Introduction: “Ecofeminism in the 21st Century” by Susan Buckingham
“Ecofeminism in the 21st Century” by Susan Buckingham first appeared in The Geographical Journal in 2004 (Volume 170, Issue 2, pp. 146-154). In this seminal paper, Buckingham assesses the intersections of gender inequality and environmental degradation, examining how ecofeminism, a field originating in the 1970s, has influenced policy shifts towards gender mainstreaming and environmental sustainability. By exploring both constructivist and essentialist frameworks within ecofeminism, Buckingham traces how these discourses challenge traditional power structures. She underscores how ecofeminism, particularly through constructivist approaches, has been incorporated into policy across international, EU, and national levels, though often met with superficial integration rather than transformative change. Buckingham critically evaluates the influence of ecofeminism on policy initiatives, like the UN’s Agenda 21 and the European Union’s gender mainstreaming practices, arguing that these efforts frequently sideline women’s strategic interests in favor of maintaining existing social and environmental paradigms. Furthermore, she advocates for an evolving “radical edge” in ecofeminism that questions the “business-as-usual” approach, calling for policies that genuinely incorporate women’s perspectives on environmental justice and sustainability. Buckingham’s work is crucial in literary and theoretical discourse, enriching ecofeminist literature with a nuanced analysis of policy dynamics, and emphasizing the importance of ecofeminism in challenging both environmental degradation and gender inequalities.
Summary of “Ecofeminism in the 21st Century” by Susan Buckingham
1. Evolution of Ecofeminism and its Policy Influence
- Buckingham traces ecofeminism’s roots to the 1970s, noting its emergence as a response to both environmental and gender injustices. Since then, ecofeminism has inspired significant shifts in policy, especially in integrating gender perspectives in environmental frameworks. Buckingham states, “eco-feminism as a distinct discourse” challenges traditional environmental and feminist thought by examining how “Western society constructs the relationship between men, women, and the environment.”
- She critically assesses whether ecofeminism has effectively altered policy or merely introduced superficial changes, as “the transformation of policy and development rhetoric to include gender…masks a fundamental attachment to ‘business-as-usual'” (Buckingham, 2004, p. 148).
2. Constructivist vs. Essentialist Perspectives in Ecofeminism
- Buckingham outlines the two primary frameworks within ecofeminism: essentialism and constructivism. Essentialist views, often rooted in biology, claim that women have a natural affinity with the environment, while constructivist perspectives view gendered environmental roles as socially constructed. “Constructivist analyses…show how women’s position in society derived from prevailing social and economic structures” (p. 149), making women advocates for environmental concerns not due to biology but because of socio-economic roles and constraints.
3. Integration of Gender Mainstreaming in Environmental Policies
- Ecofeminism has influenced policy by emphasizing the importance of gender in sustainable development discussions. Gender mainstreaming became embedded in the policies of organizations like the UN and EU, where Buckingham points out the “strategies for linking women and environment” that emerged from conferences like the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development and the 1995 Beijing Platform for Action (p. 150).
- However, Buckingham criticizes the limited impact of these policies, noting that “national machineries…are embedded in structural inequalities” and struggle to implement gender mainstreaming in a transformative way (p. 151).
4. Challenges and Future Trajectories of Ecofeminism
- Buckingham argues that the future of ecofeminism depends on a more radical approach that does not simply aim for equality within existing structures but seeks to reform those structures to support sustainability and gender justice. She highlights “the radical edge of eco-feminism” that challenges fundamental economic and social systems by questioning the pursuit of economic growth at the cost of environmental health (p. 152).
- Buckingham further underscores that “eco-feminist theoreticians and activists continue to expose” the structural barriers impeding meaningful progress in gender and environmental justice, positioning ecofeminism as a critical lens for reshaping policies (p. 153).
