Introduction: “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi
“Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” by Leela Gandhi first appeared in 2007 in the journal Postcolonial Studies, exploring ways in which postcolonial theory challenges the Eurocentric foundations of Western thought and literature. Gandhi argues that by examining the historical and cultural contexts of colonial encounters, postcolonial theorists offer a critique of the “universal” subject, often constructed as European or white, that has dominated Western intellectual traditions. This essay has had a significant impact on literary theory, contributing to a more inclusive and diverse understanding of literary texts and their cultural contexts.
Summary of “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi
- Introduction: Leela Gandhi’s “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” offers a comprehensive exploration of the intersections between postcolonial theory and the philosophical tradition of transcendental phenomenology. The article argues that postcolonialism’s engagement with “theory” is rooted in the historical and ethical foundations of anticolonial thought. By examining the virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity” as they emerged in colonial encounters, Gandhi provides a nuanced understanding of the ethical dimensions of postcol nialism.
- The Ethical Foundations of Postcolonialism: Gandhi begins by tracing the historical origins of anticolonial ethics to the experiences of Indian peasant-soldiers in the Great War. These soldiers, drawn from diverse backgrounds of plenitude and scarcity, developed a discourse of “intimate enmity” or “implacable dependence” with their European counterparts. This discourse was characterized by the virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity,” which emerged from the contrasting cultural and material conditions of coloniser and colonised.
- The Role of Transcendental Phenomenology: The article then explores the role of transcendental phenomenology in shaping postcolonial theory. Gandhi argues that the ethical insights of anticolonial thought align with the philosophical methods of “reduction” and “intentionality” developed by Edmund Husserl. By suspending the empirical world and engaging in a relational exploration of “others,” transcendental phenomenology offers a framework for understanding the ethical dimensions of colonial encounters.
- The Ethics of Sacrifice and Generosity: Gandhi delves into the specific virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity” as they manifested in colonial contexts. “Sacrifice,” rooted in the conditions of scarcity experienced by the colonised, was often framed as a moral imperative to disregard worldly goods and embrace a life of austerity. In contrast, “generosity,” associated with the plenitude of the coloniser, was often expressed through acts of hospitality and care.
- The Bandung Conference and Global Solidarity: The article also examines the Bandung Conference of 1955, a significant moment in the development of global solidarity among colonised peoples. The conference reinforced the ethical distinctions between non-western and western civilisational values, emphasizing the importance of both “sacrifice” and “generosity” in the struggle against colonialism.
- Conclusion: Leela Gandhi’s “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” offers a valuable contribution to the field of postcolonial studies. By examining the ethical foundations of anticolonial thought and the role of transcendental phenomenology, the article provides a nuanced understanding of the complex relationship between ethics, theory, and colonialism. Gandhi’s analysis highlights the importance of recognizing the diverse perspectives and experiences that shaped the postcolonial world.
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi
| Term/Concept | Definition | Example from the Text |
| Transcendental phenomenology | A philosophical method that seeks to understand the nature of consciousness and experience through the analysis of subjective phenomena. | Gandhi’s discussion of the “elementary virtues” of sacrifice and generosity as they emerged from the experiences of Indian peasant-soldiers. |
| Asceticism | A practice of self-discipline and self-denial, often associated with religious or spiritual beliefs. | Gandhi’s reference to “theory” as an ascetic or ethical project. |
| Colonialism | The systematic exploitation and domination of a foreign territory and its people by a more powerful nation. | Gandhi’s discussion of the colonial encounters between Indian sepoys and European soldiers. |
| Postcolonialism | A theoretical framework that examines the lasting effects of colonialism on societies and cultures. | The entire focus of the article, which explores the impact of colonialism on European thought and the development of postcolonial theory. |
| Virtue | A moral quality considered desirable or admirable. | The specific virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity” discussed by Gandhi. |
| Ethics | A system of moral principles and rules that govern behavior. | Gandhi’s exploration of the ethical dimensions of anticolonial thought and postcolonial theory. |
| Theory | A set of ideas or principles that explain a particular phenomenon. | Gandhi’s use of “theory” as a framework for understanding postcolonialism. |
| Sacrifice | The act of giving up something valuable for a higher purpose. | The experiences of Indian peasant-soldiers who were willing to sacrifice their lives for their country. |
| Generosity | The quality of giving freely and generously. | The hospitality and care shown by European soldiers and civilians towards Indian sepoys. |
| Intimate enmity | A paradoxical relationship characterized by both closeness and hostility. | Gandhi’s description of the relationship between coloniser and colonised. |
| Implacable dependence | A relationship in which two parties are mutually dependent but also antagonistic. | Gandhi’s description of the relationship between coloniser and colonised. |
Contribution of “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi to Literary Theory/Theories
- Deconstructing Eurocentric narratives: Gandhi’s article directly contributes to the core tenets of postcolonial theory by challenging Eurocentric narratives and emphasizing the importance of non-Western perspectives. She critiques the “universal subject,” often constructed as European or white, that has dominated Western intellectual traditions.
