements of communication, he provided a framework for analyzing literary texts with unprecedented rigor and sophistication. This essay remains a cornerstone of literary studies, inspiring countless scholars and critics to delve deeper into the intricacies of language and its artistic potential.

Summary of “Linguistics And Poetics” by Roman Jakobson

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Linguistics And Poetics” by Roman Jakobson

Term	Definition	Example
Poetic Function	Focus on the message for its own sake, emphasizing the form and sound of language.	Poetry, advertising jingles, and even everyday speech can exhibit poetic function.
Selection and Combination	Two basic modes of language use: choosing words and arranging them.	Selecting the words “child” and “sleeps” and combining them into “the child sleeps.”
Equivalence	The principle of similarity or sameness between elements in language.	Rhyme, meter, and alliteration are based on equivalence.
Contiguity	The principle of connection or association between elements in language.	Syntax, grammar, and the flow of ideas rely on contiguity.
Referential Function	Focus on the context or object being referred to.	Informative texts, news reports, and scientific papers primarily use this function.
Emotive Function	Focus on the speaker’s attitude or emotions.	Exclamations, interjections, and emotionally charged language.
Conative Function	Focus on the addressee, aiming to influence or persuade.	Commands, requests, and advertising slogans.
Phatic Function	Focus on establishing, maintaining, or ending communication.	Greetings, small talk, and social rituals.
Metalingual Function	Focus on the code itself, explaining or clarifying language.	Dictionaries, grammar books, and language lessons.

Contribution of “Linguistics And Poetics” by Roman Jakobson to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Linguistics And Poetics” by Roman Jakobson

Literary Work	Poetic Function	Referential Function
“Hamlet” by Shakespeare	– Utilizes complex poetic devices to enhance textual musicality and structural beauty.	– Grounds the narrative with a detailed historical and geographical setting.
“1984” by George Orwell	– Employs straightforward language; poetic elements highlight thematic concerns subtly.	– Creates a detailed, believable dystopian context that frames the narrative.
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot	– Dense with allusions, employing a complex structure to elevate thematic and formal expression.	– Rich in historical, cultural, and mythological allusions that deepen the narrative context.
“Pride and Prejudice” by Jane Austen	– Irony and wit provide a poetic quality to the narrative, subtly influencing reader perception.	– Offers a meticulous depiction of early 19th-century English society, informing character behavior and social interactions.

Criticism Against “Linguistics And Poetics” by Roman Jakobson

Suggested Readings: “Linguistics And Poetics” by Roman Jakobson

1. Culler, Jonathan. Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics and the Study of Literature. Cornell UP, 1975.
2. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. 2nd ed., U of Minnesota P, 2008.
3. Holdcroft, David. Saussure: Signs, System, and Arbitrariness. Cambridge UP, 1991.
4. Jakobson, Roman. Language in Literature. Edited by Krystyna Pomorska and Stephen Rudy, Harvard UP, 1987.
5. Jakobson, Roman, and Morris Halle. Fundamentals of Language. Mouton, 1956.
6. Joseph, John E. Saussure. Oxford UP, 2012.
7. Rudy, Stephen. Roman Jakobson: Life, Language, Art. Routledge, 1993.
8. Waugh, Linda R., and Monique Monville-Burston. On Language. Harvard UP, 1990.
9. Caton, Steven C. “Contributions of Roman Jakobson.” Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 16, 1987, pp. 223–60. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2155871. Accessed 14 Aug. 2024.
10. Waugh, Linda R. “The Poetic Function in the Theory of Roman Jakobson.” Poetics Today, vol. 2, no. 1a, 1980, pp. 57–82. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1772352. Accessed 14 Aug. 2024.
11. Bohn, Willard. “Roman Jakobson’s Theory of Metaphor and Metonymy: An Annotated Bibliography.” Style, vol. 18, no. 4, 1984, pp. 534–50. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42945521. Accessed 14 Aug. 2024.

