Rhetorical Theory and Literature

Introduction: Rhetorical Theory

Rhetorical theory is the study of persuasive communication techniques used to influence audiences and shape discourse. Rooted in ancient traditions, it analyzes elements like credibility, emotion, and logic in language.

This discipline remains vital in contemporary contexts, helping us understand the persuasive power of language in politics, advertising, literature, and public debates.

Features of Rhetorical Theory

Feature	Explanation
Persuasion and Communication	It centers on the study of persuasive communication and the techniques employed to influence audiences.
Ethos, Pathos, Logos	It examines the three primary modes of persuasion: ethos (credibility and authority of the speaker), pathos (emotional appeal), and logos (logical reasoning).
Rhetorical Devices	The theory delves into the analysis of various rhetorical devices, such as metaphors, similes, and rhetorical questions, and their impact on language and discourse.
Historical Roots	It has its origins in ancient Greek and Roman traditions, with influential figures like Aristotle and Cicero contributing to its development.
Evolution	Over centuries, rhetorical theory has evolved and adapted to contemporary contexts, remaining relevant in various domains, including politics, advertising, literature, and public discourse.
Critical Analysis	It offers tools for critically assessing persuasive messages, speeches, and texts, enabling a deeper understanding of their rhetorical strategies.
Rhetorical Situation	It considers the context in which communication occurs, including the audience, purpose, and constraints, to shape effective persuasive messages.
Cultural and Historical Context	It recognizes the influence of culture and history on rhetorical practices and discourse, highlighting the dynamic nature of persuasive communication.
Interdisciplinary Application	It finds applications in diverse fields, including communication studies, political science, literature, and public speaking, underscoring its interdisciplinary relevance.
Education and Advocacy	It plays a role in education, empowering individuals to become effective communicators and advocates for their ideas and causes.

Rhetorical Theory: Theorists, Works and Arguments

1. Aristotle (384-322 BCE):
   • Works: “Rhetoric”
   • Arguments: Aristotle’s “Rhetoric” is a foundational text in rhetorical theory. He introduced the concepts of ethos, pathos, and logos as modes of persuasion. His arguments emphasize the importance of credibility, emotion, and logic in persuasive communication.
2. Cicero (106-43 BCE):
   • Works: “De Oratore”
   • Arguments: Cicero’s “De Oratore” is a classic in Roman rhetoric. He stressed the orator’s role in balancing ethos, pathos, and logos to persuade effectively. His arguments promote eloquence, virtue, and practical wisdom in oratory.
3. Kenneth Burke (1897-1993):
   • Works: “A Rhetoric of Motives,” “Language as Symbolic Action”
   • Arguments: Burke’s work focuses on the persuasive power of language and symbols. He introduced the concept of “identification,” emphasizing how individuals align themselves with shared symbols and values to persuade and build connections.
4. Michel Foucault (1926-1984):
   • Works: “The Archaeology of Knowledge,” “Discipline and Punish”
   • Arguments: Foucault’s contributions to rhetorical theory involve the analysis of power and discourse. He argued that knowledge and language are intertwined with structures of power, influencing how persuasion and control operate in society.
5. Chaim Perelman (1912-1984) and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca (1900-1984):
   • Works: “The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation”
   • Arguments: Perelman and Olbrechts-Tyteca’s collaborative work introduced the concept of the “universal audience.” They argued that effective persuasive discourse considers the diverse perspectives and values of the audience, aiming to reach common ground in argumentation.
6. Wayne C. Booth (1921-2005):
   • Works: “The Rhetoric of Fiction,” “The Rhetoric of Rhetoric”
   • Arguments: Booth’s contributions to rhetorical theory extend to literary criticism. He explored the ethical dimensions of rhetoric, emphasizing how rhetoricians and authors make persuasive choices with moral implications.

These theorists and their significant works have profoundly influenced the field of rhetorical theory, offering diverse perspectives and arguments on the art of persuasion, communication, and the role of language in shaping human discourse and understanding.

