Nationalism in Literature & Literary Theory

Nationalism: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “nationalism” has its roots in the Latin word “natio,” meaning birth or nation. Its usage gained prominence in the late 18th century during the era of the French Revolution. The concept encompasses the idea of a shared identity, cultural heritage, and political destiny among a group of people within a defined geographic boundary. Over time, nationalism has evolved into a complex and multifaceted term, embodying various ideologies, movements, and sentiments related to the collective consciousness and pride of a nation.

Meanings and Concept:

• Patriotic Devotion: Nationalism often involves a deep-seated love and loyalty to one’s country, fostering a sense of unity and shared purpose among its citizens.
• Cultural Identity: It encompasses the preservation and promotion of a nation’s cultural values, traditions, and heritage, serving as a unifying force among its people.
• Political Sovereignty: Nationalism is closely tied to the pursuit of political independence and self-governance, emphasizing the autonomy and sovereignty of a nation-state.
• Ethnic or Civic Nationalism: Two major forms exist, with ethnic nationalism emphasizing shared ethnicity, language, and ancestry, while civic nationalism focuses on shared values, citizenship, and legal equality.
• National Pride: It involves a collective pride in a nation’s achievements, history, and contributions to the global community.
• National Unity and Solidarity: Nationalism seeks to forge a common identity that transcends regional, ethnic, or religious differences, fostering a sense of unity and solidarity among citizens.
• National Consciousness: The awareness of belonging to a distinct nation, with shared symbols, traditions, and historical narratives contributing to a collective consciousness.
• Nationalist Movements: Throughout history, nationalism has been a driving force behind various political and social movements seeking to establish or assert national identity and autonomy.
• Negative Aspects: While nationalism can promote unity, it also has the potential to lead to exclusionary practices, ethnocentrism, and conflicts when taken to extremes.
• Global Impact: In the modern era, nationalism’s impact extends beyond national borders, influencing international relations, diplomacy, and global politics.

Nationalism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Nationalism is a theoretical term encompassing a collective sense of identity, loyalty, and pride among individuals within a specific geographic and cultural framework. It emphasizes a shared cultural, historical, or ethnic heritage that binds a community together, fostering a commitment to a common destiny and often fueling aspirations for self-governance or political autonomy. Nationalism can manifest in various forms, ranging from positive expressions of patriotism to more divisive and exclusionary ideologies.

Nationalism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

1. Benedict Anderson: In his seminal work, Imagined Communities (1983), Anderson explores the concept of nationalism, arguing that nations are socially constructed entities, and nationalism is a product of collective imagination facilitated by print capitalism.
2. Ernest Gellner: Gellner, in Nations and Nationalism (1983), posits that nationalism is a consequence of modernization, asserting that industrial societies require a standardized culture, often tied to a common language, to function efficiently.
3. Anthony D. Smith: Smith’s work, National Identity (1991), delves into the historical and cultural aspects of nationalism, emphasizing the role of myths, memories, and symbols in shaping a nation’s identity.
4. Eric Hobsbawm: In Nations and Nationalism since 1780 (1990), Hobsbawm analyzes the historical emergence of nations and nationalism, arguing that they are modern phenomena tied to industrialization and political changes.

Key Works:

1. “Imagined Communities” by Benedict Anderson (1983): Anderson’s groundbreaking work explores the role of print culture and its impact on the creation and dissemination of national identities.
2. “Nations and Nationalism” by Ernest Gellner (1983): Gellner provides a theory of nationalism grounded in the idea that industrialization and the need for a standardized culture drive the formation of nations.
3. “National Identity” by Anthony D. Smith (1991): Smith’s work delves into the cultural dimensions of nationalism, emphasizing the importance of shared historical narratives and symbols in the construction of national identity.
4. “Nations and Nationalism since 1780” by Eric Hobsbawm (1990): Hobsbawm examines the historical roots of nationalism, arguing that nations are modern phenomena arising from specific socio-economic and political conditions.