Representative Quotations from “Linguistics And Poetics” by Roman Jakobson with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Poetics deals primarily with the question, What makes a verbal message a work of art?”	This quotation establishes the central concern of poetics as the identification of the qualities that elevate language to art.
“The verbal structure of a message depends primarily on the predominant function.”	This quote highlights the importance of function in shaping the structure of language. Different functions (referential, emotive, etc.) lead to distinct verbal structures.
“Each of these six factors determines a different function of language.”	This introduces Jakobson’s influential model of six language functions (referential, emotive, conative, phatic, metalingual, poetic).
“The poetic function projects the principle of equivalence from the axis of selection into the axis of combination.”	This defines the poetic function as the emphasis on similarity and equivalence between words, sounds, or structures within a message.
“In poetry, and to a certain extent in latent manifestations of poetic function, sequences delimited by word boundaries become commensurable whether they are sensed as isochronic or graded.”	This quote delves deeper into the poetic function, explaining how it creates a sense of rhythm and measurability in language.
“To sum up, the analysis of verse is entirely within the competence of poetics…”	This quotation underscores the role of poetics in analyzing verse, recognizing its connection to, but distinction from, poetry.

Introduction: “Definition Of Poetics” by Tzvetan Todorov

“Definition of Poetics” by Tzvetan Todorov was first published in 1981 as part of the collection Introduction to Poetics. Translated into English in the same year, the work holds immense importance in literature and literary theory. It serves as a foundational text, offering a comprehensive framework for understanding the nature of literary language and its functions. Todorov’s exploration of narrative structure, genre, and the relationship between literature and reality has significantly influenced subsequent critical and theoretical discussions.

Summary of “Definition Of Poetics” by Tzvetan Todorov

• Two Attitudes in Literary Studies: Divergence Between Interpretation and Scientific Analysis: Todorov identifies two primary approaches in literary studies: one that treats the literary text as “a sufficient object of knowledge” and focuses on interpreting its meaning, and another that views each text as “the manifestation of an abstract structure” and seeks to understand the underlying laws governing literature. The first approach, which Todorov refers to as “interpretation,” aims to extract and articulate the meaning inherent within the text itself, considering the literary work as “the ultimate and unique object” of study (Todorov, p. 87). In contrast, the second approach inscribes itself within a scientific framework, where the goal is not merely to describe the particular work but to “establish general laws” that transcend individual texts (Todorov, p. 87). These two approaches, while distinct, are not necessarily incompatible, as they represent complementary perspectives on understanding literature.
• Interpretation: The Pursuit and Limitations of Extracting Meaning: Interpretation, which encompasses activities such as “exegesis, commentary, explication de texte,” and “close reading,” is defined by its pursuit to “name the meaning of the text examined” (Todorov, p. 87). The ideal of interpretation is to “make the text itself speak,” striving for fidelity to the object of study, which necessitates an “effacement of the subject”—the interpreter’s own biases and preconceptions (Todorov, p. 87). However, Todorov highlights the inherent drama in this approach: interpretation can never fully realize the text’s meaning but can only arrive at “a meaning subject to historical and psychological contingencies” (Todorov, p. 87). Moreover, pure interpretation risks becoming a mere “word-for-word repetition” of the work, as it must occasionally “project [the work] elsewhere than upon itself” to offer meaningful insights (Todorov, p. 87).
• Scientific Approach: Transcending the Particular to Discover General Laws: The second attitude in literary studies aligns itself with scientific inquiry, where the focus shifts from the particular text to the general principles it embodies. This approach sees the literary work not as an autonomous entity but as a “manifestation of laws that are external to it,” whether those laws pertain to psychology, sociology, philosophy, or other fields (Todorov, p. 88). The objective is to “transpose the work into the realm considered fundamental,” deciphering it as an expression of “something” beyond the text itself (Todorov, p. 88). This “labor of decipherment and translation” positions literary analysis within various scientific disciplines, aiming to uncover the broader laws that govern the creation and reception of literary works (Todorov, p. 88).
• Poetics: An Abstract and Internal Study of Literary Discourse: Todorov introduces poetics as a distinct approach that breaks down the dichotomy between interpretation and scientific analysis. Unlike interpretation, which seeks to name the meaning of individual works, poetics “does not seek to name meaning” but rather aims “at a knowledge of the general laws that preside over the birth of each work” within the literary domain (Todorov, p. 88). Unlike scientific analyses that look to external factors, poetics seeks these laws “within literature itself,” making it an “abstract” yet “internal” approach (Todorov, p. 88). The focus of poetics is not on the literary work itself but on the properties of “literary discourse,” specifically the concept of “literariness,” which Todorov defines as the “abstract property that constitutes the singularity of the literary phenomenon” (Todorov, p. 88). Thus, poetics is concerned with the theoretical structures and functions of literature as a whole, rather than with the specificities of individual texts.
• Structuralism and Poetics: Examining the Relationship and Distinctions: Todorov addresses the relationship between poetics and structuralism, acknowledging that poetics is “structural” in a broad sense because it deals with “an abstract structure (literature)” rather than individual literary works (Todorov, p. 89). However, Todorov distinguishes poetics from certain structuralist approaches that reduce literature to a system of communication or social codes. He argues that poetics, as he presents it, is not bound by the “limited corpus of hypotheses” associated with early structuralism, which often offered “instrumentalist conceptions of language” (Todorov, p. 89). Instead, poetics maintains a broader, more flexible relationship with structuralism, focusing on the inherent properties of literary discourse itself.
• Poetics and Linguistics: The Integral Role of Language in Literary Analysis: Finally, Todorov explores the connection between poetics and linguistics, asserting that literature is “a product of language,” and therefore, any study of literature must inherently engage with linguistic theories (Todorov, p. 89). While poetics may draw insights from linguistics, its scope is broader, encompassing “all the sciences of languages,” including disciplines such as anthropology, psychoanalysis, and philosophy of language (Todorov, p. 89). Poetics finds its closest allies in disciplines that study discourse, collectively forming the field of rhetoric, understood “in the broadest sense as a general science of discourses” (Todorov, p. 89). Thus, poetics positions itself at the intersection of literary theory, linguistics, and semiotics, contributing to a comprehensive understanding of literature as a linguistic and cultural phenomenon.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Definition Of Poetics” by Tzvetan Todorov

