Functional Theories in Literature

Functional Theories: Term, Definition, and Concept

1. Definition: Functional theories encompass a collection of perspectives within various disciplines like sociology, anthropology, and literary criticism. These theories view elements of society or culture as serving necessary functions within the broader system, contributing to its overall stability and coherence.
2. Core Concept: At the heart of functional theories is the idea that societal institutions, practices, and even texts exist because they play a useful role. The focus of analysis shifts from “what something is” to examining “what it does.” This includes exploring how various elements work together to fulfill individual and societal needs, reinforce shared values, or generate social equilibrium.

Functional Theories: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Notable Works	Core Arguments
Bronislaw Malinowski	Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922)	Emphasized how rituals and traditions fulfill primary human needs such as security, belonging, and sustenance. This informs functionalist views of how texts perform analogous roles for readers and society.
Robert Merton	Social Theory and Social Structure (1949)	Introduced the concepts of ‘manifest’ (stated) and ‘latent’ (unintended) functions. His framework allows literary analysis to examine both the author’s overt goals and deeper impacts a text may have on society.
Talcott Parsons	The Social System (1951)	Developed complex systemic analysis of society, emphasizing interdependence. Ideas of structural balance and interconnectedness influence functionalist views on how literature plays a role within the larger cultural landscape.
Roman Jakobson	Closing Statement: Linguistics and Poetics (1960)	Focused on the communicative functions of language. Explored how intention shapes form, offering tools for functionalist analysis of literary forms chosen by an author to fulfill expressive, persuasive, or informative purposes.

Important Considerations

• Diverse Views: Functionalism isn’t monolithic. Each theorist brings their own emphasis and applications.
• Focus on Adaptation: A defining concept in many functionalist theories is that societies have an innate tendency toward self-regulation and adaptation when disruptions occur. Literature can be seen as playing a role in this process.

Functional Theories: Key Principles

1. Systems Orientation: Functional theories analyze phenomena (including literature) as constituents of complex social and cultural systems. Emphasis is placed on the relationships and interactions within these systems.
2. Focus on Purpose and Utility: Central to this approach is the exploration of the functions served by various elements. Analysis centers on how parts of the system contribute to its operation, social cohesion, and the fulfillment of individual or collective needs.
3. Dynamic Equilibrium: Many functionalist models posit that societies possess self-regulating tendencies, seeking to maintain stability and balance. Practices, institutions, and cultural artifacts are understood in terms of how they contribute to this equilibrium.
4. Interdependence: Functionalism highlights the interconnectedness of elements within a system. A holistic approach examines reciprocal influence between literature and other social spheres like economics, belief systems, or governance structures.
5. Active Readership: Functionalist perspectives consider meaning-making an active process influenced by the reader’s social context and individual experiences. The use and interpretation of texts differ between individuals and communities.

Functional Theories: Application in Critiques

Literary Work	Potential Functionalist Critique
Aesop’s Fables	Analysis of how these fables, despite their simplicity, reinforce moral lessons, teach ethical behavior, and uphold dominant social values through easily understandable allegories.
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	Consideration of how the novel functions to regulate social norms through courtship rituals, portrayals of social mobility, and exploration of the marriage market as an avenue for individual and familial stability.
The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien	Examining archetypal struggles between good and evil as serving psychological functions for readers – providing hope, escapism, and metaphorical representation of personal and societal battles.
1984 by George Orwell	Investigating the work as a social and political warning. Focus on how its dystopian vision functions to heighten anxieties about surveillance, totalitarian control, and erosion of individual freedom.

Functional Theories: Criticism Against It

1. Conservative Bias: Critics argue that functionalism’s emphasis on equilibrium and stability can downplay systemic inequities, power imbalances, and the need for social change.
2. Teleological Focus: The idea that elements exist because they fulfill a function risks circular reasoning. Opponents argue it can fail to explain the origins of particular systems themselves.
3. Neglect of Conflict: Functionalist theories can potentially be overly optimistic by emphasizing cooperation over conflict and overlooking how contradictions drive social change.
4. Reductionist Tendency: In prioritizing the analysis of a “system,” there’s a danger of understating the nuances of individual experiences, agency, and resistance within society.
5. Lack of Historicism: Some functionalist views can focus on current utility at the expense of deeper historical analyses exploring how institutions and cultural practices evolve or persist over time.

Functional Theories: Terms Used in It

Term	Definition
Function	The purpose or role that a social institution, behavior, or phenomenon serves within a larger system.
Structure	The patterned arrangements of roles, norms, and institutions within a society that contribute to its functioning.
Dysfunction	Any element of a social system that disrupts or hinders the smooth operation of that system.
Manifest Function	The intended or obvious purpose of a social structure or behavior within a society.
Latent Function	The unintended or less apparent consequences of a social structure or behavior within a society.
Social Equilibrium	The state of balance or stability achieved when the various parts of a social system work together harmoniously.
Social Integration	The degree to which individuals feel connected to their society and its institutions, fostering social cohesion.
Social Differentiation	The process through which individuals and groups within a society become specialized in different roles or functions.
Socialization	The process by which individuals learn and internalize the values, norms, and behaviors of their culture or society.
Adaptation	The ability of a society to adjust and respond to internal and external changes, ensuring its continued functioning.

Functional Theories: Suggested Readings

1. Durkheim, Emile. The Division of Labor in Society. Translated by George Simpson. Free Press, 1997.
2. Merton, Robert K. Social Theory and Social Structure. Free Press, 1968.
3. Parsons, Talcott. The Structure of Social Action. Free Press, 1937.
4. Parsons, Talcott. The Social System. Free Press, 1951.
5. Parsons, Talcott, and Edward Shils, eds. Toward a General Theory of Action. Harvard University Press, 1951.
6. Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. Structure and Function in Primitive Society. Free Press, 1965.
7. Ritzer, George. Sociological Theory. McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.
8. Spencer, Herbert. Principles of Sociology. D. Appleton and Company, 1876.
9. Turner, Jonathan H., and Leonard Beeghley. The Emergence of Sociological Theory. SAGE Publications, 2008.
10. Turner, Jonathan H., and Leonard Beeghley. Sociology: A Systematic Introduction. McGraw-Hill Education.