Key Arguments:

1. Constructivism: Scholars like Anderson and Smith argue that nations are socially constructed entities, emphasizing the role of shared symbols, narratives, and cultural practices in forming national identities.
2. Modernization Theory: Gellner and Hobsbawm advocate for the idea that nationalism is a result of modernization, with industrialization and the need for a standardized culture fostering the emergence of nation-states.
3. Primordialism: Some theorists, such as Smith, explore the idea of primordial ties, suggesting that nations are deeply rooted in ancient ethnic or cultural affiliations, and nationalism arises from a natural sense of belonging.
4. Instrumentalism: Critics argue that nationalism can be strategically manipulated by political elites for various purposes, such as gaining power, suppressing dissent, or fostering a sense of unity during times of crisis.

Nationalism: Major Characteristics

1. Patriotism and Love for the Homeland:
   • Literary Reference: In Victor Hugo’s “Les Misérables,” the character Marius Pontmercy exemplifies a deep love for his homeland, France, and becomes involved in political movements to express his patriotism.
2. Cultural Pride and Identity:
   • Literary Reference: In Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart,” the novel explores the cultural pride and identity of the Igbo people in Nigeria, shedding light on their traditions and the impact of colonialism on their way of life. The protagonist, Okonkwo, symbolizes the struggle to maintain cultural integrity in the face of external influences.
3. Historical Consciousness:
   • Literary Reference: In Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude,” the fictional town of Macondo represents the history of Colombia, reflecting on the impact of colonialism and the quest for independence.
4. National Unity and Solidarity:
   • Literary Reference: Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart” depicts the consequences of European colonization on the Igbo society in Nigeria, highlighting the importance of national unity in the face of external pressures.
5. National Liberation and Independence Movements:
   • Literary Reference: Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s “Petals of Blood” explores the struggle for independence in Kenya, reflecting the broader African desire for liberation from colonial rule.
6. Symbolism and National Icons:
   • Literary Reference: In James Joyce’s “Ulysses,” the character of Leopold Bloom serves as a symbolic representation of Irish identity, reflecting the author’s exploration of nationalism in the context of Ireland.
7. Language as a Cultural Symbol:
   • Literary Reference: In the poetry of Pablo Neruda, especially in works like “Canto General,” language becomes a powerful symbol of cultural identity and resistance in the context of Latin American nationalism.
8. Anti-Imperialism and Resistance:
   • Literary Reference: Frantz Fanon’s “The Wretched of the Earth” provides a theoretical exploration of anti-imperialist struggles, drawing on the author’s experiences in Algeria, and serves as an influential work in the context of nationalist movements.
9. Mythology and National Narratives:
   • Literary Reference: J.R.R. Tolkien’s “The Lord of the Rings” incorporates elements of mythology and national narratives, reflecting the author’s views on the importance of preserving cultural identity in the face of external threats.
10. Exclusion and Xenophobia:
    • Literary Reference: Arthur Miller’s play “The Crucible” serves as an allegory for McCarthyism in the United States, highlighting how fear and exclusionary practices can emerge in the name of national security.