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Ecofeminism in the 21st Century” by Susan Buckingham
| Literary Term/Concept | Description | Explanation in Context |
| Ecofeminism | An interdisciplinary field linking ecological issues with feminist theory and activism. | Buckingham examines ecofeminism’s evolution, highlighting its role in connecting gender inequality with environmental degradation. |
| Essentialism | The belief in an inherent, biological connection between women and nature. | Essentialist ecofeminists argue that women’s connection to nature stems from their biological roles, like motherhood, positioning them as natural advocates for environmental causes. |
| Constructivism | A theory that gender and environmental roles are socially constructed rather than biologically fixed. | Buckingham aligns with constructivist ecofeminism, suggesting that women’s environmental roles arise from socio-economic structures, not innate qualities. |
| Gender Mainstreaming | Integrating gender perspectives in policy-making processes across all levels. | Highlighted by Buckingham as a policy shift influenced by ecofeminism, gender mainstreaming aims to address gender inequalities systematically within environmental policies. |
| Radical Edge | The push within ecofeminism for deeper systemic change beyond superficial policy shifts. | Buckingham describes the “radical edge” as essential for ecofeminism’s future, focusing on restructuring systems rather than just including women in existing frameworks. |
| Environmental Justice | The fair treatment and involvement of all people in environmental policies and actions. | Buckingham connects ecofeminism with environmental justice, emphasizing how ecofeminism addresses inequalities affecting marginalized groups, especially women in poverty. |
| Dualism | A philosophical concept that divides concepts into binary oppositions, like nature/culture. | Buckingham critiques Western dualism (e.g., men/women, nature/culture) in ecofeminist literature, which argues for dissolving these binaries for a holistic approach to the environment. |
| Social Structures | Established societal systems and norms that shape roles and relations. | According to Buckingham, ecofeminist critique focuses on social structures that enforce gendered roles, contributing to both environmental harm and gender inequality. |
| Policy Integration | The inclusion of gendered and environmental considerations into political policies and programs. | Through ecofeminism, Buckingham examines how policy integration has impacted sustainable development frameworks, albeit with limitations in effectiveness. |
| Embodiment | The experience of one’s body in relation to environmental influences, often emphasizing vulnerability. | Buckingham uses embodiment to discuss how women’s bodies are affected differently by environmental pollution, pointing out health disparities caused by policy gaps. |
Contribution of “Ecofeminism in the 21st Century” by Susan Buckingham to Literary Theory/Theories
- Expands Ecofeminism as a Critical Theoretical Framework
Buckingham situates ecofeminism as an interdisciplinary lens for examining social and environmental justice, arguing that “eco-feminist thinking” has reshaped the way policies consider the intersection of gender and environmental issues (p. 148). This approach enriches literary theory by framing ecofeminism as both a critical and activist movement within literature and social sciences. - Critique of Essentialism and Promotion of Constructivist Ecofeminism
Buckingham’s emphasis on social constructivist ecofeminism challenges essentialist views that portray women’s connection to nature as biologically determined. She posits that “social and economic structures” shape women’s environmental roles, which has broader implications for feminist and gender theories by underscoring the socially constructed aspects of identity and experience (p. 149). - Integration of Gender Mainstreaming in Policy Analysis
The article highlights how gender mainstreaming, a concept influenced by ecofeminism, has entered international policy. This integration is framed as a literary and social critique of superficial gender inclusion, where “business-as-usual” remains largely unchanged (p. 151). Buckingham’s analysis adds depth to feminist theory, illustrating the limitations of policy rhetoric versus tangible change. - Contribution to Environmental Justice Literature
By linking ecofeminism to environmental justice, Buckingham expands the discourse to address socio-environmental inequalities and marginalized voices. She states, “eco-feminist activists continue to expose” these structural barriers (p. 153), advancing literary theory by connecting gender and environmental concerns with wider social justice movements. - Advocacy for Radical Transformation in Ecofeminist Discourse
Buckingham calls for ecofeminism to maintain a “radical edge” to foster systemic change rather than simply achieve equality within current structures. Her critique that ecofeminism should challenge “paradigms of power” (p. 152) contributes to poststructuralist and feminist theories by questioning foundational socio-economic and cultural structures rather than seeking superficial reform. - Challenges Western Dualism in Literary and Cultural Studies
Buckingham critiques dualistic thinking (nature/culture, male/female) prevalent in Western ideology, suggesting that ecofeminism advocates for a dissolution of such binaries. She argues for an inclusive, interconnected view of nature and humanity, which aligns with poststructuralist critiques of binary oppositions and enriches literary theory’s understanding of identity and relational ethics.
Examples of Critiques Through “Ecofeminism in the 21st Century” by Susan Buckingham
| Literary Work | Ecofeminist Critique Inspired by Buckingham | Key Concepts from Buckingham |
| The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood | Examining environmental degradation alongside gender oppression, The Handmaid’s Tale reflects ecofeminist concerns over patriarchal exploitation of both women and nature. Gilead’s control over women’s reproductive rights parallels exploitation of the land. | Gender mainstreaming, critique of essentialism (p. 149) |
| Silent Spring by Rachel Carson | Carson’s critique of environmental harm by corporations can be expanded through Buckingham’s lens to show that women, often more exposed to environmental risks, are disproportionately affected by industrial practices and pollution. | Environmental justice, embodiment (p. 152) |
| Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston | Buckingham’s ecofeminism highlights Janie’s journey of self-discovery as connected to nature, allowing for a reading where Janie’s resistance to social norms mirrors ecofeminism’s push against dualistic gender roles and societal control over women and nature. | Radical edge, constructivist ecofeminism, critique of dualism (p. 153) |
| Frankenstein by Mary Shelley | Buckingham’s ecofeminism frames the novel as a cautionary tale against the unchecked male dominance over nature, reflecting her critique of “Western society’s dualism” (p. 154). The novel warns of the dangers of separating humanity from nature’s ecosystem. | Dualism, critique of masculinist perspectives (p. 154) |
Criticism Against “Ecofeminism in the 21st Century” by Susan Buckingham
- Overemphasis on Policy without Sufficient Practical Solutions
While Buckingham critiques policy inadequacies in addressing ecofeminist goals, critics argue that her work falls short in proposing clear, actionable solutions for bridging the gap between ecofeminist theory and tangible social change. This leaves the critique heavily theoretical without a roadmap for practical implementation. - Limited Engagement with Non-Western Ecofeminist Perspectives
Buckingham’s focus primarily on Western frameworks and policies limits the scope of ecofeminism’s diverse global applicability. Critics argue that this Eurocentric focus neglects ecofeminist perspectives from regions like Asia, Africa, and Latin America, where unique cultural and environmental challenges shape ecofeminist discourse differently. - Lack of Emphasis on Essentialist Ecofeminism
Buckingham largely dismisses essentialist views within ecofeminism, favoring a constructivist approach. Critics suggest that this oversight neglects the value of essentialist ecofeminism for some cultures and traditions, where innate connections between women and nature are celebrated rather than viewed as biologically reductive. - Insufficient Exploration of Ecofeminism’s Influence on Other Academic Disciplines
Critics argue that Buckingham’s work focuses narrowly on policy and environmental frameworks without discussing ecofeminism’s potential impact across broader academic disciplines, such as psychology, sociology, and economics, which could enrich its relevance and applicability. - Minimal Acknowledgment of Internal Debates within Ecofeminism
Buckingham’s work does not extensively address the significant internal debates and ideological splits within ecofeminism, such as tensions between radical and liberal ecofeminists. This omission may limit readers’ understanding of ecofeminism’s complexities and evolution as a field.