Term	Definition	Example
Interpretation	The analysis of a literary text to determine its meaning.	A close reading of a poem to understand its symbolism.
Science	The study of general laws governing a particular phenomenon.	A sociological analysis of a novel to understand its social context.
Poetics	The study of the general laws governing the creation of literary works.	Investigating the structure of a sonnet to understand the form.
Literariness	The specific qualities that distinguish literary language from ordinary language.	The use of metaphor and imagery in poetry.
Structuralism	The study of underlying structures in language, culture, and society.	Analyzing the narrative structure of a short story.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols and their meaning.	Interpreting the symbolism of colors in a painting.

Additional Notes

• Interpretation and science represent two contrasting approaches to literary study.
• Poetics bridges the gap between these two approaches by focusing on the internal structure of literary works.
• Literariness is a key concept in poetics, as it defines the unique characteristics of literary language.
• Structuralism and semiotics provide theoretical frameworks for analyzing literary texts.

Contribution of “Definition Of Poetics” by Tzvetan Todorov to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Definition Of Poetics” by Tzvetan Todorov

Literary Work	Todorov’s Concept	Critique	Reference
James Joyce, Ulysses	Structuralism	Joyce’s novel can be analyzed through a structuralist lens by examining the underlying patterns and repetitions, such as the cyclical structure of a day, mirroring the mythical journey of Odysseus.	Todorov, T. (1981). Introduction to Poetics.
Virginia Woolf, To the Lighthouse	Stream of Consciousness	While not directly addressed by Todorov, Woolf’s novel challenges the notion of a linear narrative structure, prompting a reconsideration of the limits of structuralist analysis.	Woolf, V. (1927). To the Lighthouse.
Gabriel Garcia Marquez, One Hundred Years of Solitude	Magical Realism	Marquez’s blend of realism and fantasy complicates the application of traditional literary analysis, forcing a re-evaluation of the boundaries between different genres and literary modes.	Marquez, G. G. (1967). One Hundred Years of Solitude.
Toni Morrison, Beloved	Historical and Cultural Context	Morrison’s novel highlights the importance of considering historical and cultural factors in literary analysis, challenging the purely formalist approach advocated by some proponents of Todorov’s work.	Morrison, T. (1987). Beloved.