Nationalism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Nationalism	Examples in Literature
1. Marxist Literary Theory	Examines literature through the lens of class struggle and societal power dynamics. Nationalism can be explored as a tool for reinforcing or challenging existing power structures.	George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” critiques nationalism and totalitarianism, revealing how nationalist ideals can be manipulated for the benefit of ruling classes.
2. Feminist Literary Theory	Focuses on gender roles and patriarchy. Nationalism can intersect with gender, influencing societal expectations and reinforcing or challenging traditional gender norms.	Virginia Woolf’s “Three Guineas” explores the connection between nationalism and patriarchy, challenging the role of women in nationalist movements.
3. Postcolonial Theory	Analyzes literature from formerly colonized regions, examining the impact of colonialism and the expression of national identity post-independence.	Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart” critiques colonial influence on Nigerian identity and reflects the struggle for cultural integrity post-independence.
4. Structuralist Theory	Focuses on language structures and binary oppositions. Nationalism may be examined in terms of linguistic symbols and how they contribute to the construction of national identity.	Ferdinand de Saussure’s theories on language structure can be applied to understand how linguistic elements contribute to the construction of nationalist narratives.
5. Psychoanalytic Theory	Explores the influence of the unconscious mind on literature. Nationalism can be analyzed in terms of collective psychological processes and the formation of national identity.	Sigmund Freud’s concept of the “narcissism of small differences” can be applied to understand how nationalism emerges from a desire for a distinct and superior identity.
6. New Historicism	Examines literature in its historical context, considering the interplay between literature and historical events. Nationalism can be analyzed as a reflection of historical and cultural conditions.	Salman Rushdie’s “Midnight’s Children” explores the post-colonial identity of India, reflecting historical and cultural shifts during the period of independence.
7. Cultural Studies	Encompasses a wide range of interdisciplinary approaches. Nationalism can be examined in relation to cultural production, media, and the dissemination of national narratives.	Benedict Anderson’s concept of “imagined communities” can be applied to analyze how literature contributes to the creation of a shared national identity.

Nationalism: Application in Critiques

1. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe (1958):
   • Critique of Nationalism: Achebe’s novel critiques the impact of colonialism on Nigerian identity and the disintegration of traditional Igbo society. Nationalism, in this context, is seen as a double-edged sword—both a tool for resistance against colonial oppression and a force that contributes to internal conflicts within the community.
2. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez (1967):
   • Critique of Nationalism: Marquez’s work offers a critique of political upheavals in Latin America and the consequences of pursuing nationalistic ambitions. The novel depicts the cycle of power struggles, revolutions, and the rise and fall of leaders, highlighting the challenges and failures associated with the pursuit of nationalist ideals.
3. Disgrace by J.M. Coetzee (1999):
   • Critique of Nationalism: Coetzee’s novel explores post-apartheid South Africa and examines the complexities of nationalism in the aftermath of systemic racial injustice. The critique lies in the tension between the desire for a unified national identity and the unresolved issues of the past, raising questions about the feasibility and inclusivity of the post-colonial nationalist project.
4. The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid (2007):
   • Critique of Nationalism: Hamid’s novel critiques the impact of post-9/11 nationalism on individuals and societies. The protagonist, Changez, grapples with his identity as a Pakistani in the United States amidst rising tensions. The novel questions the exclusionary aspects of nationalism and explores the personal and social costs of embracing or rejecting national identity.

Nationalism: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
1. Colonialism	Acquisition and control of territories, often involving exploitation.
2. Identity Politics	Political dynamics influenced by aspects like race, ethnicity, and nationality.
3. Resistance	Opposition to external forces, such as colonial rule or oppressive ideologies.
4. Exclusion	Deliberate marginalization based on criteria like nationality.
5. Power Struggles	Conflicts for control and influence within societies or between nations.
6. Postcolonialism	Examination of the aftermath and impact of colonialism on cultures and identities.
7. Cultural Integrity	Preservation of a community’s unique cultural values and identity.
8. Inclusivity	Openness and acceptance of diverse perspectives, cultures, and identities.
9. Nationalist Narratives	Storytelling promoting and reinforcing nationalistic ideologies.
10. Societal Disintegration	Breakdown or deterioration of social structures linked to nationalism’s negative effects.

Nationalism: Suggested Readings

1. Anderson, Benedict. Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Verso, 1983.
2. Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Anchor Books, 1994.
3. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 2004.
4. Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2006.
5. Hamid, Mohsin. The Reluctant Fundamentalist. Harvest Books, 2008.
6. Joyce, James. Ulysses. Vintage, 1990.
7. Orwell, George. Animal Farm. Signet Classic, 1996.
8. Saussure, Ferdinand de. Course in General Linguistics. Open Court, 1986.
9. Woolf, Virginia. Three Guineas. Harvest Books, 2006.