“Lecture Notes on Rhetoric” by Friedrich Nietzsche and Carole Blair: Summary and Critique

Origins and Context

• Nietzsche’s lecture notes on rhetoric date back to his early years as a professor of classical philology at the University of Basel, likely written in 1874. The lectures were announced for that year’s summer course but were possibly never delivered.
• These notes reflect Nietzsche’s engagement with ancient rhetorical traditions and the role of rhetoric in shaping language and thought. As Blair highlights, “Nietzsche’s notes provide direct access to his view of the rhetorical tradition as well as to some of his own developing thoughts on language” (p. 95).

Definition of Rhetoric

• Nietzsche views rhetoric not merely as an art of persuasion but as deeply intertwined with language and its ability to shape reality. He notes, “Rhetoric arises among a people who still live in mythic images and who have not yet experienced the unqualified need of historical accuracy; they would rather be persuaded than instructed” (p. 97).
• For Nietzsche, rhetoric is central to how humans perceive the world, particularly through the use of language and metaphor. “Language itself is the result of audible rhetorical arts”, as it seeks to convey subjective impressions rather than objective truths (p. 106).

Relationship Between Rhetoric and Language

• Nietzsche argues that language, in its essence, is rhetorical because it does not convey reality directly but uses tropes and metaphors to represent experiences. “Language does not desire to instruct, but to convey to others a subjective impulse and its acceptance” (p. 107).
• He suggests that all words are metaphorical in nature, with even the most basic linguistic expressions being rhetorical devices: “Instead of the thing, the sensation takes in only a sign” (p. 108). Words like “sail” for “ship” are examples of how language uses synecdoche and metaphor.

Rhetoric and Aesthetics

• Nietzsche links rhetoric to aesthetics, emphasizing that rhetorical language must both persuade and appeal to the audience’s sense of beauty. “To win ‘elegantly’, not just to be victorious, is required among a people with a sense for competition” (p. 115).
• He explains that the balance between sincerity and artistry in rhetoric is crucial for its effectiveness: “The real secret of the rhetorical art is now the prudent relation of both aspects, of the sincere and the artistic” (p. 115).

Critique of Modern Rhetoric

• Nietzsche critiques modern attitudes toward rhetoric, suggesting that contemporary approaches lack the depth found in ancient practices. He observes, “Generally speaking, the moderns are inaccurate in their definitions” (p. 99), contrasting this with the rigorous debates over the definition of rhetoric in antiquity.

Influence on Nietzsche’s Later Works

• Blair points out that these lecture notes provide early insights into Nietzsche’s later philosophical views on language, truth, and consciousness. “The discussion of language and its relationship to rhetoric seems to anticipate statements made about language in the fragments compiled as The Will to Power” (p. 95).
• The connections between rhetoric, art, and truth are explored further in Nietzsche’s famous essays, such as “On Truth and Lie in an Extra-Moral Sense”, where he describes truth as a “mobile army of metaphors” (p. 96).

Rhetoric as a Philosophical Tool

• Nietzsche emphasizes that rhetoric goes beyond mere verbal persuasion, serving as a philosophical tool to explore how language shapes human perception and understanding. “The essence of language; the latter is based just as little as rhetoric is upon that which is true, upon the essence of things” (p. 106).
• He relates rhetoric to a broader cultural and philosophical context, arguing that it reflects not only artistic expression but also the social and political environments of its time.

1. Rhetorical Theory

• Contribution: Nietzsche’s Lecture Notes on Rhetoric challenges traditional views of rhetoric as merely the art of persuasion and places it at the center of human communication, arguing that all language is inherently rhetorical. Nietzsche expands the scope of rhetoric to encompass the entire structure of language, emphasizing its role in shaping human perception, reality, and meaning.
• Key Reference: “Language itself is the result of audible rhetorical arts” (p. 106). This statement underlines Nietzsche’s view that rhetoric is foundational to language itself, rather than a tool applied to it.
• Impact on Theory: This broadens rhetorical theory by integrating it with linguistic theory, implying that all communication, including artistic and literary expression, is rhetorical. This aligns with modern rhetorical criticism, which examines how language constructs reality.