- Rethinking the canon: Gandhi’s work encourages a reexamination of the literary canon, advocating for the inclusion of marginalized voices and perspectives from the global South. By highlighting the ethical dimensions of colonial encounters, she provides a framework for understanding how literature can be used to challenge and subvert colonial power structures.
- Interdisciplinary approach: Gandhi’s article aligns with the interdisciplinary nature of cultural studies, drawing on insights from history, philosophy, and literary analysis. She demonstrates how cultural studies can be used to examine the complex intersections between literature, culture, and power.
- Focus on materiality: Gandhi’s emphasis on the material conditions of colonialism (e.g., poverty, scarcity) resonates with cultural studies’ focus on the materiality of culture. She highlights how material factors can shape literary representations and discourses.
- Intersectionality: Gandhi’s work contributes to feminist theory by emphasizing the importance of intersectionality, recognizing that gender is not the only factor shaping identity and experience. She highlights the ways in which colonialism, race, and class intersect to create unique forms of oppression.
- Challenging Eurocentric feminism: Gandhi’s critique of Eurocentric feminism aligns with the broader project of feminist theory to challenge Western-centric perspectives and promote a more inclusive understanding of gender.
- Race and power: Gandhi’s article resonates with critical race theory’s focus on the relationship between race and power. She demonstrates how colonialism has been used to construct racial hierarchies and maintain systems of oppression.
- Counter-narratives: Gandhi’s exploration of anticolonial narratives aligns with critical race theory’s emphasis on the importance of counter-narratives that challenge dominant discourses.
References from the article:
- Gandhi’s discussion of the “universal subject” and its Eurocentric foundations.
- Her analysis of the ethical dimensions of colonial encounters, including the virtues of “sacrifice” and “generosity.”
- Her critique of the Eurocentric canon and her advocacy for the inclusion of marginalized voices.
- Her emphasis on the materiality of culture and its impact on literary representations.
- Her discussion of intersectionality and the ways in which colonialism, race, and class intersect to create unique forms of oppression.
Examples of Critiques Through “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi
| Literary Work | Author | Postcolonial Critique Based on Gandhi’s Framework |
| Heart of Darkness | Joseph Conrad | Examines the representation of Africa as the “other” and critiques European imperialism’s moral crisis. Gandhi’s theory suggests that Conrad’s depiction reflects the crisis of European identity and the moral contradictions within colonization. |
| Things Fall Apart | Chinua Achebe | Gandhi’s postcolonial lens critiques the European framing of indigenous societies as primitive. Achebe’s work challenges colonial narratives, highlighting the richness of Igbo culture and the violence of colonial disruption. |
| Wide Sargasso Sea | Jean Rhys | Through Gandhi’s framework, this work critiques colonial and racial hierarchies. The story reveals the psychological trauma of being a marginalized, mixed-race woman in colonial Jamaica, echoing the European crisis of identity in the colonized world. |
| A Passage to India | E. M. Forster | Critiqued for illustrating the failure of European liberalism in colonial India. Gandhi’s ideas suggest that Forster’s novel exposes the impossibility of true friendship and equality between colonizers and colonized within a colonial framework. |
Criticism Against “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi
1. Essentialism:
- Overgeneralization of colonial experiences: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s analysis overgeneralizes the experiences of colonized peoples, failing to account for the diversity and complexity of colonial encounters. They suggest that her focus on universal themes like “sacrifice” and “generosity” may obscure the specificities of particular colonial contexts.
- Essentialization of cultural identity: Critics have also questioned Gandhi’s use of essentialist categories like “European” and “non-European.” They argue that these categories can obscure the internal diversity and contradictions within these cultural groups.
2. Eurocentrism:
- Reliance on European philosophical concepts: Despite her critique of Eurocentrism, some argue that Gandhi’s reliance on European philosophical concepts like transcendental phenomenology ultimately limits her analysis. They suggest that a more truly postcolonial approach would require a complete rejection of Western intellectual traditions.
- Focus on European crisis: Critics have also noted that Gandhi’s focus on the “crisis of European man” may inadvertently reinforce a Eurocentric perspective. They argue that the article could have benefited from a more centered focus on the experiences and perspectives of colonized peoples.