Additional Considerations

• Interdisciplinary Approach: Todorov’s work can be combined with other theoretical frameworks to offer more comprehensive analyses. For example, a feminist or postcolonial reading of Beloved could be enriched by considering the novel’s formal elements.
• Limitations of Structuralism: While Todorov’s structuralist approach provides valuable insights, it is essential to recognize its limitations, particularly when analyzing complex and innovative literary works.
• Reader Response: Todorov’s emphasis on the text itself might be challenged by reader-response theories, which prioritize the reader’s interpretation.

Criticism Against “Definition Of Poetics” by Tzvetan Todorov

• Overemphasis on Abstract Structures: Todorov’s focus on abstract structures and general laws may neglect the unique qualities and nuances of individual literary works. By prioritizing the abstract over the specific, there is a risk of reducing the richness of literary texts to mere instances of broader theoretical concepts, which can diminish the value of the literary experience.
• Detachment from Historical and Cultural Contexts: The approach Todorov advocates for poetics might be criticized for its detachment from the historical and cultural contexts in which literary works are produced and interpreted. By seeking to uncover universal laws of literature, poetics might overlook the ways in which texts are deeply embedded in and shaped by their specific social, political, and cultural environments.
• Potential for Reductionism: Todorov’s method could be seen as reductionist, as it attempts to fit the complexity of literature into predetermined theoretical frameworks. Critics might argue that this approach oversimplifies the diverse and multifaceted nature of literary works, reducing them to mere exemplifications of literariness or literary discourse.
• Neglect of Reader’s Role and Subjectivity: Todorov’s emphasis on the objective and scientific aspects of literary analysis may neglect the importance of the reader’s role and the subjectivity involved in interpreting texts. By focusing on abstract structures, his approach might overlook how individual readers bring their own experiences and perspectives to bear on their understanding of a text.
• Limited Engagement with Interdisciplinary Approaches: While Todorov acknowledges the relationship between poetics and other disciplines like linguistics and rhetoric, his approach could be critiqued for not fully engaging with interdisciplinary methods. Critics may argue that a more integrative approach, which combines insights from psychology, sociology, history, and other fields, would provide a richer and more comprehensive understanding of literature.
• Abstractness vs. Practical Application: The abstract nature of Todorov’s definition of poetics may be seen as impractical for actual literary analysis. Critics might argue that while theoretical rigor is important, it should also be balanced with practical tools that can be applied to the analysis of specific texts, something that Todorov’s approach might lack.
• Structuralist Limitations: Although Todorov attempts to distinguish poetics from structuralism, some critics might argue that his approach is still too closely aligned with structuralist thinking, which has been critiqued for its rigidity and failure to account for the dynamic and evolving nature of literature and language.
• Potential for Exclusion of Certain Literary Forms: Todorov’s framework may exclude or marginalize certain literary forms that do not easily conform to his model of literary discourse. For example, experimental literature or works that deliberately subvert traditional literary conventions might be difficult to analyze within the confines of Todorov’s poetics.
• Inaccessibility to Non-Specialists: The complex and abstract nature of Todorov’s theoretical framework might make it inaccessible to those who are not specialists in literary theory. This could limit the practical utility of his ideas for educators, students, and general readers who seek to engage with literature in a more straightforward and intuitive way.