2. Structuralism

• Contribution: Nietzsche’s focus on the structure of language as inherently metaphorical and rhetorical aligns with structuralist theories that see language as a system of signs shaping human cognition. Nietzsche argues that words are never fully connected to reality but are symbolic representations, akin to Saussure’s theory of the arbitrary nature of the sign.
• Key Reference: “Instead of the thing, the sensation takes in only a sign” (p. 108). Here, Nietzsche articulates that language does not directly reflect reality but rather creates a symbolic system that mediates human understanding of the world.
• Impact on Theory: This notion contributes to structuralist thought by emphasizing that language’s rhetorical nature distorts or shapes perception, reinforcing the idea that meaning is constructed through language.

3. Poststructuralism/Deconstruction

• Contribution: Nietzsche’s view that language and rhetoric are inescapably tied to subjectivity and metaphor contributes to poststructuralist and deconstructive critiques of language’s claim to represent objective truth. His exploration of rhetoric as a mode of constructing reality anticipates the poststructuralist idea that texts do not convey fixed meanings but are fluid, with meanings dependent on interpretation and context.
• Key Reference: “The full essence of things will never be grasped. Our utterances by no means wait until our perception and experience have provided us with a many-sided, somehow respectable knowledge of things” (p. 106). This aligns with poststructuralist ideas of language as unstable and incapable of fully capturing reality.
• Impact on Theory: Nietzsche’s rejection of stable meaning and his focus on the constructed nature of language anticipate key poststructuralist concepts like Derrida’s différance and the endless deferral of meaning.

4. Aesthetic Theory

• Contribution: Nietzsche places a strong emphasis on the aesthetic dimension of rhetoric, arguing that rhetoric must appeal not only to reason but also to the audience’s aesthetic sensibilities. He claims that the beauty and form of language play a crucial role in persuasion, not just its logical content.
• Key Reference: “The real secret of the rhetorical art is now the prudent relation of both aspects, of the sincere and the artistic” (p. 115). Nietzsche suggests that effective rhetoric must strike a balance between artistic expression and persuasive intent.
• Impact on Theory: This idea contributes to aesthetic theory by asserting that the form and style of expression are as important as content, influencing later theories of form in literary aesthetics, including the work of the Russian Formalists and New Critics, who emphasized the primacy of form over content.

5. Metaphor Theory

• Contribution: Nietzsche’s argument that all language is metaphorical contributes to metaphor theory, particularly to theories advanced by later philosophers such as Paul Ricoeur and George Lakoff. Nietzsche’s claim that metaphor is foundational to language—not just an ornamental device—reshapes how metaphor is understood in literature and philosophy.
• Key Reference: “All words are tropes in themselves, and from the beginning” (p. 108). This indicates that metaphor is not a secondary feature of language but is central to its very structure.
• Impact on Theory: Nietzsche’s insights advance the idea that metaphors shape thought, not just language, influencing cognitive theories of metaphor and the understanding of how metaphors construct worldviews in literary texts.

6. Hermeneutics

• Contribution: Nietzsche’s emphasis on the rhetorical nature of language and its role in shaping perception and meaning contributes to hermeneutics, especially to interpretations that consider the subjective and contextual nature of understanding. Nietzsche’s skepticism of language’s ability to convey objective truth feeds into hermeneutical theories that prioritize interpretation and the fluidity of meaning.
• Key Reference: “Language does not desire to instruct, but to convey to others a subjective impulse and its acceptance” (p. 106). This statement aligns with hermeneutical approaches that see understanding as subjective and dependent on context.
• Impact on Theory: Nietzsche’s view influences interpretative practices in literary theory by foregrounding the rhetorical and metaphorical dimensions of texts, suggesting that meaning is not fixed but must be interpreted within rhetorical contexts.

7. Ethical Rhetoric

• Contribution: Nietzsche ties rhetoric closely to ethical considerations, arguing that rhetoric, when used skillfully, does not merely manipulate but also conveys sincerity and moral appeal. He emphasizes the ethical dimension of rhetorical language, suggesting that effective rhetoric must appear honest and suited to its context.
• Key Reference: “Appropriateness aims at a moral effect, clarity (and purity) at an intellectual one” (p. 115). This highlights the ethical responsibility of the rhetor in achieving moral persuasion through rhetorical appropriateness.
• Impact on Theory: Nietzsche’s exploration of the ethical dimensions of rhetoric contributes to discussions about the ethics of language, influencing contemporary debates in rhetorical ethics, particularly in political and public discourse.