3. Teleological narrative:
- Linear progression of history: Some critics argue that Gandhi’s narrative presents a linear progression of history, from colonialism to postcolonialism, that may oversimplify the complexities of historical change. They suggest that a more nuanced understanding of postcoloniality would require recognizing the ongoing and overlapping nature of colonial power relations.
4. Limited engagement with contemporary issues:
- Focus on historical examples: While Gandhi’s analysis provides valuable insights into the historical foundations of postcolonialism, some critics argue that her focus on historical examples limits her engagement with contemporary issues. They suggest that the article could have benefited from a more explicit discussion of how postcolonial theory can be applied to current challenges and debates.
Representative Quotations from “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “The ‘goodness’ of Europe is registered first and foremost as the fact of its wealth.” | This quote highlights the material basis of European power and the ways in which it is often associated with moral superiority. |
| “The ‘characteristic vice’ of imperial Englishmen, as Tawney writes in The Sickness of an Acquisitive Society (1920), is that ‘they are incurious as to theory . . .'” | This quote emphasizes the importance of theoretical reflection in understanding and challenging colonial power structures. |
| “The ‘virtues’ produced in the sepoys’ letters . . . are, in all their aphoristic particularity, ‘elementary’ in the manner of what Theodor Adorno has described as a minima moralia.” | This quote introduces the concept of a “minor ethics” that challenges the dominant norms and values of Western thought. |
| “The ‘elementary’ virtues of ‘sacrifice’ and ‘generosity’ . . . together aspire toward a seemingly impossible form of anticolonial communality.” | This quote suggests that despite their differences, the virtues of sacrifice and generosity can be used to build a more just and equitable society. |
| “The postcolonial susceptibility to and use of Husserlian ‘theory’ is born of a formative exposure to the metaphysical basis of much anticolonial ethics.” | This quote highlights the connection between postcolonial theory and the philosophical tradition of transcendental phenomenology. |
| “The ‘generosity’ of Europe is explained, exponentially, as the moral effect of plenitude: a virtue appropriate to affluence.” | This quote suggests that European generosity is often rooted in a sense of superiority and entitlement. |
| “It is precisely the occluded qualities of difference and existence, namely, of zoe¨, which it falls upon a minima moralia to resurrect.” | This quote emphasizes the importance of recognizing and valuing difference in ethical and political thought. |
| “We might consider here, as paradigmatic, the crisis of Arjuna, paralysed into inaction at the very outset of that epic war between the Pandavas and Kauravas so vivid in the minds of Hindu sepoys at the Western Front.” | This quote draws on a Hindu epic to illustrate the ethical dilemmas faced by individuals caught in the conflicts of colonialism. |
| “The Bandung Conference . . . reinforced an existential division between European and non-European critics of imperialism.” | This quote highlights the ways in which the Bandung Conference marked a turning point in the development of global anticolonial solidarity. |
| “The ‘crisis of European man’ is a crisis of the universal subject, a crisis of the West’s claim to represent humanity as a whole.” | This quote emphasizes the ways in which the crisis of European colonialism is also a crisis of Western thought. |
Suggested Readings: “Postcolonial Theory and the Crisis of European Man” By Leela Gandhi
- Gandhi, Leela. Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. Columbia University Press, 1998. https://cup.columbia.edu/book/postcolonial-theory/9780231112770
- Gandhi, Leela. Affective Communities: Anticolonial Thought, Fin-de-Siècle Radicalism, and the Politics of Friendship. Duke University Press, 2006. https://www.dukeupress.edu/affective-communities
- Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978. https://archive.org/details/OrientalismByEdwardWSaid
- Chakrabarty, Dipesh. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton University Press, 2000. https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691130019/provincializing-europe
- Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963. https://www.openanthropology.org/fanonwretched.pdf
- Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge, 1998.
URL: https://www.routledge.com/ColonialismPostcolonialism-3rd-Edition/Loomba/p/book/9780415350648 - Young, Robert J.C. Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2003. URL: https://global.oup.com/academic/product/postcolonialism-a-very-short-introduction-9780192801821
- Bhambra, Gurminder K. “Postcolonial and Decolonial Dialogues.” Postcolonial Studies, vol. 17, no. 2, 2014, pp. 115-121. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13688790.2014.966414
- Nayar, Pramod K. Postcolonial Literature: An Introduction. Pearson, 2008. https://www.pearson.com/store/p/postcolonial-literature-an-introduction/P100000027862
- Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989. https://www.routledge.com/The-Empire-Writes-Back-Theory-and-Practice-in-Post-Colonial-Literatures/Ashcroft-Griffiths-Tiffin/p/book/9780415280204