Suggested Readings: “Definition Of Poetics” by Tzvetan Todorov

1. Todorov, Tzvetan. Introduction to Poetics. Translated by Richard Howard. University of Georgia Press, 1981.
2. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Poetics of Prose. Translated by Richard Howard. Cornell University Press, 1977.
3. Todorov, Tzvetan. Mikhail Bakhtin: The Dialogical Principle. Translated by Wlad Godzich. University of Minnesota Press, 1984.
4. Frow, John. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, vol. 41, no. 1, 1982, pp. 112–13. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/430834. Accessed 14 Aug. 2024.
5. LAUX, CAMERON. “The Other Todorov: Anthropology and Critical Humanism.” Paragraph, vol. 18, no. 2, 1995, pp. 194–209. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43263467 . Accessed 14 Aug. 2024.
6. Zbinden, Karine. “Todorov and Bakhtin.” Tzvetan Todorov: Thinker and Humanist, edited by Karine Zbinden and Henk de Berg, NED-New edition, Boydell & Brewer, 2020, pp. 109–26. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvrdf17k.10. Accessed 14 Aug. 2024.

Representative Quotations from “Definition Of Poetics” by Tzvetan Todorov with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Interpretation, which is sometimes also called exegesis… is defined… by its aim, which is to name the meaning of the text examined.”	This quotation captures Todorov’s definition of interpretation as a process focused on extracting and articulating the meaning of a literary text.
“It is impossible to interpret a work, literary or otherwise, for and in itself, without leaving it for a moment, without projecting it elsewhere than upon itself.”	Todorov emphasizes the inherent limitation of interpretation: to fully understand a text, one must consider it in relation to external contexts or frameworks.
“Poetics… does not seek to name meaning, but aims at a knowledge of the general laws that preside over the birth of each work.”	This quotation defines the core objective of poetics as the study of the abstract, general principles that govern the creation of literary works, rather than specific meanings.
“Literature is, in the strongest sense of the term, a product of language.”	Todorov highlights the intrinsic connection between literature and language, underscoring that any analysis of literature must involve linguistic considerations.
“The goal of this study is no longer to articulate a paraphrase… but to propose a theory of the structure and functioning of literary discourse.”	Todorov clarifies that poetics is concerned with theoretical understanding, aiming to establish a comprehensive framework for how literary discourse operates.
“Each work is therefore regarded only as the manifestation of an abstract and general structure, of which it is but one of the possible realizations.”	This quotation encapsulates the structuralist perspective in poetics, where individual literary works are seen as specific instances of broader, underlying structures.

Introduction: “The Conflict Of Interpretations” by Paul Ricoeur

“The Conflict of Interpretations” by Paul Ricoeur was initially published in 1969 as part of the collection Essays in Hermeneutics. This seminal work has exerted a profound and enduring impact on the disciplines of literature and literary theory. By synthesizing insights from structuralism, psychoanalysis, hermeneutics, and religion, Ricoeur offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the interpretive process, establishing the text as a cornerstone in contemporary critical discourse.

Summary of “The Conflict Of Interpretations” by Paul Ricoeur

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Conflict Of Interpretations” by Paul Ricoeur

Concept/Device	Definition
Hermeneutics	The theory and practice of interpretation, especially of the Bible or literary texts.
Kerygma	A proclamation or message, often referring to the Christian gospel.
Demystification	The process of revealing the true nature of something, often by exposing illusions or falsehoods.
Iconoclasm	The action of attacking or destroying sacred images and idols.
Phenomenology	A philosophical approach that focuses on the structures of conscious experience as they present themselves to the individual.
Propaedeutic	Preliminary or preparatory learning.
Analogy of being	A comparison between the human soul and the structure of the universe.
False consciousness	A Marxist concept referring to the distorted worldview held by members of the oppressed class.
Ideology	A system of ideas and beliefs that reflect and reinforce the interests of a particular group or class.
Genealogy of morals	A Nietzschean concept tracing the origins of moral values.
Ascesis	Severe self-discipline and abstinence.
Ananke	Greek goddess of necessity and compulsion.

Contribution of “The Conflict Of Interpretations” by Paul Ricoeur to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Conflict Of Interpretations” by Paul Ricoeur

Literary Work	Potential Applications of Ricoeur’s “Conflict of Interpretations”
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	* Conflict between the “recollection of meaning” (Hamlet’s search for truth and revenge) and the “reduction of illusions” (psychoanalytic interpretations of characters). <br>* Examination of the play’s multiple layers of meaning and the tension between different interpretive approaches.
Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert	* Analysis of the novel’s critique of societal norms and illusions through the character of Emma Bovary. <br>* Exploration of the interplay between the “patent” and “latent” meanings in the text.
Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka	* Examination of the protagonist’s alienation and the breakdown of communication as a form of “demystification.” <br>* Analysis of the text’s multiple levels of meaning and the reader’s role in constructing meaning.
One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez	* Exploration of the novel’s magical realism as a challenge to traditional modes of interpretation. <br>* Analysis of the cyclical nature of time and history in the text and its implications for understanding the narrative.

Criticism Against “The Conflict Of Interpretations” by Paul Ricoeur

Suggested Readings: “The Conflict Of Interpretations” by Paul Ricoeur

1. Ricoeur, Paul. Freud and Philosophy: An Essay on Interpretation. Trans. Denis Savage. Yale UP, 1970.
2. Ricoeur, Paul. The Symbolism of Evil. Trans. Emerson Buchanan. Beacon Press, 1969.
3. Ricoeur, Paul. Time and Narrative. Vol. 1. Trans. Kathleen McLaughlin and David Pellauer. University of Chicago Press, 1984.
4. Ricoeur, Paul. Hermeneutics and the Human Sciences. Trans. John B. Thompson. Cambridge UP, 198
5. Lowe, Walter James. “The Coherence of Paul Ricoeur.” The Journal of Religion, vol. 61, no. 4, 1981, pp. 384–402. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1202836. Accessed 13 Aug. 2024.
6. Schwartz, Sanford. “Hermeneutics and the Productive Imagination: Paul Ricoeur in the 1970s.” The Journal of Religion, vol. 63, no. 3, 1983, pp. 290–300. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1203039. Accessed 13 Aug. 2024.
7. DAVIS, COLIN. “Life Stories: Ricœur.” Traces of War: Interpreting Ethics and Trauma in Twentieth-Century French Writing, Liverpool University Press, 2018, pp. 119–33. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1ps33bb.10. Accessed 13 Aug. 2024.

Representative Quotations from “The Conflict Of Interpretations” by Paul Ricoeur with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“There is no general hermeneutics, no universal canon for exegesis, but only disparate and opposed theories.”	This quotation highlights Ricoeur’s acknowledgment of the diversity and opposition within hermeneutic theories. It underscores the central theme of his work, which is the conflict and plurality in the field of interpretation, challenging the idea of a single, unified method.
“Hermeneutics seems to me to be animated by this double motivation: willingness to suspect, willingness to listen; vow of rigor, vow of obedience.”	Ricoeur describes the dual motivations that drive hermeneutics—both the suspicion that seeks to uncover hidden meanings and the listening that aims to restore and affirm meaning. This duality is crucial in understanding the tension within interpretative practices.
“Three masters, seemingly mutually exclusive, dominate the school of suspicion: Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud.”	Ricoeur identifies Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud as key figures in the “hermeneutics of suspicion.” This emphasizes their role in shaping a critical approach to interpretation, where texts and consciousness are interrogated for hidden ideologies, unconscious desires, and power dynamics.
“Understanding is hermeneutics: henceforward, to seek meaning is no longer to spell out the consciousness of meaning, but to decipher its expressions.”	This quotation reflects Ricoeur’s view that interpretation has evolved from merely articulating meaning to actively deciphering and uncovering deeper, often hidden, layers of meaning within texts. This shift is central to modern hermeneutics and literary theory.
“Destruction, Heidegger says in Sein und Zeit, is a moment of every new foundation.”	Ricoeur invokes Heidegger to support the idea that the deconstructive aspect of interpretation—tearing down old meanings—is necessary for the creation of new understandings. This concept is foundational to the hermeneutics of suspicion and critical theory, where dismantling existing structures is seen as a prelude to building new ones.