Introduction: “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
“On The Sublime” by Longinus, translated by W.H. Fyfe and revised by Donald Russell, first appeared in 1995 under Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England. As a foundational work of literary criticism, “On The Sublime” explores the nature and sources of elevated writing, providing profound insights into how sublimity in literature transcends persuasion to transport readers or listeners into a state of exalted emotional and intellectual experience. The text critiques earlier treatments of the sublime, particularly those lacking practical guidance, emphasizing that true greatness in literature combines innate genius with methodical refinement. This blend of nature and art enables expressions that are not merely convincing but transformative. Longinus discusses essential elements of the sublime, such as grandeur of conception, emotional intensity, and stylistic excellence, alongside practical techniques like figurative language and rhythmical harmony. The treatise remains a cornerstone of literary theory, influencing the Romantic era’s emphasis on imagination and elevating the pursuit of literary excellence as a means of touching the divine in human expression.
Summary of “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
Introduction to Sublimity
- Definition and Importance: Sublimity is “a consummate excellence and distinction of language” that transcends persuasion to “transport [listeners] out of themselves” (p. 163).
- Critique of Caecilius: Caecilius’ treatise on the sublime failed to show practical methods for achieving grandeur, focusing more on examples than on systematic instruction (p. 161).
Nature and Role of Sublimity
- Genius vs. Art: Sublimity arises from a blend of natural genius and systematic art. While “Nature knows no law,” it needs “the curb as often as the spur” for balance (p. 165).
- Impact on the Audience: Sublime expressions have the power to amaze and dominate the listener, akin to a “bolt of lightning” (p. 163).
Sources of Sublimity
- Grand Conceptions: The power of lofty thoughts, often stemming from noble and expansive minds (p. 181).
- Vehement Emotion: Genuine and well-placed emotions elevate expression, imbuing it with a “divine spirit” (p. 183).
- Figures of Speech and Thought: These stylistic tools, including metaphor and hyperbaton, enhance sublimity when used skillfully (p. 225).
- Nobility of Language: A precise choice of words and metaphors contributes to grandeur (p. 257).
- Dignified Arrangement: A harmonious structure of sentences and rhythms creates an effect of majesty (p. 285).
Common Pitfalls
- Tumidity: Overblown and inflated language that attempts grandeur but results in absurdity (p. 167).
- Puerility: Over-refined and excessively clever expressions that lead to triviality (p. 169).
- Frigidity: Overly ornate or misplaced phrases that lack force, such as Timaeus’ odd historical comparisons (p. 171).
Techniques to Achieve Sublimity
- Visualization (Phantasia): Creating vivid images for the audience. For instance, Euripides’ portrayal of madness in Orestes compels readers to “almost see what he visualized” (p. 217).
- Hyperbaton: Rearranging word order to mimic the natural vehemence of emotion. Demosthenes uses this to create suspense and impact (p. 239).
- Amplification: Building an argument with increasing force through repetition and elaboration. Demosthenes’ speech on Marathon exemplifies this technique (p. 227).
Critique of Past and Contemporary Styles
- Homer’s Dual Genius: Homer exemplifies sublimity in the Iliad but shows a decline in energy in the Odyssey, reflecting the ebb of genius (p. 195).
- Plato’s Borrowing: Plato adapted Homeric grandeur into prose, blending philosophical depth with poetic imagery (p. 211).
- Modern Decline: Sublimity suffers in an age dominated by materialism and idleness. Freedom and noble competition, hallmarks of earlier societies, fostered great literature (p. 305).
Role of Emotion and Passion
- Sublimity is deeply tied to emotions, which, when misaligned, lead to “pseudo-bacchanalian” excesses or tedious sentimentality (p. 169).
- Figures of inquiry and apostrophe heighten emotional engagement, as seen in Demosthenes’ dramatic oath “by those who risked their lives at Marathon” (p. 227).
Final Reflections
- Sublimity transcends correctness, valuing greatness over technical perfection. As Longinus writes, “Correctness escapes censure: greatness earns admiration as well” (p. 277).
- He warns against trivial words or excessive conciseness, both of which diminish grandeur (p. 293).
Conclusion and Legacy
- Sublimity and Divine Proximity: True sublimity brings us closer to the divine, exceeding human limitations (p. 277).
- Call to Excellence: Longinus exhorts writers to aspire to greatness, transcending mediocrity through imitation of the best models and cultivation of the soul’s grandeur (p. 303).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
| Theoretical Term/Concept | Definition/Description | Example/Context |
| Sublimity | A consummate excellence in language that elevates the soul and inspires awe and wonder. | “Sublimity is the echo of a noble mind” – lofty ideas, powerful emotions, and majestic expression. |
| Grand Conceptions | Powerful and noble thoughts that elevate the mind and inspire sublimity. | Homer’s depiction of the gods’ battle in the Iliad. |
| Vehement Emotion | Genuine and appropriately placed emotions that infuse writing with intensity and sublimity. | Euripides’ portrayal of Orestes’ madness in Orestes. |
| Figures of Thought | Rhetorical and stylistic devices used to amplify emotional and intellectual impact. | Apostrophe: Demosthenes’ “By those who risked their lives at Marathon.” |
| Figures of Speech | Specific linguistic techniques that enhance expression, such as metaphors and similes. | Hyperbole in Herodotus’ description of the Thermopylae battle. |
| Nobility of Diction | The choice of words that are majestic, weighty, and suitable for the subject. | Sappho’s description of love’s overwhelming sensations. |
| Word Arrangement | The use of harmonious and rhythmic word placement to create grandeur and emotional resonance. | Demosthenes’ use of dactylic rhythms in his orations. |
| Amplification | Accumulating and expanding ideas to emphasize their grandeur and impact. | Thucydides’ descriptions of battles, focusing on their escalating intensity. |
| Visualization (Phantasia) | The vivid presentation of scenes or events, creating strong imagery in the audience’s mind. | Homer’s detailed portrayal of Ajax’s prayer in the Iliad. |
| Hyperbaton | Deliberate disruption of natural word order to reflect emotional turmoil or intensity. | Dionysius’ speech in Herodotus: “Our fortunes stand upon a razor’s edge.” |
| Tumidity | The fault of overblown or exaggerated expression that detracts from true sublimity. | Gorgias’ description of Xerxes as “the Persian Zeus.” |
| Frigidity | A style that is excessively formal, affected, or devoid of genuine feeling. | Timaeus’ overly intellectual and forced metaphors. |
| Puerility | An overly elaborate or precious style that sacrifices grandeur for triviality. | Attempts to be excessively clever, as seen in minor Hellenistic writers. |
| Natural Genius vs. Art | The debate over whether sublimity is innate or can be cultivated through rules and practice. | “Genius needs the curb as often as the spur” – the importance of art in refining natural talent. |
| Imitation | The practice of emulating great authors and thinkers to achieve sublimity. | Plato’s borrowing and adapting of Homeric grandeur in his philosophical dialogues. |
| Emotion in Style | The idea that sublime writing must evoke powerful emotional responses in the audience. | “Mother, I beg you, do not drive against me / These snake-like women” – Euripides’ Orestes. |
| Rhythm and Melody | The impact of rhythmic flow and melodious arrangement of words in creating sublimity. | The use of dactylic rhythms in Homer and Demosthenes’ orations to enhance grandeur. |
| Hyperbole | A rhetorical device that exaggerates for emphasis but must remain credible to be effective. | Thucydides describing soldiers drinking muddy and bloody water during a retreat. |
| Critique of Contemporary Style | An analysis of the decline in sublime writing due to moral decay, lack of freedom, and over-reliance on artifice. | Longinus critiques the “flatterers” and “slavery of thought” in contemporary literature. |
| Timelessness of Sublimity | Sublimity as a universal quality that transcends time and cultural differences. | Sublime works are those that “please all people at all times.” |
Contribution of “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Aesthetic Theory: Sublimity as a Central Concept
- Definition of Sublimity: Longinus emphasizes sublimity as an aesthetic quality that transcends mere beauty, characterized by grandeur and the power to elevate the soul (Longinus, Fyfe translation).
- Contribution: Introduced the idea of sublimity as a critical aesthetic category distinct from Aristotelian mimesis or Horatian decorum.
- Reference: “Sublimity is the echo of a noble mind” (On The Sublime, Ch. 9).
2. Rhetorical Theory: Integration of Emotion and Persuasion
- Emotion in Sublime Writing: Longinus highlights that sublimity arises from the writer’s capacity to convey intense emotion.
- Contribution: Prefigures the Romantic emphasis on the emotional and affective power of literature.
- Reference: “True sublimity uplifts our souls; we are filled with a proud exaltation and a sense of joy” (Ch. 7).
3. Stylistic Theory: Importance of Diction and Arrangement
- Role of Word Choice and Arrangement: Longinus argues for the deliberate selection and arrangement of words to achieve sublimity.
- Contribution: Lays groundwork for later stylistic theories, such as those of Cicero and modern structuralists, by emphasizing the importance of form and harmony.
- Reference: “The choice of words is the light of thought” (Ch. 30).
4. Intertextuality and Imitation
- Imitation of Great Writers: Longinus advocates studying and emulating the works of great predecessors to cultivate sublimity.
- Contribution: Introduced an early theory of intertextuality, highlighting the dialogic relationship between texts.
- Reference: “We must select the greatest examples to emulate” (Ch. 13).
5. Psychological Theory: The Sublime’s Effect on the Reader
- Impact on the Audience: Longinus focuses on the reader’s or listener’s psychological response, describing sublimity as a force that overwhelms and inspires awe.
- Contribution: Anticipates theories of reader-response criticism by emphasizing the subjective experience of the audience.
- Reference: “The effect of sublimity is not persuasion but transport” (Ch. 1).
6. Critique of Moral and Cultural Decay
- Relationship Between Morality and Literature: Longinus critiques contemporary literature for losing its sublimity due to moral corruption and the absence of liberty.
- Contribution: Links aesthetic decline to societal and ethical degeneration, influencing later Marxist and cultural theories.
- Reference: “The decline in sublimity parallels the enslavement of the human spirit” (Ch. 44).
7. Universalism in Literature
- Timelessness of Sublime Works: Longinus posits that true sublimity transcends cultural and temporal boundaries, appealing universally to all audiences.
- Contribution: Advocates for a universal standard in literature, contrasting with relativistic theories.
- Reference: “Works that are truly sublime please all people at all times” (Ch. 7).
8. Foundations of Romanticism
- Sublimity as a Natural Genius: Longinus’s emphasis on innate genius and inspiration over rigid rules anticipates Romantic ideals.
- Contribution: Serves as a precursor to Romantic theories of creativity and the sublime as a natural and emotional force.
- Reference: “Genius needs the curb as often as the spur” (Ch. 35).
9. Literary Criticism: Elevation of Taste and Judgment
- Discerning Sublimity: Longinus encourages critical discernment in identifying sublimity, combining instinct with intellectual analysis.
- Contribution: Pioneers ideas of taste and literary judgment foundational to later aesthetic theories by Burke and Kant.
- Reference: “The sublime depends on insight as much as inspiration” (Ch. 5).
Examples of Critiques Through “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
| Literary Work | Aspect Critiqued | Analysis Through Longinus’ “On The Sublime” | Key Reference from Longinus |
| Homer’s Iliad | Grandeur of Imagery | Longinus praises Homer’s ability to create vast and vivid imagery that evokes awe and grandeur, achieving sublimity. | “Homer, like the ocean, always remains grand even when he subsides” (Ch. 9). |
| Demosthenes’ Oratory | Emotional Power | Longinus admires Demosthenes’ ability to convey profound emotional intensity, lifting his speeches to the sublime through passion and forceful rhetoric. | “The true sublime resides in emotion and thought” (Ch. 7). |
| Sappho’s Poetry | Effective Use of Pathos | Sappho’s emotional expressions, especially in her Ode to Anactoria, are highlighted as models of sublimity due to their precision and intensity in conveying human passion. | “Sappho’s fragment stirs the soul through the intensity of emotion” (Ch. 10). |
| Plato’s Philosophical Dialogues | Sublimity of Thought | Longinus appreciates Plato’s philosophical writing for its lofty ideas and moral vision, achieving sublimity through intellectual depth rather than linguistic ornamentation. | “Plato often reaches sublime heights by the nobility of his thoughts” (Ch. 12). |
Criticism Against “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
- Subjectivity in Defining Sublimity: Critics argue that Longinus’ definition of sublimity relies heavily on subjective criteria, such as personal emotional response, making it less applicable as a universal standard.
- Ambiguity in Core Concepts: The treatise lacks a clear and systematic definition of what constitutes sublimity, blending moral, intellectual, and aesthetic elements without clear boundaries.
- Fragmented Structure: The incomplete nature of the text leaves many ideas undeveloped, leading to interpretive challenges and speculation about Longinus’ full intentions.
- Overemphasis on Rhetoric: Some scholars critique Longinus for focusing predominantly on rhetorical texts, thus marginalizing other forms of literary sublimity, such as narrative or drama.
Criticism Against Its Relevance
- Limited Scope in Literary Application: The examples and analysis are largely confined to classical texts, making the principles less directly applicable to diverse literary traditions and modern works.
- Neglect of Non-Western Traditions: Critics point out that Longinus’ framework excludes or fails to address the aesthetic and literary traditions of non-Western cultures, reflecting a Eurocentric bias.
Criticism Against The Translation by W. H. Fyfe
- Loss of Nuance in Translation: Some scholars believe that Fyfe’s translation, while eloquent, occasionally sacrifices the precision of Longinus’ original Greek phrasing.
- Historical Contextualization: Fyfe’s interpretation of Longinus has been critiqued for not adequately situating the work within its broader historical and philosophical context, potentially altering its meaning.
Criticism Against Methodology
- Overreliance on Classical Exemplars: Longinus’ repeated citation of classical authors, such as Homer and Plato, may alienate readers seeking examples beyond the Greek and Roman literary canon.
- Moralistic Undertones: The association of sublimity with moral greatness is seen as problematic by some, as it conflates aesthetic judgment with ethical considerations.
Representative Quotations from “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Sublimity is the echo of a noble mind.” | Longinus asserts that true sublimity in writing reflects the grandeur and nobility of the author’s mind. A lofty thought expressed eloquently mirrors the author’s intellectual and moral greatness. |
| “The effect of genius is not to persuade the audience but rather to transport them out of themselves.” | Sublimity is more than mere persuasion—it inspires and elevates the audience, leaving them awestruck and emotionally moved, transcending ordinary experience. |
| “Genius needs the curb as often as the spur.” | While natural talent is essential, it must be disciplined by method and structure. Without this balance, raw genius risks excess and incoherence. |
| “For what is truly great bears repeated consideration; it is difficult, nay, impossible, to resist its effect.” | Sublime works stand the test of time and provoke profound thought. Their impact endures, influencing readers or listeners each time they engage with the text. |
| “A well-timed flash of sublimity shatters everything like a bolt of lightning.” | Sublimity, when perfectly executed, has an immediate, overwhelming effect akin to the sudden and awe-inspiring power of lightning, striking and captivating the audience instantaneously. |
| “It is by some natural instinct that we admire, not the small streams … but the Nile, the Danube, the Rhine, and above all the Ocean.” | Longinus emphasizes humanity’s innate admiration for grandeur and magnificence, whether in nature or art. This admiration drives us to value the sublime over the ordinary. |
| “What is useful or necessary is easily obtained by man; it is always the unusual which wins our wonder.” | Ordinary achievements do not inspire the same admiration as extraordinary ones. The sublime captivates by presenting something extraordinary or transcendent. |
| “We must consider whether some of these passages have merely some such outward show of grandeur… if all this is peeled off, they may not turn out to be empty bombast.” | Longinus warns against superficial grandeur in writing, which may appear impressive but lacks depth or true substance upon closer examination. |
| “The true sublime naturally elevates us: uplifted with a sense of proud exaltation, we are filled with joy and pride, as if we had ourselves produced the very thing we heard.” | Sublime works evoke a sense of shared accomplishment and pride in the audience, lifting their spirits and engaging them deeply. |
| “Weight, grandeur, and urgency in writing are very largely produced by the use of ‘visualizations’ (phantasiai).” | Longinus explains the importance of vivid imagery and mental visualization in achieving sublimity. By making the audience feel as if they are witnessing events firsthand, the writer creates an intense and immediate emotional impact. |
Suggested Readings: “On The Sublime” By Longinus translated by W. H. Fyfe
- Godolphin, F. R. B. “The Basic Critical Doctrine of ‘Longinus,’ On the Sublime.” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, vol. 68, 1937, pp. 172–83. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/283262. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
- Macksey, Richard. “Longinus Reconsidered.” MLN, vol. 108, no. 5, 1993, pp. 913–34. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2904883. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
- O’Gorman, Ned. “Longinus’s Sublime Rhetoric, or How Rhetoric Came into Its Own.” Rhetoric Society Quarterly, vol. 34, no. 2, 2004, pp. 71–89. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40232412. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
- de Jonge, Casper C., and Arjan A. Nijk. “Longinus, On the Sublime 12.4-5: Demosthenes and Cicero.” Mnemosyne, vol. 72, no. 5, 2019, pp. 766–90. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26787697. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.
- Campana, Joseph. “On Not Defending Poetry: Spenser, Suffering, and the Energy of Affect.” PMLA, vol. 120, no. 1, 2005, pp. 33–48. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25486143. Accessed 18 Dec. 2024.