Tag: literary devices

Introduction: Comic Devices in English Literature

Comic devices in literature serve as powerful tools for authors to convey humor, satire, and social commentary.

Through a variety of techniques, writers use comic devices such as wit, irony, and absurdity to elicit laughter and engage readers in a reflective exploration of the human condition.

These devices often involve wordplay, incongruity, and exaggeration, challenging conventional perspectives and inviting a reconsideration of societal norms.

In addition to providing entertainment, comic elements contribute to a deeper understanding of cultural dynamics, interpersonal relationships, and the complexities of the world. Whether through clever dialogue, comical situations, or satirical narratives, the use of comic devices adds a distinctive and enriching dimension to the literary landscape.

Categories of Comic Devices in Literature

Category	Comic Devices
Wordplay and Linguistic Devices	Wordplay, Irony, Sarcasm, Malapropism, Understatement
Social Commentary and Critique	Satire, Parody, Farce
Stylistic and Structural Elements	Exaggeration (Hyperbole), Incongruity, Reversal, Comic Timing, Double Act
Physical and Visual Humor	Physical Comedy

Functions of Comic Devices in Literature

Wordplay and Linguistic Comic Devices:

Comic Device	Definition	Function
Wordplay	Clever and humorous use of language, including puns, double entendres, and witty turns of phrase.	Creates amusement through linguistic wit, engaging readers with clever and unexpected uses of language.
Irony	The use of situations or language where the intended meaning is opposite or significantly different from the literal or expected meaning.	These comic devices create humor through the contrast between appearances and reality, encouraging readers to perceive deeper meanings.
Sarcasm	Saying one thing while meaning the opposite, often with a tone of mockery or contempt.	Provides a satirical edge, allowing authors to criticize or mock while maintaining a humorous tone.
Malapropism	The humorous misuse or mispronunciation of words, often resulting in confusion and absurdity.	Generates laughter through linguistic errors, highlighting the incongruity between the intended and actual meanings.
Understatement	Presents a situation or description as less significant or serious than it actually is.	These comic devices create humor through the downplaying of events, often leading to an unexpected and amusing effect.

Comic Devices for Social Commentary and Critique:

Comic Device	Definition	Function
Satire	Criticizes or mocks individuals, institutions, or societal conventions, often using humor, irony, or exaggeration.	Functions as a form of social critique, using humor to highlight and satirize societal flaws or issues.
Parody	Mimics the style or characteristics of a particular genre, work, or author for comedic effect.	Satirizes or exaggerates the original work, offering a humorous commentary on its conventions or themes.
Farce	Relies on exaggerated and improbable situations, characters, and actions to provoke laughter through absurdity.	Creates humor through chaos and absurdity, often involving mistaken identities, misunderstandings, and slapstick elements.

Comic Devices of Stylistic and Structural Elements:

Comic Device	Definition	Function
Exaggeration (Hyperbole)	Involves the deliberate overstatement or magnification of certain aspects to create a humorous or absurd effect.	Amplifies situations or characteristics for comedic impact, emphasizing the extreme and exaggerated nature of events.
Incongruity	Creates humor by placing elements together that are seemingly incompatible or out of place.	Highlights the absurdity of unexpected combinations, often leading to laughter through the contrast of incongruent elements.
Reversal	Involves a sudden change or inversion of expectations, often leading to an unexpected and humorous outcome.	Subverts conventional expectations, creating humor through surprise and the reversal of anticipated outcomes.
Comic Timing	Emphasizes the precise delivery of jokes, punchlines, or humorous situations to maximize comedic impact.	Utilizes timing for optimal comedic effect, enhancing the delivery of jokes or humorous elements.
Double Act	Features a comedic duo, each contributing distinct personalities or styles that complement or contrast with each other.	Creates humor through the dynamic interaction and contrasts between characters, enhancing comedic situations.

Comic Devices for Physical and Visual Humor:

Comic Device	Definition	Function
Physical Comedy	Utilizes bodily movements, gestures, or slapstick humor to generate laughter, often associated with visual or performance-based mediums.	Creates humor through visual and physical actions, relying on exaggerated movements or comedic physicality.

Examples of Comic Devices

Wordplay and Linguistic Comic Devices:

1. Wordplay:
   • Example 1: “I used to be a baker because I kneaded dough.”
   • Example 2: “Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.”
   • Example 3: “I told my wife she should embrace her mistakes. She gave me a hug.”
2. Irony:
   • Example 1: A fire station burns down.
   • Example 2: A sign saying, “Quiet Zone,” with a loud alarm nearby.
   • Example 3: The name of a dog with three legs is “Lucky.”
3. Sarcasm:
   • Example 1: “Oh, great. Another flat tire. That’s just what I needed today.”
   • Example 2: “Fantastic! The internet is down again. My life is complete.”
   • Example 3: “You forgot your umbrella? Well, that’s just brilliant!”
4. Malapropism:
   • Example 1: “He’s the pineapple of politeness.”
   • Example 2: “I’m going to the store to buy some delicious Mozart cheese.”
   • Example 3: “I have a photographic memory. It takes pictures of me.”
5. Understatement:
   • Example 1: “I have a little bit of a headache” (said with a migraine).
   • Example 2: “It’s just a scratch” (said with a deep cut).
   • Example 3: “The weather is not ideal” (said during a hurricane).

Comic Devices for Social Commentary and Critique:

6. Satire:

• Example 1: Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal.”
• Example 2: “The Daily Show” with Jon Stewart.
• Example 3: George Orwell’s “Animal Farm.”

7. Parody:
   • Example 1: “Spaceballs” (parody of “Star Wars”).
   • Example 2: “Scary Movie” (parody of horror films).
   • Example 3: “The Simpsons” (parodying various aspects of American culture).
8. Farce:
   • Example 1: “The Play That Goes Wrong” (stage play with comedic mishaps).
   • Example 2: “Dumb and Dumber” (film with exaggerated and improbable situations).
   • Example 3: “Fawlty Towers” (TV series featuring farcical situations in a hotel).

Comic Devices for Stylistic and Structural Elements:

9. Exaggeration (Hyperbole):

• Example 1: “I’ve told you a million times.”
• Example 2: “This suitcase weighs a ton!”
• Example 3: “I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.”

10. Incongruity:
    • Example 1: A penguin wearing a tuxedo at the beach.
    • Example 2: A clown at a funeral.
    • Example 3: A serious discussion about life in a children’s cartoon.
11. Reversal:
    • Example 1: The villain turning out to be the hero.
    • Example 2: A movie ending with the protagonist waking up; it was all a dream.
    • Example 3: A fortune teller predicting her own inaccurate predictions.
12. Comic Timing:
    • Example 1: A well-timed pause before a punchline.
    • Example 2: Perfectly timed physical gestures in a silent comedy.
    • Example 3: Delivery of a witty remark at the opportune moment.
13. Double Act:
    • Example 1: Laurel and Hardy in classic comedy films.
    • Example 2: Abbott and Costello’s famous “Who’s on First?” routine.
    • Example 3: The comedic duo in “Dumb and Dumber.”

Comic Devices for Physical and Visual Humor:

1. Physical Comedy:
   • Example 1: Slapstick routines in Charlie Chaplin films.
   • Example 2: The Three Stooges engaging in physical antics.
   • Example 3: Jim Carrey’s exaggerated facial expressions and movements in “Ace Ventura: Pet Detective.”

Suggested Readings about Comic Devices in Literature

1. Provine, Robert R. Laughter: A Scientific Investigation. Penguin Books, 2000.
2. Morreall, John. Comic Relief: A Comprehensive Philosophy of Humor. Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.
3. Vorhaus, John. The Comic Toolbox: How to Be Funny Even If You’re Not. Silman-James Press, 1994.
4. Bell, Nancy. Humor in the Classroom: A Guide for Language Teachers and Educational Researchers. Routledge, 2019.
5. Byrne, Robert. The 2,548 Wittiest Things Anybody Ever Said. Touchstone, 1998.
6. Morreall, John. The Philosophy of Laughter and Smiling: Serious Reflections on Humor. SUNY Press, 1987.

Read more on Literary Devices below:

• Black Comedy: A Literary Device
• Black Comedy in Literature and Theory
• Quotation: A Literature Device
• Quotations in Literature

Introduction: Mystery in Literature

Mystery in literature is a genre that captivates readers with its enigmatic narratives, drawing them into intricate puzzles and suspenseful plots.

Rooted in the exploration of the unknown and the unraveling of secrets, mystery literature encompasses a diverse range of subgenres, from classic whodunits to contemporary psychological thrillers.

Central to this genre is the art of storytelling that masterfully conceals and reveals, inviting readers to join protagonists in deciphering clues and navigating unforeseen twists. The allure of mystery lies not only in the resolution of its central enigma but also in the intellectual engagement it offers, making it a timeless and enduring facet of literary exploration.

Mystery in Literature: Major British and American Mysteries

Title and Author	Type	Features/Themes
The Hound of the Baskervilles by Arthur Conan Doyle	Whodunit, Detective	Atmospheric setting, Supernatural elements, Sherlock Holmes
Gone Girl by Gillian Flynn	Psychological Thriller	Unreliable narrators, Twisted relationships, Dark psychological twists
The Woman in White by Wilkie Collins	Gothic, Mystery	Victorian melodrama, Dual narratives, Social critique
The Maltese Falcon by Dashiell Hammett	Hard-Boiled	Noir atmosphere, Tough detective protagonist, Moral ambiguity
In the Woods by Tana French	Psychological Crime	Psychological depth, Complex characters, Ireland setting
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo by Stieg Larsson	Nordic Noir, Thriller	Computer hacking, Social issues, Complex conspiracies
Big Little Lies by Liane Moriarty	Domestic Mystery	Suburban setting, Complicated relationships, Secrets and lies
The Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown	Historical, Thriller	Religious conspiracy, Symbolism, Code-breaking
The Murders in the Rue Morgue by Edgar Allan Poe	Detective, Gothic	Pioneering detective story, Locked room mystery
The Spy Who Came In From The Cold by John le Carré	Espionage, Cold War	Espionage realism, Moral ambiguity, Complex political intrigue

Mystery and Literary Theories

1. Formalism:
   • Critique: Formalism emphasizes the inherent structures within a literary work, focusing on elements such as plot, character, and setting. In mystery, attention to plot structure, the arrangement of clues, and character development is crucial. Formalist analysis can highlight how these elements contribute to the overall effectiveness of the mystery narrative.
2. Structuralism:
   • Critique: Structuralism delves into the underlying structures governing language and culture. In mystery literature, this perspective may examine recurring patterns in detective narratives, the binary oppositions between good and evil, and the symbolic use of clues as linguistic signs within the narrative structure.
3. Psychoanalytic Criticism:
   • Critique: Psychoanalytic criticism explores the psychological dimensions of characters and their motivations. In mysteries, characters’ hidden desires, fears, and the symbolic nature of the central mystery can be analyzed through the lens of psychoanalytic theory. For example, the detective’s pursuit of truth may be seen as a manifestation of the human desire for resolution and order.
4. Feminist Criticism:
   • Critique: Feminist criticism of mystery in literature scrutinizes the representation of gender roles, power dynamics, and the portrayal of female characters. It may question the prevalence of certain stereotypes and the treatment of women within the genre, examining how these aspects reflect or challenge societal norms.
5. Postcolonial Criticism:
   • Critique: Postcolonial criticism investigates how mystery narratives engage with colonial histories, cultural identities, and power structures. It may analyze how detective fiction set in colonial or postcolonial contexts reflects or challenges colonial narratives and explores the impact of colonialism on marginalized communities.
6. Reader-Response Criticism:
   • Critique: Reader-response criticism focuses on the active role of the reader in constructing meaning. In mystery in literature, this perspective can explore how readers engage with clues, make predictions, and construct their interpretations of the central mystery. The genre’s interactive nature with readers becomes a crucial aspect of analysis.
7. Marxist Criticism:
   • Critique: Marxist criticism examines social and economic aspects within literature. In mysteries, this perspective may analyze how economic disparities, class struggles, and societal tensions are reflected in the portrayal of crime, investigations, and the resolution of mysteries.
8. Postmodernist Criticism:
   • Critique: Postmodernism in mystery literature may focus on the genre’s self-awareness, metafictional elements, and the blurring of traditional narrative boundaries. The genre’s exploration of fragmented narratives, unreliable narrators, and the deconstruction of conventional storytelling can be central to a postmodern critique.

By applying these various literary theories, critics can offer diverse perspectives on the mystery genre, uncovering hidden meanings, cultural implications, and the genre’s role in reflecting and shaping societal ideologies.

Mystery: Steps to Write It

Step	How to Do it
Develop a Strong Premise	Start with a captivating premise or central mystery that will serve as the backbone of your story. This could be a crime, a disappearance, or an unexplained event.
Create Well-Defined Characters	Develop interesting and relatable characters, including a detective or investigator, suspects, and supporting characters. Each character should have unique traits, motives, and backstories that contribute to the overall mystery.
Establish the Setting	Set the stage by creating a vivid and atmospheric setting. Whether it’s a small town, a bustling city, or a historical period, the setting should complement the mood and tone of your mystery.
Outline the Plot	Plan the progression of your story with a clear outline. Include key plot points, clues, and twists that will keep readers guessing. Be mindful of pacing to maintain suspense throughout.
Introduce Clues Strategically	Scatter clues throughout the narrative, ensuring they are logically placed and not too obvious. Consider red herrings (misleading clues) to add complexity and keep readers engaged in the mystery-solving process.
Develop Tension and Suspense	Build tension by creating suspenseful moments and unexpected turns in the plot. Keep readers on the edge of their seats, eager to uncover the truth.
Craft Engaging Dialogue	Write sharp and engaging dialogue that reveals character personalities, conveys information, and adds to the overall atmosphere of the mystery.
Reveal Information Gradually	Control the flow of information, revealing details and backstory gradually. Avoid information dumps and allow readers to piece together the mystery alongside the characters.
Create a Compelling Resolution	Craft a satisfying resolution that ties up loose ends and explains the central mystery in literature. The resolution should be logical and well-earned, providing a sense of closure for readers.
Edit and Revise	Once the first draft is complete, revise and edit your work. Pay attention to pacing, consistency, and the effectiveness of your clues. Ensure that the resolution is both surprising and believable.
Seek Feedback	Share your work with beta readers or writing groups to get constructive feedback. Fresh perspectives can help identify areas for improvement and ensure that your mystery in literature is engaging for a wide audience.
Polish the Final Draft	After incorporating feedback, polish your final draft. Pay attention to grammar, punctuation, and overall readability. Ensure that the pacing is consistent and that your mystery delivers a compelling reading experience.

Mystery: Suggested Readings

1. Christie, Agatha. Murder on the Orient Express. HarperCollins, 1934.
2. Doyle, Arthur Conan. The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. Penguin Classics, 1892.
3. Chandler, Raymond. The Big Sleep. Vintage Crime/Black Lizard, 1939.
4. Atkinson, Kate. Case Histories. Little, Brown and Company, 2004.
5. Lehane, Dennis. Mystic River. William Morrow, 2001.
6. Hawkins, Paula. The Girl on the Train. Riverhead Books, 2015.
7. Larsson, Stieg. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. Vintage Crime/Black Lizard, 2005.
8. Penzler, Otto, editor. The Black Lizard Big Book of Locked-Room Mysteries. Vintage Crime/Black Lizard, 2011.
9. Hillerman, Tony, editor. The Oxford Book of American Detective Stories. Oxford University Press, 1996.

Read more on Literary Devices below:

• Comic Devices in English Literature
• Comic Genre in Literature
• Myth: A Literary Device and Genre
• Myth in Literature

Mystery: Etymology

The term “mystery” has its etymological roots in Middle English, deriving from the Anglo-French word “misterie” and directly from Latin “mysterium,” which means “a secret or hidden thing.” The Latin word itself is a transliteration of the Greek “mysterion,” denoting a religious secret or ritual.

Mystery: Meanings

Category	Meanings	Examples/Contexts
Literal Meaning	– A Secret or Unknown Event – Unsolved Crime or Puzzle	– The mysteries surrounding the disappearance of the ancient artifact. – The detective solved the mystery of the missing person.
Figurative Meanings	– Enigma or Puzzle – Uncertainty or Ambiguity – Spiritual or Religious Connotation – Secretive or Concealed Aspects	– The meaning of life remains one of the profound mysteries. – The mysterious love often eludes rational explanation. – The mysterious smile in the painting adds intrigue. – The mystery of the hidden treasure captivated explorers.
Literary and Genre Usage	– Mystery Genre – Mysterious Atmosphere	– Agatha Christie is known for her novels. – The eerie, mysterious atmosphere of the haunted mansion.
Everyday Usage	– Something Perplexing – Sense of Wonder	– The sudden disappearance of the keys is a daily mystery. – The vastness of the universe fills us with a sense of mystery and awe.
Cultural and Historical Significance	– Mystery Cults – Philosophical Context	– Ancient mystery cults practiced secret rituals. – Philosophers delving into the mysteries of consciousness.
Popular Idioms and Phrases	– The Mystery of…	– The mysterious project failed remains unsolved. – We pondered the mystery of how the ancient structure was built.

Mystery: Definition as a Literary Genre

1. Literary Genre – Mystery: In the realm of literature, this genre is characterized by narratives that revolve around the solving of a puzzle, often involving a crime, enigma, or a perplexing event. Central to these works is the element of suspense, as characters—typically detectives or amateur sleuths—engage in a systematic process of investigation to uncover hidden truths and solve the central mystery. Clues, red herrings, and unexpected twists are common features, keeping readers in suspense until the resolution is revealed.
2. Detective Fiction: A significant subset of this genre is detective fiction, where protagonists, often detectives, use their analytical skills to solve crimes. Classic examples include Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle or Agatha Christie’s Hercule Poirot and Miss Marple. These stories often involve intricate plots and a keen focus on logic and deduction.
3. Whodunit and Howdunit: Mystery novels often fall into the categories of “whodunit” and “howdunit.” In a whodunit, the primary revolves around the identity of the perpetrator, while a howdunit focuses on unraveling the method or means by which a crime was committed. Both sub-genres contribute to the suspenseful atmosphere characteristic of mystery literature.
4. Noir Mysteries: A darker and more atmospheric offshoot of the mystery genre is noir mystery, where the narrative often involves gritty settings, morally ambiguous characters, and a pervasive sense of cynicism. These stories explore the complexities of human nature while maintaining the central theme of solving a mystery.
5. Suspense and Tension: The mystery genre relies heavily on building and sustaining suspense. Authors use pacing, plot twists, and careful revelation of information to keep readers engaged and guessing until the final resolution. The tension created within the narrative adds to the overall appeal of mystery literature.
6. Evolution and Subgenres: Over time, the mystery genre has evolved, giving rise to various subgenres such as cozy mysteries, psychological thrillers, and police procedurals. Each subgenre brings its own unique elements to the overarching theme of uncovering hidden truths, catering to a diverse range of reader preferences.

Mystery: Types

Types of Mysteries	Characteristics
Cozy	Amateur sleuths, small communities, light-hearted tone, minimal violence, emphasis on solving the mysteries.
Hard-Boiled y	Gritty and dark, tough and cynical detective protagonist, urban settings, often involves crime syndicates and corruption.
Police Procedural	Focus on realistic investigative processes of law enforcement, forensic science, and legal procedures. Authentically depicts police work.
Historical	Set in a specific historical period, combines mystery elements with detailed historical context, may include historical events and figures.
Psychological Thriller	Psychological tension, manipulation, and exploration of characters‘ mental states. Mystery revolves around understanding motives and psychology.
Legal Thriller	Involves mysteries centered around the legal system, courtroom drama, legal investigations, lawyers working to solve or defend against a crime.
Espionage and Spy	Spies, secret agents, international intrigue, political conspiracies, espionage tactics, and the complexities of global relations.
Supernatural/Paranormal	Incorporates elements of the supernatural or paranormal, involving ghosts, magic, or otherworldly phenomena. Challenge is reconciling the supernatural with a rational explanation.
Medical	Focuses on solving crimes or uncovering the truth through medical or forensic investigation. Protagonist often a medical professional or forensic expert dealing with mysteries related to diseases, toxins, or medical malpractice.
Locked-Room	Crime occurs in a seemingly impossible or locked environment. Challenge is to figure out how the crime was committed and by whom.

Mystery in Common Life

1. Missing Items:
   • Example: Misplacing keys, a phone, or any everyday item and not remembering where you left it creates a small mystery in your daily life. The challenge is to retrace your steps and solve the mysteries of the missing item.
2. Unexplained Sounds:
   • Example: Hearing an unexplained noise in your house or surroundings can create mysteries. Investigating the source of the sound becomes a mini detective task until its origin is identified.
3. Unexpected Events:
   • Example: When plans suddenly change without clear reasons or when something unexpected occurs, it introduces a mystery. Understanding the cause or navigating the new situation becomes a part of everyday mystery-solving.
4. Cryptic Messages or Notes:
   • Example: Finding a note or message with unclear or cryptic content can be a mystery. Deciphering the meaning or figuring out who left it becomes a puzzle to solve.
5. Technology Glitches:
   • Example: When a device malfunctions or displays an error message, it creates a technological mystery. Understanding the issue, troubleshooting, and resolving it involve a process of investigation.
6. Unexpected Weather Patterns:
   • Example: Sudden changes in weather, like unexpected rain on a clear day, can be meteorological mysteries. Understanding the atmospheric conditions causing the change adds an element of curiosity to everyday life.
7. Social Media Anomalies:
   • Example: Noticing unusual activity on social media, such as mysterious friend requests or unfamiliar posts, can create digital mysteries. Investigating the source and understanding the context becomes a common online puzzle.
8. Identity of Strangers:
   • Example: Seeing someone regularly in your neighborhood without knowing who they are can create mysteries. Finding out their identity and understanding their presence adds an element of intrigue to daily life.
9. Sudden Health Issues:
   • Example: Experiencing unexplained symptoms or sudden health issues can be personal mysteries. Seeking a diagnosis and understanding the cause becomes a personal investigation.
10. Unanswered Questions:
    • Example: Having unanswered questions in daily life, whether about personal relationships, work, or the world, creates ongoing mysteries. Seeking answers and understanding adds a continuous element of curiosity.

Mystery: Suggested Readings

1. Christie, Agatha. Murder on the Orient Express. HarperCollins, 1934.
2. Doyle, Arthur Conan. The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes. Penguin Classics, 1892.
3. Chandler, Raymond. The Big Sleep. Vintage Crime/Black Lizard, 1939.
4. Atkinson, Kate. Case Histories. Little, Brown and Company, 2004.
5. Lehane, Dennis. Mystic River. William Morrow, 2001.
6. Hawkins, Paula. The Girl on the Train. Riverhead Books, 2015.
7. Larsson, Stieg. The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. Vintage Crime/Black Lizard, 2005.
8. French, Tana. In the Woods. Viking, 2007.
9. Christie, Agatha. And Then There Were None. HarperCollins, 1939.
10. Flynn, Gillian. Gone Girl. Crown Publishers, 2012.

Introduction: Mottos in Literature

Mottos in literature serve as succinct encapsulations of themes, philosophies, and overarching messages, resonating with readers as enduring expressions of wisdom or guiding principles.

Functioning as verbal insignia, mottos distill complex ideas into brief statements that often become emblematic of the work in which they are found. Whether originating from religious texts, political speeches, or fictional narratives, these concise expressions play a pivotal role in shaping the tone, ethos, and interpretation of literary works.

As literary devices, mottos contribute to the thematic richness of a piece, inviting readers to ponder the profound, the inspirational, or the cautionary within the concise boundaries of a few carefully chosen words.

Examples of Mottos in Literature

1. “All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”
   • From George Orwell’s Animal Farm, this motto satirically reflects the hypocrisy of a society claiming equality while fostering inequality.
2. “In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God.”
   • This opening line from the Gospel of John in the Bible encapsulates a fundamental Christian belief in the power and divinity of language.
3. “The only way to do great work is to love what you do.”
   • Often attributed to Steve Jobs, this motto reflects the ethos of passion and dedication in one’s professional endeavors.
4. “It is not our abilities that show what we truly are… it is our choices.”
   • Dumbledore imparts this wisdom in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, emphasizing the significance of personal choices.
5. “War is peace. Freedom is slavery. Ignorance is strength.”
   • Another from George Orwell, this motto from 1984 illustrates the manipulation of language for political control.
6. “To live is the rarest thing in the world. Most people exist, that is all.”
   • Oscar Wilde’s motto from The Importance of Being Earnest encourages a life filled with meaningful experiences.
7. “The heart has reasons that reason does not understand.”
   • Blaise Pascal’s philosophical insight is often quoted as a motto, emphasizing the complex and emotional nature of the human heart.
8. “The only thing we have to fear is fear itself.”
   • Franklin D. Roosevelt’s famous inaugural address contains this motivational motto, encouraging resilience in the face of challenges.
9. “Where there is love, there is life.”
   • Attributed to Mahatma Gandhi, this motto encapsulates the transformative power of love in shaping the human experience.
10. “It is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing.”
    • From William Shakespeare’s Macbeth, this line serves as a bleak commentary on the nature of life and existence.

How to Create Mottos in Literature and in Life

Step	How to Do It	Example
Identify Core Themes:	Determine the central themes, values, or messages you want your motto to convey. Consider the essence of what you’re trying to express, whether it’s a personal philosophy, a brand identity, or a motivational message.	If crafting a personal motto centered on resilience, identify key themes such as perseverance, optimism, or overcoming challenges.
Keep It Concise:	Mottos are most effective when they are brief and to the point. Aim for brevity to ensure that the message is easily memorable and can be quickly grasped. Typically, a motto should be a short phrase or sentence.	“Rise above” succinctly conveys a motivational message, encouraging resilience and overcoming obstacles in just two words.
Capture the Essence:	Focus on capturing the essence of your message. Consider using evocative and powerful language that resonates with the intended audience. Think about the emotional impact you want the motto to have.	For a brand emphasizing innovation and progress, a motto like “Pioneering Tomorrow, Today” captures the essence of forward-thinking and advancement.
Ensure Universality or Relevance:	If the motto is intended for a broader audience, ensure that it has universal appeal or relevance. Avoid overly specific details that may limit its applicability. A good motto transcends specific contexts.	In a motivational context, a universal motto like “Strive for greatness” is broad enough to inspire individuals across various pursuits and goals.
Seek Feedback:	Once you have a draft, seek feedback from others. Share your motto with friends, colleagues, or target audiences to gauge their reactions. Feedback can provide valuable insights and help refine the wording for maximum impact.	Present your drafted motto to a focus group or trusted individuals and gather feedback on its clarity, resonance, and overall effectiveness for potential improvements.

Mottos in Literature and Literary Theory

1. Formalist/Structuralist Critique:
   • Critique: Formalists would examine how the mottos in literature contributes to the overall structure and form of the literary work. Analyze how the choice of words, rhythm, or placement of the motto influences the narrative structure or thematic coherence.
2. Psychoanalytic Critique:
   • Critique: Psychoanalytic theorists might delve into the subconscious implications of the chosen motto. Explore how the motto reflects characters’ desires, fears, or psychological states, considering the hidden meanings and motivations behind the words.
3. Marxist Critique:
   • Critique: Marxist critics may analyze the socio-economic implications of the motto. Investigate whether the motto reflects power dynamics, social class structures, or critiques of societal norms, revealing underlying messages related to economic or political contexts.
4. Feminist Critique:
   • Critique: Feminist theorists would examine how the motto reinforces or challenges gender roles. Analyze whether the motto reflects or subverts traditional gender expectations, and consider how it contributes to the portrayal of gender dynamics within the literary work.
5. Deconstruction:
   • Critique: Deconstructionists would focus on the inherent instability of meaning in the motto. Explore how the words in the motto might have multiple interpretations or ambiguous meanings, challenging fixed notions and inviting readers to question established meanings.
6. Reader-Response Critique:
   • Critique: Reader-response theorists would emphasize how readers engage with and interpret the motto. Explore the potential emotional or intellectual responses elicited by the motto and consider how readers’ perspectives contribute to its significance.
7. Cultural Critique:
   • Critique: Cultural critics might analyze how the motto reflects or challenges cultural norms and values. Investigate whether the motto aligns with or resists broader cultural expectations, shedding light on cultural influences within the literary work.
8. Postcolonial Critique:
   • Critique: Postcolonial theorists could examine how the motto operates in the context of language and colonial history. Explore how the motto reflects or resists linguistic colonialism, cultural hegemony, or colonial influences within the literary text.

Suggested Readings

1. Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. University of California Press, 1969.
2. Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 1997.
3. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Blackwell, 2008.
4. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class?: The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1982.
5. Genette, Gérard. Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
6. Jauss, Hans Robert. Toward an Aesthetic of Reception. University of Minnesota Press, 1982.

Read more on Literary Devices below:

• Farce: A Literary Device
• Fiction: A Literary Genre
• Fiction in Literature (English)
• Fantasy: A Literary Genre
• Fantasy in Literature

Etymology of Motto

The term “motto” traces its etymological roots to the Italian word “motto,” meaning a brief expression or saying. It originated in the late 16th century and was initially used to denote a short, memorable phrase or sentence expressing a guiding principle or rule of behavior.

The concept expanded beyond Italy during the Renaissance, gaining prominence in heraldry and personal insignia. The term’s evolution reflects its adaptation into various languages, each retaining the essence of a concise, emblematic expression. Over time, mottos have become synonymous with succinct declarations encapsulating an individual’s or institution’s values, aspirations, or beliefs, serving as rallying cries or symbolic statements that endure as verbal insignia.

Definition of Motto

A motto, as a literary device, is a succinct and memorable phrase or expression that encapsulates the guiding principles, beliefs, or ideals of an individual, organization, or movement. Often serving as a form of symbolic shorthand, mottos convey essential themes or values with brevity, contributing to the rhetorical impact of a message. Through their concise and evocative nature, mottos can function as powerful tools in literature, providing a focused and memorable representation of underlying themes or philosophies within a broader context.

Types of Motto

Type	Explanation	Example from Literature
Inspirational Mottos:	Designed to motivate and uplift, these mottos aim to inspire individuals or groups to achieve their goals or overcome challenges.	In The Pursuit of Happyness by Chris Gardner, the motto “Pursue happiness relentlessly” serves as an inspirational guide.
Educational Mottos:	Found in educational institutions, these mottos often encapsulate the mission, values, or educational philosophy of a school or university.	The motto “Lux et Veritas” (Light and Truth) is the educational motto of Yale University.
National Mottos:	Adopted by countries, national mottos encapsulate the essence, ideals, or aspirations of a nation, often found on official emblems or documents.	The national motto of the United States, “In God We Trust,” reflects a foundational aspect of the country’s values.
Family Motto:	Unique to individual families, these mottos convey the core values, principles, or identity of a family unit.	In J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series, the Weasley family’s motto is “Decent people are so easy to manipulate.”
Corporate Motto:	Used by businesses and organizations, corporate mottos encapsulate the company’s mission, values, or brand identity.	Nike’s corporate motto, “Just Do It,” is a globally recognized and inspirational slogan.
Historical Motto:	Associated with historical movements or figures, these mottos convey the ethos or principles of a specific time period or cultural movement.	The French Revolution’s motto, “Liberté, égalité, fraternité” (Liberty, equality, fraternity), reflects its guiding principles.
Religious Mottos:	Found in religious texts or used by religious groups, these mottos encapsulate key beliefs, doctrines, or guiding principles.	The Christian motto “In hoc signo vinces” (In this sign, you will conquer) is associated with religious symbolism and beliefs.
Personal Mottos:	Individualized expressions that capture a person’s beliefs, philosophy, or approach to life, often serving as a personal mantra.	Ralph Waldo Emerson’s personal motto, “Do not go where the path may lead, go instead where there is no path and leave a trail,” reflects his individualistic philosophy.
Military Motto:	Adopted by military units or branches, these mottos embody the spirit, values, or history of a specific military group.	The U.S. Marine Corps motto, “Semper Fidelis” (Always Faithful), reflects the loyalty and commitment of the Marines.
Political Motto:	Associated with political movements or ideologies, these mottos succinctly express the principles or goals of a political entity.	The political motto “Workers of the world, unite!” is associated with Marxist ideology and the call for global solidarity.

Common Examples of Mottos

1. Inspirational Motto:
   • “Believe in yourself.”
   • “Seize the day.”
   • “Never give up.”
2. Educational Motto:
   • “Learn, lead, succeed.”
   • “Knowledge is power.”
   • “Education for a better future.”
3. National Motto:
   • “E Pluribus Unum” (Out of many, one) – United States
   • “Unity in Diversity” – India
   • “Advance Australia Fair” – Australia
4. Family Mottos:
   • “Family first.”
   • “Love and laughter.”
   • “Together we stand.”
5. Corporate Mottos:
   • “Just Do It” – Nike
   • “Think Different” – Apple
   • “The Ultimate Driving Machine” – BMW
6. Historical Mottos:
   • “Liberté, égalité, fraternité” (Liberty, equality, fraternity) – French Revolution
   • “Give me liberty, or give me death!” – Patrick Henry
   • “Veni, Vidi, Vici” (I came, I saw, I conquered) – Julius Caesar
7. Religious Mottos:
   • “In God We Trust” – U.S. currency
   • “God is my shepherd; I shall not want.” – Psalm 23
   • “Love thy neighbor as thyself.” – Christian teaching
8. Personal Mottos:
   • “Live life to the fullest.”
   • “Be the change you wish to see in the world.” – Mahatma Gandhi
   • “Do what you love; love what you do.”
9. Military Mottos:
   • “Semper Fidelis” (Always Faithful) – U.S. Marine Corps
   • “This We’ll Defend” – U.S. Army
   • “Hooah!” – U.S. Army expression of enthusiasm
10. Political Mottos:
    • “Yes, we can.” – Barack Obama’s campaign slogan
    • “Workers of the world, unite!” – Communist Manifesto
    • “Make America Great Again” – Donald Trump’s campaign slogan

These examples showcase the versatility of motto, as they permeate various facets of daily life, providing succinct expressions of values, aspirations, and ideologies.

Shakespearean Mottos

1. “To be, or not to be, that is the question.”
   • From Hamlet, this soliloquy reflects on the nature of existence and the contemplation of life and death.
2. “All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players.”
   • This line from As You Like It compares life to a theatrical performance, expressing the idea that individuals play various roles throughout their lives.
3. “This above all: to thine own self be true.”
   • From Hamlet, Polonius imparts this advice to his son Laertes, emphasizing the importance of authenticity and self-honesty.
4. “The better part of Valour, is Discretion.”
   • Found in Henry IV, Part 1, this line suggests that courage is often best combined with careful judgment.
5. “All that glitters is not gold.”
   • Originating in The Merchant of Venice, this phrase cautions against judging things solely based on appearance.
6. “The lady doth protest too much, methinks.”
   • From Hamlet, this line is often used to express skepticism when someone vehemently denies something.
7. “What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.”
   • Juliet’s reflection in Romeo and Juliet challenges the significance of names, arguing that the essence of a thing is more important than its label.

While these aren’t traditional motto, the enduring wisdom and eloquence of Shakespeare’s language have led many of his lines to be adopted and adapted as proverbial expressions in contemporary English.

Suggested Readings

1. Burke, Kenneth. A Rhetoric of Motives. University of California Press, 1969.
2. Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press, 1997.
3. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. Blackwell, 2008.
4. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class?: The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1982.
5. Genette, Gérard. Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
6. Jauss, Hans Robert. Toward an Aesthetic of Reception. University of Minnesota Press, 1982.

Read more on Literary Devices below:

• Disparagement: A Literary Device
• Disparagement in Literature
• Excoriation: A Literary Device
• Excoriation in Literature
• Doppelgänger: A Literary Device

Definition of Eye Rhyme

Eye Rhyme Etymology: The term “eye rhyme” originated from the Middle English word “rym” or “ryme,” which signifies a similarity in sound. The prefix “eye” in “eye rhyme” is derived from the visual perception of words that appear to rhyme based on their spelling, rather than their actual phonetic similarity. The concept gained prominence in the realm of poetry and literary analysis, particularly during the Renaissance and later periods.

Eye Rhyme Definition: Eye rhyme refers to a poetic device in which words appear to rhyme based on their spelling, yet do not share a corresponding phonetic similarity in their sounds. Unlike traditional rhymes that rely on identical or similar sounds, eye rhymes rely on the visual resemblance of words. This device often involves the use of words with identical or similar endings that may have undergone changes in pronunciation over time.

Poets frequently employ it for its visual impact, creating a sense of symmetry and pattern within a poem, while challenging traditional auditory expectations associated with rhyme schemes.

Type of Eye Rhyme

Type	Explanation	Examples from Literature
Historical Eye Rhyme	Words that were once pronounced similarly but have undergone changes in pronunciation over time. For example, “love” and “move” may have rhymed in the past but no longer do.	In Chaucer’s works, words like “food” and “good” were historically pronounced similarly but are no longer rhymed in modern English.
Homographic Eye Rhyme	Words that share the same spelling but have different pronunciations and meanings. An example is the pair “bass” (low-frequency sound) and “bass” (a type of fish).	John Donne’s poem “The Flea” plays with homographic eye rhymes, using words like “prove” and “love” to visually rhyme despite distinct pronunciations.
Double Eye Rhyme	A combination of two words with the same spelling, such as “love” and “prove,” where both the endings and beginnings of the words visually rhyme.	Emily Dickinson’s poem “Because I could not stop for Death” features double eye rhymes like “ground” and “around,” contributing to the poem’s visual harmony.
Single Eye Rhyme	Words with similar spellings that rhyme only in part, usually at the end. An example is “watch” and “match.”	In Shakespeare’s sonnets, single eye rhymes like “love” and “prove” offer a visual connection while challenging auditory expectations.
Punctuation or Syllable Eye Rhyme	Words that share a similar number of syllables or end with the same punctuation mark, creating a visual rhyme. An example is “bough” and “though.”	E.E. Cummings’ poetry often utilizes punctuation eye rhyme, as seen in the visual resemblance of words like “why?” and “try!” within his unconventional style.

Common Examples of Eye Rhymes

1. Tough and Cough:
   • These words have the same ending but are pronounced differently.
2. Lead (pronounced “led”) and Lead (pronounced “leed”):
   • The noun “lead” (referring to the metal) and the verb “lead” (meaning to guide) share the same spelling but have different pronunciations.
3. Read (present tense) and Read (past tense):
   • The words “read” (present tense) and “read” (past tense) are spelled the same but pronounced differently.
4. Bow (to bend forward) and Bow (a decorative knot):
   • These words, though spelled the same, have different pronunciations and meanings.
5. Wind (air in motion) and Wind (to twist or turn):
   • The noun “wind” and the verb “wind” are spelled the same but pronounced differently.

While these examples may not be as prevalent in everyday spoken language, they demonstrate instances where the visual resemblance of words might suggest a rhyme, despite differences in pronunciation.

Shakespearean Eye Rhymes

1. Love and Move (Sonnet 25):
   • “Love” and “move” might have visually rhymed during Shakespeare’s time, contributing to the sonnet’s overall rhyme scheme and structure.
2. Prove and Love (Sonnet 116):
   • In Sonnet 116, Shakespeare uses “prove” and “love” as an eye rhyme, emphasizing the enduring nature of true love.
3. Leave and Remove (Sonnet 61):
   • In Sonnet 61, the words “leave” and “remove” may have visually rhymed in Elizabethan pronunciation, enhancing the sonnet’s poetic symmetry.
4. Minds and Finds (Sonnet 59):
   • Shakespeare employs eye rhyme in Sonnet 59 with words like “minds” and “finds,” contributing to the sonnet’s rhythmic and visual appeal.
5. Heretics and Critics (Sonnet 112):
   • In Sonnet 112, Shakespeare uses the eye rhyme of “heretics” and “critics,” playing with the visual similarity of the words.

It’s essential to note that the pronunciation of words in Shakespeare’s time was different from contemporary English, allowing for more flexibility. While some of these examples might not be perfect rhymes in modern pronunciation, they showcase Shakespeare’s skill in using visual and phonetic elements to create a rich poetic tapestry.

Literary Examples of Eye Rhyme

1. “Cove” and “Love” in “Modern Romance” by Lang Leav:
   • Lang Leav uses eye rhyme with words like “cove” and “love” in her modern poem “Modern Romance,” adding a visual layer to the theme of love and longing.
2. “Dream” and “Stream” in “Dreams” by Nikki Giovanni:
   • Nikki Giovanni employs eye rhyme with words like “dream” and “stream” in her poem “Dreams,” creating a visual and rhythmic connection between the concepts.
3. “Bright” and “Night” in “A Dream Within A Dream” by Edgar Allan Poe:
   • In a classic by Edgar Allan Poe, the eye rhyme of “bright” and “night” is used in “A Dream Within A Dream,” contributing to the dreamlike and introspective atmosphere.
4. “Wave” and “Brave” in “Seashell” by W.S. Merwin:
   • W.S. Merwin utilizes eye rhyme with words like “wave” and “brave” in his poem “Seashell,” adding a visual element to the exploration of courage.
5. “Rust” and “Trust” in “Colors Passing Through Us” by Marge Piercy:
   • Marge Piercy uses eye rhyme with words like “rust” and “trust” in her poem “Colors Passing Through Us,” emphasizing the transient nature of relationships.
6. “Soul” and “Toll” in “Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou:
   • Maya Angelou incorporates eye rhyme with words like “soul” and “toll” in her empowering poem “Still I Rise,” enhancing the resilience expressed in the verses.
7. “Cry” and “Sky” in “The Sun and Her Flowers” by Rupi Kaur:
   • Rupi Kaur uses eye rhyme with words like “cry” and “sky” in her collection “The Sun and Her Flowers,” contributing to the emotional and visual impact of her poetry.

These examples demonstrate how contemporary poets continue to use eye rhyme to create visual and rhythmic effects in their works.

Benefits of Using Eye Rhyme

1. Visual Harmony:
   • Eye rhyme enhances the visual appeal of a poem by creating patterns and symmetry on the page. The alignment of visually similar words contributes to the overall aesthetics of the written work.
2. Aesthetic Impact:
   • The visual resemblance of words provides a unique aesthetic impact, engaging the reader’s sense of sight alongside the auditory experience. This adds depth and complexity to the overall reading experience.
3. Structural Coherence:
   • Eye rhymes can contribute to the structural coherence of a poem, helping to organize stanzas and lines. It provides a visual link between words, creating a sense of order and intentional design within the composition.
4. Rhythmic Variation:
   • Incorporating eye rhymes allows poets to introduce rhythmic variation within their verses. The visual similarity of words can create a subtle cadence, enhancing the musicality and flow of the poem.
5. Expressive Freedom:
   • Eye rhymes provide poets with expressive freedom, allowing them to experiment with language and challenge conventional auditory expectations. This flexibility encourages creative exploration in crafting verses.
6. Emphasis on Language:
   • The use of eye rhyme draws attention to the language itself. It invites readers to appreciate the words not only for their meanings but also for their visual and structural qualities, fostering a deeper engagement with the text.
7. Symbolic Resonance:
   • Eye rhyme can carry symbolic resonance within a poem. Words that visually appear to rhyme but do not phonetically align may reflect thematic contrasts or complexities, adding layers of meaning to the literary work.
8. Artistic Nuance:
   • Poets use eye rhyme as a tool for artistic nuance. It allows them to convey emotions, themes, or ideas in a more nuanced and subtle manner, inviting readers to explore the interplay between form and content.

Eye Rhyme in Literary Theory

Theory	Critique
Formalism/Structuralism	Formalists would focus on the structure of the poem and the recurring patterns created by eye rhymes. They might analyze how these visual resemblances contribute to the overall form, emphasizing the poem’s internal coherence.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Psychoanalytic theorists might delve into the subconscious implications of the words chosen for eye rhymes. They could explore how the visual connections evoke deeper psychological meanings, potentially revealing hidden desires or conflicts.
Marxist Criticism	Marxist critics may analyze the socio-economic implications of eye rhymes. They could explore how the visual patterns reflect power dynamics, class structures, or societal norms, uncovering potential social critiques embedded in the use of eye rhyme.
Feminist Criticism	Feminist theorists might examine how eye rhymes reinforce or challenge gender roles. They could analyze whether the visual resemblances between certain words contribute to or subvert traditional gender expectations in the text.
Deconstruction	Deconstructionists would focus on the inherent instability of meaning in eye rhymes. They might argue that the visual similarities between words destabilize traditional notions of fixed meanings, inviting multiple interpretations.
Reader-Response Criticism	Reader-response theorists would emphasize how readers engage with and interpret the visual aspects of eye rhymes. The emphasis would be on the subjective experiences of readers and how the visual elements contribute to their understanding of the text.
Cultural Criticism	Cultural critics might analyze how eye rhymes reflect or challenge cultural norms and values. They could explore whether the visual connections between words contribute to or resist broader cultural expectations.
Postcolonial Criticism	Postcolonial theorists could examine how eye rhyme operates in the context of language and colonial history. They might explore how visual patterns in words reflect or resist linguistic colonialism and cultural hegemony.

Suggested Readings

1. Gioia, Dana, and X.J. Kennedy. An Introduction to Poetry. 13th ed., Pearson, 2016.
2. Hollander, John. Rhyme’s Reason: A Guide to English Verse. Yale University Press, 1989.
3. Oliver, Mary. A Poetry Handbook. Harcourt, 1994.
4. Oliver, Mary. Rules for the Dance: A Handbook for Writing and Reading Metrical Verse. Houghton Mifflin, 1998.

Read more on Literary Devices below:

• Cacophemism: A Literary Device
• Dysphemism: A Literary Device
• Dysphemism in Literature

Introduction: External Conflict in Literature

External conflict in literature acts as a narrative catalyst, injecting stories with tension, complexity, and thematic depth. This dynamic emerges when protagonists grapple with forces beyond themselves, whether through interpersonal clashes, societal pressures, or encounters with nature. This literary device propels plot dynamics, compelling characters to navigate challenges that extend beyond their internal struggles.

External conflict provides a lens through which authors examine universal themes, including the human condition, morality, and societal structures. By scrutinizing characters’ responses to external adversities, literature unveils profound insights into resilience, ethical dilemmas, and the intricate interplay between individuals and their environments.

Thus, external conflict isn’t merely a plot device; it serves as a nuanced tool for exploring the intricacies of human experience within the broader context of narrative storytelling.

Shakespearean External Conflict in Literature

1. Romeo and Juliet (Person vs. Person):
   • The feud between the Montagues and Capulets creates a pervasive external conflict that drives the tragedy. The love between Romeo and Juliet is hindered by the longstanding enmity between their families, leading to a series of confrontations and ultimately tragic consequences.
2. Hamlet (Person vs. Supernatural):
   • Hamlet’s encounter with the ghost of his father introduces a supernatural external conflict. The ghost’s revelation about the murder instigates Hamlet’s quest for vengeance, creating tension and driving the play’s central conflict.
3. Macbeth (Person vs. Ambition):
   • The external conflict in “Macbeth” revolves around the protagonist‘s ambitious nature and his susceptibility to external influences. Macbeth’s desire for power, coupled with the manipulation of the witches and Lady Macbeth, results in a tragic external conflict between his ambition and moral conscience.
4. Othello (Person vs. Manipulation):
   • Iago’s manipulation of Othello creates a person vs. person conflict in “Othello.” Othello’s trust in Iago and his manipulation by false evidence lead to a destructive external conflict, as Othello’s jealousy and suspicion drive the tragic events of the play.
5. King Lear (Person vs. Family):
   • The conflict between Lear and his daughters, particularly Regan and Goneril, exemplifies a person vs. family external conflict. Lear’s misjudgment of his daughters’ loyalty and the subsequent betrayal contribute to the tragedy and familial discord at the heart of the play.
6. The Tempest (Person vs. Nature):
   • “The Tempest” introduces an external conflict between the characters and the natural elements of the island. Prospero’s magical control over the island’s spirits, as well as the tempest itself, creates a person vs. nature conflict that shapes the events and relationships in the play.

These examples showcase Shakespeare’s adeptness in weaving external conflicts into the fabric of his plays, contributing to the timeless appeal and thematic richness of his works.

Examples of External Conflict in Literature

Work	Conflict	Detail
The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins	Person vs. Society	Protagonist Katniss Everdeen navigates the external conflict of challenging the oppressive Capitol and its social norms as she participates in the deadly Hunger Games, a televised event that pits children against each other in a fight for survival.
Lord of the Flies by William Golding	Person vs. Person	Stranded on an uninhabited island, a group of boys experiences escalating conflicts among themselves, illustrating the person vs. person external conflict as power struggles, fear, and competing ideologies emerge.
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	Person vs. Prejudice	In the racially charged setting of Maycomb, Atticus Finch confronts the external conflict of societal prejudice and racism as he defends Tom Robinson, a Black man, in court, highlighting the pervasive person vs. prejudice dynamic.
Moby-Dick by Herman Melville	Person vs. Nature	Captain Ahab’s relentless pursuit of revenge against the elusive white whale, Moby-Dick, represents a person vs. nature external conflict as the characters grapple not only with the whale but also with the harsh elements of the vast, unforgiving sea.
The Road by Cormac McCarthy	Person vs. Post-Apocalyptic Environment	In a desolate, post-apocalyptic world, a father and son face the external conflict of survival, contending with threats from other survivors, scarcity of resources, and the bleak environmental conditions.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Person vs. Society	Jay Gatsby’s ambitious pursuit of wealth and love is hindered by societal expectations, the rigid class structure of the 1920s, and the external conflict of trying to fit into a world that constantly eludes him.
The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton	Person vs. Person	The rivalry between the Greasers and the Socs unfolds as a person vs. person external conflict, exploring the tensions and conflicts between two social groups with different backgrounds and expectations.

How to Create External Conflict in Literature

1. Establish Clear Opposing Forces:
   • Clearly define the conflicting elements, whether they are opposing characters, societal norms, environmental challenges, or external circumstances that create tension within the narrative.
2. Develop Compelling Characters:
   • Create well-rounded characters with distinct motivations, desires, and values. Introduce elements that inherently clash with one another, setting the stage for external conflict rooted in the characters’ differences.
3. Utilize Divergent Goals and Objectives:
   • Introduce conflicting goals or objectives for the characters, forcing them to make choices that lead to external clashes. These conflicting aims can drive the plot forward and create dynamic interactions between characters.
4. Employ Vivid Descriptions and Settings:
   • Use descriptive language to evoke the external environment and settings, enhancing the conflict. Whether it’s a hostile natural landscape or a rigid societal structure, a vivid backdrop can amplify the challenges faced by the characters.
5. Introduce Moral and Ethical Dilemmas:
   • Infuse the narrative with moral quandaries and ethical dilemmas that challenge the characters’ beliefs and values. This introduces a layer of complexity to the external conflict in literature, prompting characters to grapple not only with external forces but also with their internal convictions.

External Conflict in Literature and Literary Theory

1. Structuralism:
   • Structuralist theorists, such as Roland Barthes and Claude Lévi-Strauss, focus on identifying recurring patterns and structures within literature. In external conflict, they might analyze how conflicts are structured and repeated across different works, emphasizing universal elements that contribute to the narrative’s overall meaning.
2. Psychoanalytic Criticism:
   • Psychoanalytic theorists, like Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan, delve into characters’ unconscious desires and motivations. In external conflict, they might explore how characters project their internal conflicts onto external elements, revealing deeper psychological tensions and unresolved issues.
3. Marxist Criticism:
   • Marxist theorists, including Karl Marx and Fredric Jameson, scrutinize literature for social and economic implications. In external conflict, they might assess how conflicts between characters or groups represent broader societal struggles, reflecting class divisions, power dynamics, and economic disparities.
4. Feminist Criticism:
   • Feminist theorists, such as Simone de Beauvoir and Judith Butler, analyze literature through the lens of gender and power dynamics. In external conflict, they might critique how gender roles contribute to conflicts, exploring how societal expectations and power imbalances affect characters’ experiences and interactions.
5. Deconstruction:
   • Deconstructionists like Jacques Derrida question fixed meanings and challenge binary oppositions in literature. In external conflict, they might focus on destabilizing traditional notions of opposing forces, complicating the distinctions between protagonist and antagonist or problematizing the resolution of conflicts.
6. Reader-Response Criticism:
   • Reader-response theorists, including Wolfgang Iser and Stanley Fish, emphasize the reader’s role in interpreting a text. In external conflict, they might explore how readers engage with and interpret conflicts, acknowledging that readers’ backgrounds and perspectives influence their understanding of characters and their struggles.
7. Cultural Criticism:
   • Cultural critics, influenced by theorists like Raymond Williams and Stuart Hall, examine literature within its cultural context. In external conflict in literature, they might analyze how conflicts reflect or challenge cultural norms, values, and societal expectations, providing insights into the cultural landscape of the time.
8. Postcolonial Criticism:
   • Postcolonial theorists, including Edward Said and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, scrutinize literature from the perspective of colonized or marginalized voices. In external conflict in literature, they might assess how conflicts portray colonial encounters, power struggles, and the impact of imperialism on characters and communities.

Suggested Readings about External Conflict

1. Abrams, M.H., and Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 12th ed., Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011.
2. Brooks, Cleanth, and Robert Penn Warren. Understanding Fiction. 3rd ed., Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1979.
3. Freytag, Gustav. Technique of the Drama: An Exposition of Dramatic Composition and Art. Translated by Elias J. MacEwan, Russell & Russell, 1966.
4. Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. Vintage, 1992.
5. Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folktale. Translated by Laurence Scott, University of Texas Press, 1968.
6. Wellek, René, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. 3rd ed., Harcourt, Brace & World, 1956.
7. Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Oxford University Press, 1983.

Etymology of External Conflict

The term “external conflict” traces its etymological origins to the Latin language, where “externus” means “outward” or “external,” and “conflictus” denotes “collision” or “struggle.” The amalgamation of these roots encapsulates the fundamental concept of conflict arising from sources outside an individual or entity.

In its academic usage, “external conflict” typically refers to the narrative or thematic tension generated by a protagonist’s struggle against external forces such as societal norms, environmental challenges, or antagonistic characters.

Meanings of External Conflict

Aspect	Meaning
Etymological Roots	Derived from Latin “externus” (meaning “external” or “outward”) and “conflictus” (indicating “struggle”).
Source of Tension	Narrative tension from external factors like societal norms, environmental challenges, or antagonists.
Literary and Dramatic Analysis	Significance in analyzing literature and drama, offering a framework for understanding character dynamics.
Narrative Structure	Key concept in examining narrative structures, revealing character development complexities in conflicts.

Definition of External Conflict

External conflict, as a literary device, encompasses the tension arising from a protagonist’s struggle against external forces such as societal expectations, environmental challenges, or opposing characters.

It serves as a crucial narrative element, driving plot development and character evolution by introducing obstacles and challenges originating from outside the central character.

Through the depiction of these external clashes, the device enriches storytelling by adding complexity and depth to characters and their journeys.

Common Examples of External Conflict

1. Interpersonal Disagreements: Arguments or conflicts with friends, family members, or colleagues can be considered external conflicts in everyday life, arising from differences in opinions, values, or priorities.
2. Workplace Challenges: Struggles with colleagues, supervisors, or workplace policies represent external conflicts, impacting an individual’s professional life and requiring resolution for a harmonious work environment.
3. Financial Struggles: Facing economic challenges, such as debt, job loss, or financial constraints, serves as an external conflict that individuals must navigate in their daily lives.
4. Health Issues: Dealing with health problems or navigating medical concerns constitutes an external conflict that individuals grapple with, affecting various aspects of their daily routines and overall well-being.
5. Community Disputes: Conflicts within communities, neighborhoods, or local groups can arise from differing perspectives on issues like development, resource allocation, or community goals.
6. Legal Matters: Involvement in legal disputes, whether personal or professional, presents external conflicts that individuals may encounter, requiring resolution through legal processes.
7. Cultural Differences: Interactions and conflicts stemming from diverse cultural backgrounds, traditions, or beliefs represent external conflicts in multicultural societies.
8. Natural Disasters: Coping with the aftermath of natural disasters, such as floods, earthquakes, or hurricanes, introduces external conflicts related to rebuilding, relocation, and recovery.
9. Traffic or Transportation Issues: Daily challenges like traffic congestion, public transportation delays, or vehicle breakdowns create external conflicts that impact individuals’ routines and schedules.
10. Educational Challenges: Students may face external conflicts in the form of academic pressures, conflicts with peers, or challenges related to educational systems and policies.

Types of External Conflict

Type	Explanation	Example in Literature
Person vs. Person	Conflict between two or more characters, often involving opposing goals, beliefs, or values. This type of conflict is common in interpersonal relationships and is a classic element in many stories.	In William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, the titular characters face conflict with each other’s families, the Montagues and Capulets, representing a classic person vs. person conflict.
Person vs. Society	The protagonist faces conflict with societal norms, cultural expectations, or institutional structures. This type of conflict explores the tension between an individual and the broader community or social order.	George Orwell’s 1984 depicts the protagonist, Winston Smith, in conflict with the oppressive societal structures and thought control imposed by the Party, illustrating a person vs. society conflict.
Person vs. Nature	External conflict arises from the protagonist’s struggle against natural elements or forces, such as weather, animals, or environmental disasters. Survival stories often feature this type of conflict.	In Jack London’s To Build a Fire, the protagonist contends with the harsh, freezing conditions of the Yukon wilderness, illustrating a person vs. nature conflict as he struggles for survival against the unforgiving environment.
Person vs. Technology/Machine	Conflict with advanced technology, artificial intelligence, or machinery. This type of conflict explores the potential risks and consequences associated with human interaction with technology.	Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein portrays the protagonist, Victor Frankenstein, in conflict with his own creation, an artificially constructed being, exemplifying a person vs. technology/machine conflict.
Person vs. Supernatural	Conflict with supernatural entities, forces, or elements beyond the natural world. This type of conflict is prevalent in fantasy, horror, and speculative fiction genres.	In Bram Stoker’s Dracula,the characters confront the supernatural threat posed by Count Dracula, showcasing a person vs. supernatural conflict in the realm of gothic horror.
Person vs. Fate/Destiny	The protagonist grapples with a predetermined course of events or an unavoidable destiny. This type of conflict delves into themes of free will and determinism.	Sophocles’ “Oedipus Rex” follows the tragic story of Oedipus, who unknowingly fulfills a prophesied destiny, exemplifying a person vs. fate/destiny conflict and exploring the boundaries of individual agency.
Person vs. Time	Conflict involving time constraints or the pressure of time as a crucial element. This can manifest in deadlines, countdowns, or the urgency of completing a task within a specified timeframe.	In H.G. Wells’s The Time Machine, the protagonist grapples with the temporal challenges of time travel, illustrating a person vs. time conflict as he navigates through different eras and confronts the consequences of time manipulation.
Person vs. Space/Environment	Conflict arising from challenges in outer space or unconventional environments. This may involve astronauts, explorers, or characters navigating unfamiliar and hostile territories.	Andy Weir’s The Martian features a person vs. space/environment conflict as the protagonist, Mark Watney, contends with the harsh conditions of Mars while stranded on the planet, showcasing the challenges of survival in an alien environment.
Person vs. Ideology/Belief	Conflict arises when a character challenges or opposes a prevailing ideology, belief system, or philosophical stance. This type of conflict often explores themes of individuality and nonconformity.	Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451 explores a person vs. ideology/belief conflict as the protagonist, Guy Montag, questions the oppressive censorship and conformity enforced by the society, highlighting the struggle against a rigid ideological system.
Person vs. Economic Circumstances	Conflict related to financial struggles, economic disparities, or societal issues tied to wealth and poverty. This type of conflict is prevalent in stories exploring socioeconomic challenges.	John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath depicts the Joad family’s struggle against economic hardships during the Great Depression, portraying a person vs. economic circumstances conflict in the context of societal and economic challenges.

Suggested Readings about External Conflict

1. Abrams, M.H., and Geoffrey Galt Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 12th ed., Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011.
2. Brooks, Cleanth, and Robert Penn Warren. Understanding Fiction. 3rd ed., Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1979.
3. Freytag, Gustav. Technique of the Drama: An Exposition of Dramatic Composition and Art. Translated by Elias J. MacEwan, Russell & Russell, 1966.
4. Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. Vintage, 1992.
5. Propp, Vladimir. Morphology of the Folktale. Translated by Laurence Scott, University of Texas Press, 1968.
6. Wellek, René, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. 3rd ed., