Prejudice in Literature & Literary Theory

Prejudice: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Prejudice” originates from the Latin word “praejudicium,” meaning “prejudgment.” The term refers to preconceived opinions or attitudes held towards a person or group, often without proper examination or evidence.

Meanings and concepts associated with prejudice include:

• Preconceived Judgment: It involves forming opinions or making judgments about individuals or groups based on stereotypes, assumptions, or preconceptions rather than on objective information or personal experience.
• Negative Bias: It often entails a negative bias, leading to unfair treatment or discrimination against the targeted individual or group.
• Ingroup vs. Outgroup: It can arise from a perceived sense of difference between one’s own group (ingroup) and others (outgroups), leading to favoritism towards the ingroup and hostility or mistrust towards outgroups.
• Socialization and Cultural Influence: It can be learned through socialization processes, influenced by cultural norms, media portrayals, and interpersonal interactions.
• Psychological Mechanisms: Psychological mechanisms such as categorization, confirmation bias, and scapegoating contribute to the formation and maintenance of prejudicial attitudes.
• Impact on Society: It can have significant social, economic, and political ramifications, perpetuating inequality, fueling conflicts, and hindering social cohesion and progress.

Prejudice: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Prejudice is a theoretical term in social psychology that denotes a negative attitude or judgment held towards individuals or groups based on their membership in a particular category, such as race, ethnicity, gender, or religion. It involves prejudging others without adequate information or rational basis, often leading to discriminatory behaviors or unfair treatment. Prejudice can manifest through various forms, including stereotypes, biases, and scapegoating, and it plays a pivotal role in shaping intergroup relations and societal dynamics.

Prejudice: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist/School of Thought	Notable Works	Key Arguments
Gordon Allport	The Nature of Prejudice (1954)	* Introduced the concept of in-groups and out-groups, arguing that prejudice arises from a fundamental human need to categorize and form social groups. * Proposed a scale of prejudice ranging from mild antilocution (negative talk) to extreme acts of violence and genocide.
Social Identity Theory (Tajfel & Turner)	* Various journal publications*	* People derive self-esteem from their group memberships. To enhance this, they tend to favor their in-group and may discriminate against out-groups. * Even minimal group distinctions can lead to prejudice.
Theodor Adorno (Authoritarian Personality)	The Authoritarian Personality (1950)	* Prejudice stems from a deep-seated personality type characterized by rigidity, intolerance of ambiguity, and a need for obedience and submission to authority.
Implicit Bias (Greenwald, Banaji)	Various research studies, Implicit Association Test (IAT)	* Prejudice can exist at an unconscious level. We may harbor implicit biases that contradict our explicit, conscious beliefs about equality.
Scapegoat Theory	Not attributed to a single theorist	* Argues that prejudice emerges when individuals or groups face frustration and need a target to blame. Minorities or out-groups become scapegoats for social or economic problems.

Important Considerations

• Intersectionality: It targets not just race or ethnicity, but also factors like gender, sexual orientation, disability, religion, and more. Theories need to account for how these categories intersect.
• Social Change: Understanding it is crucial for addressing discrimination and creating a more just society.
• Evolving field: Its Theories continue to develop, becoming more nuanced with further research.

Prejudice: Major Characteristics

• Preconceived judgments: Forming opinions about an individual or group without sufficient knowledge or experience.
  • Literary example: In Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, Elizabeth Bennet forms a strong negative prejudicial attitude against Mr. Darcy based on a single encounter, leading her to misjudge his character.
• Stereotyping: Applying over-generalized beliefs to entire groups of people, ignoring individual differences.
  • Literary example: Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice portrays the Jewish moneylender Shylock through harmful stereotypes of greed and vengefulness, reflecting antisemitic prejudices of the time.
• Resistance to change: Holding steadfast to prejudicial beliefs even when presented with contradictory evidence.
  • Literary Example: In Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird, the racism of Maycomb residents prevents them from seeing Tom Robinson’s innocence despite the compelling evidence in his defense.
• Dehumanization: Viewing members of a target group as less than fully human, stripping them of empathy and compassion.
  • Literary Example: Toni Morrison’s Beloved explores the horrors of slavery and the ways it dehumanized enslaved people. Plantation owners justified their brutal treatment by constructing an ideology of Black people as inherently inferior.
• Justification: Creating rationalizations for prejudiced beliefs to maintain a sense of righteousness or superiority.
  • Literary example: In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, the pigs, after seizing power, gradually rewrite the rules of equality to justify their own increasingly oppressive behavior.

Important Notes:

• Prejudice in literature: Authors often portray prejudice to expose its flaws and promote social critique, not always to endorse prejudicial ideas themselves.
• Complexity: Prejudice can be overt or subtle, conscious or unconscious.
• Social context: Historical and social contexts heavily influence how prejudice is expressed in literature.