Representative Quotations from “Ecofeminism in the 21st Century” by Susan Buckingham with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Eco-feminism as a distinct discourse…challenges the way Western society constructs the relationship between men, women, and the environment.” | This statement underscores the central premise of ecofeminism as a critique of how traditional Western ideologies separate gender and environmental concerns, calling for a more interconnected perspective on ecological and social issues. |
| “The transformation of policy and development rhetoric to include gender…masks a fundamental attachment to ‘business-as-usual.'” | Buckingham critiques superficial policy changes, arguing that adding gender language to environmental policies often fails to result in true structural change, highlighting the persistence of traditional power dynamics despite ecofeminist advocacy. |
| “Social and economic structures…expose [women] to a particular set of environmental incivilities.” | This quotation points to how women’s socioeconomic roles subject them to environmental risks, emphasizing ecofeminism’s critique of structural inequalities that shape both environmental impact and social vulnerabilities. |
| “Gender mainstreaming has been embedded at national and international levels…yet often struggles to make substantive changes.” | Buckingham notes that while gender mainstreaming policies have gained prominence, they frequently lack the transformative power needed to address deeper inequalities, aligning with ecofeminism’s call for genuine systemic reform. |
| “Constructivist ecofeminism…challenges the essentialist perspective by examining the socially constructed nature of gendered environmental roles.” | This line highlights the constructivist ecofeminist view, which Buckingham favors, positioning gendered roles and relationships with nature as products of social conditioning rather than biological determinism. |
| “The ‘radical edge’ of ecofeminism…questions the validity of pursuing economic growth at the expense of environmental and social well-being.” | Buckingham advocates for an ecofeminist stance that questions economic growth as an ultimate goal, suggesting that ecofeminism calls for a paradigm shift towards sustainability and equity rather than mere inclusion in current economic models. |
| “Eco-feminist activists continue to expose structural barriers…impeding progress in gender and environmental justice.” | This quotation reflects the role of ecofeminist activism in challenging entrenched systems that inhibit meaningful advancements in justice for both gender and environmental causes, emphasizing activism’s place in ecofeminism. |
| “Western society’s dualistic thinking…separates nature and culture, male and female, reinforcing hierarchical structures.” | Buckingham critiques Western dualism as a fundamental barrier to ecofeminist goals, suggesting that dissolving such binaries is crucial for achieving a more inclusive and integrated understanding of gender and environmental issues. |
| “The United Nations and EU gender mainstreaming initiatives demonstrate how ecofeminist thought has impacted major international policy discourses.” | This line demonstrates Buckingham’s view that ecofeminism has influenced global policy by integrating gender into environmental discussions, though with mixed results, highlighting the growing but complex role of ecofeminism in policy contexts. |
| “The relationship between women and the environment has been both culturally constructed and contested in various ways across time and regions.” | This statement acknowledges the diverse interpretations and practices within ecofeminism, pointing to how cultural contexts shape unique ecofeminist perspectives, a recognition of ecofeminism’s flexibility and adaptability. |
Suggested Readings: “Ecofeminism in the 21st Century” by Susan Buckingham
- Buckingham, Susan. “Ecofeminism in the Twenty-First Century.” The Geographical Journal, vol. 170, no. 2, 2004, pp. 146–54. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3451591. Accessed 26 Oct. 2024.
- BUCKINGHAM-HATFIELD, SUSAN. “Gender Equality: A Prerequisite for Sustainable Development.” Geography, vol. 87, no. 3, 2002, pp. 227–33. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40573738. Accessed 26 Oct. 2024.
- Buckingham, Susan. “Women (Re)Construct the Plot: The Regen(d)Eration of Urban Food Growing.” Area, vol. 37, no. 2, 2005, pp. 171–79. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20004446. Accessed 26 Oct. 2024.
- Maudsley, Emma. Geography, vol. 86, no. 2, 2001, pp. 180–180. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40573553. Accessed 26 Oct. 2024.