Rhetorical Theory: Principals

Principal	Explanation
Persuasion as Central	It posits that the primary purpose of communication is persuasion. Effective persuasion involves credibility, emotional appeal, and logical reasoning (ethos, pathos, and logos).
Audience Awareness	Understanding one’s audience is fundamental. Effective communication considers the audience’s perspectives, values, and needs to create a connection and meaningful engagement.
Rhetorical Situation	Emphasizing the importance of the rhetorical situation, including context, purpose, audience, and constraints, to guide persuasive strategies in communication.
The Power of Language	Language is a potent tool for persuasion. Rhetorical theory explores how linguistic choices, like metaphors, rhetorical questions, and symbols, influence communication’s effectiveness.
Ethical Considerations	Ethics play a significant role in rhetorical theory. It encourages ethical communication, emphasizing honesty, transparency, and a commitment to shared values.
Identification	Kenneth Burke’s concept of identification is central, suggesting that individuals align themselves with shared symbols, values, and narratives to build connections and persuade.
Critical Analysis	It provides tools for critically analyzing persuasive messages, speeches, and texts. It promotes a deeper understanding of the strategies used in persuasive communication.
Cultural and Historical Context	Acknowledging the influence of culture and history on rhetoric is integral. Rhetorical theory recognizes that persuasive practices are shaped by cultural norms, values, and historical contexts.
Interdisciplinary Relevance	Rhetorical theory is interdisciplinary, finding applications in diverse fields such as communication studies, political science, literature, and public speaking, offering valuable insights.
Education and Advocacy	It plays a role in education, empowering individuals to become effective communicators and advocates for their ideas and causes, equipping them to navigate complex communication situations.

Rhetorical Theory in Literature

It plays a significant role in the interpretation and analysis of literary works. Here are key aspects of its application in literature:

1. Author’s Persuasion: Literary texts often carry persuasive elements. Rhetorical theory helps readers understand how authors employ ethos, pathos, and logos to influence the reader’s interpretation and emotional engagement with the text.
2. Narrative Strategies: Authors use various rhetorical devices to shape the narrative, such as metaphors, similes, and symbolism. Rhetorical theory allows for a deeper analysis of how these devices contribute to the narrative’s effectiveness.
3. Character Development: Rhetorical theory can be applied to character analysis. It helps in understanding the persuasive techniques characters use within the narrative and their ethical or unethical choices.
4. Themes and Moral Lessons: The ethical considerations emphasized by rhetorical theory enable readers to explore the ethical dilemmas and moral lessons presented in literary works.
5. Narrator’s Perspective: The choice of narrative voice and point of view is a rhetorical decision made by authors. Rhetorical theory aids in understanding how these choices influence the reader’s perception and interpretation of the story.
6. Interpretation and Criticism: Rhetorical theory offers a framework for the interpretation and critical analysis of literary works. It assists in identifying the author’s persuasive strategies and the impact of those strategies on the reader’s understanding.
7. Historical and Cultural Context: Consideration of the cultural and historical context is integral to both rhetoric and literature. Rhetorical theory allows for a nuanced exploration of how literature reflects and responds to cultural and historical influences.
8. Comparative Analysis: Rhetorical theory enables scholars and critics to conduct comparative analyses of different literary works, identifying common persuasive techniques and themes.
9. Reader-Response Theory: Rhetorical theory complements reader-response theory by emphasizing how readers engage with and are persuaded by literary texts. It offers insights into how readers interpret, relate to, and are moved by the narratives.
10. Teaching and Education: Rhetorical theory is a valuable tool in literature education, as it equips students with the skills to critically analyze and appreciate the persuasive power of literary texts.

Rhetorical Theory: Critique of Literature

Work	Critique in Rhetorical Theory
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	The novel, while conveying a powerful message on racial injustice, idealizes the character of Atticus Finch, potentially reducing the complexity of the moral argument.
1984 by George Orwell	Despite its critique of totalitarianism and propaganda, the novel’s bleak portrayal relies heavily on emotional appeal (pathos), potentially overshadowing logical elements (logos).
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	The novel’s exploration of the American Dream and decadence heavily relies on symbolism and metaphor, which may make the text less accessible to some readers.
The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger	While celebrated for its protagonist, Holden Caulfield, excessive use of colloquial language and emotional appeal (pathos) can be alienating, potentially limiting the effectiveness of the novel’s rhetorical elements.

Rhetorical Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1961.
2. Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. University of California Press, 1969.
3. Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Pantheon Books, 1972.
4. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
5. Aristotle. Rhetoric. Translated by W. Rhys Roberts, Dover Publications, 2004.
6. Cicero. De Oratore. Translated by E. W. Sutton and H. Rackham, Loeb Classical Library, 1942.
7. Bizzell, Patricia, and Bruce Herzberg, editors. The Rhetorical Tradition: Readings from Classical Times to the Present. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000.
8. Enos, Theresa. Encyclopedia of Rhetoric and Composition: Communication from Ancient Times to the Information Age. Taylor & Francis, 1996.
9. Ehrenhaus, Peter. A Concise Guide to Classical Rhetoric. Cascade Books, 2017.
10. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. University of California Press, 1991.