Prejudice: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Focus on Prejudice	Key Questions
Reader-Response Theory	Examines the reader’s role in creating meaning from the text.	* How do a reader’s own prejudices and experiences color their interpretation of a text? * Can reading about prejudice lead to greater understanding and empathy in the reader?
Feminist Theory	Focuses on gender inequalities, power structures, and the representation of women in literature.	* How are women represented in texts marked by prejudice? * How do female authors challenge or subvert patriarchal narratives steeped in prejudice?
Marxist Theory	Analyzes literature through a lens of class conflict, economics, and social structures.	* How does prejudice uphold systems of oppression and power? * How can literature expose and critique economic inequalities fueled by prejudice?
Postcolonial Theory	Examines the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism.	* How does literature portray prejudice rooted in race, ethnicity, and power hierarchies created by colonialism? * Can literature help deconstruct harmful narratives of the “other” prevalent in colonialist works?
Critical Race Theory	Examines racism as embedded within systems and institutions, not just individual acts.	* How is structural racism reflected and reinforced in literature? * How do works by authors of color challenge and expose societal prejudice?

Prejudice: Application in Critiques

1. Albert Camus’ The Stranger (French)

• Prejudice against the “Other”: The protagonist Meursault is an outsider due to his emotional detachment and perceived indifference to social norms. His trial and conviction reflect society’s prejudice against those who do not conform.
• Prejudice of Colonialism: Set in French Algeria, the novel subtly reveals the colonial power structures and prejudices held towards the native Arab population.
• Critique: Camus challenges the reader to consider how societal expectations and rigid judgments lead to the condemnation of individuals who defy convention.

2. Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s Americanah (Nigerian/American)

• Racial Type in America and beyond: The protagonist, Ifemelu, encounters various forms of racial prejudice as a Nigerian woman living in the United States. The novel also explores prejudiced perspectives within Nigeria.
• Intersectionality: Adichie highlights how race intersects with gender, class, and nationality to shape experiences of prejudice.
• Critique: The novel challenges simplistic notions of race and identity while illustrating the complex and lingering effects of prejudice even in seemingly progressive societies.

3. Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment (Russian)

• Prejudice against the Poor: Protagonist Raskolnikov commits a crime, driven in part by poverty and desperation. The novel explores social prejudicial behavior that marginalize those of lower classes.
• Internalized Prejudice: Many characters harbor self-hatred and internalize negative societal judgments based on their background or circumstances.
• Critique: Dostoevsky examines the psychological toll of prejudice and how it can corrupt an individual’s sense of morality.

4. Khaled Hosseini’s The Kite Runner (Afghan-American)

• Ethnic Type: The central tension arises from it against the Hazara ethnic minority by the Pashtuns in Afghanistan.
• Intergenerational Trauma: The novel reveals how historical prejudices and events can shape the lives of individuals and perpetuate cycles of conflict.
• Critique: Hosseini exposes the devastating effects of ethnic type while also highlighting the potential for redemption and the complex nature of forgiveness.

Important Considerations

• Global Perspective: Examining foreign novels helps illuminate how it manifests in different cultural contexts.
• Contemporary Relevance: Newer works highlight how it continues to evolve and impact societies today.

Prejudice: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Bias	An inclination or tendency towards a particular viewpoint, often unfair or unreasoned.
Bigotry	Intolerance toward those who hold different opinions, beliefs, or lifestyles.
Discrimination	Unfair treatment of individuals or groups based on prejudice.
Stereotyping	Overgeneralized beliefs about a group of people, ignoring individual differences.
Xenophobia	Fear or hatred of foreigners or strangers.
Antisemitism	Hostility or prejudice directed specifically against Jewish people.
Racism	Discrimination based on race.
Sexism	Discrimination based on sex or gender.
Homophobia	Fear, hatred, or prejudice against homosexual individuals.
Ableism	Prejudice and discrimination against people with disabilities.

Prejudice: Suggested Readings

1. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2017.
2. DiAngelo, Robin. White Fragility: Why It’s So Hard for White People to Talk About Racism. Beacon Press, 2018.
3. Dovidio, John F., et al. The Social Psychology of Prejudice: Historical and Contemporary Issues. Routledge, 2017.
4. Essed, Philomena. Everyday Racism: Reports from Women of Two Cultures. University of California Press, 1990.
5. Feagin, Joe R., and Hernan Vera. White Racism: The Basics. Routledge, 2013.
6. Goldberg, David Theo. Racist Culture: Philosophy and the Politics of Meaning. Wiley-Blackwell, 1993.
7. Kendi, Ibram X. How to Be an Antiracist. One World, 2019.
8. Levin, Shana. Tyranny of Reason: The Origins and Consequences of the Social Scientific Outlook. Routledge, 2000.
9. McIntosh, Peggy. White Privilege and Male Privilege: A Personal Account of Coming to See Correspondences through Work in Women’s Studies. Wellesley College Center for Research on Women, 1988.
10. Picca, Leslie H., and Joe R. Feagin. Two-Faced Racism: Whites in the Backstage and Frontstage. Routledge, 2007.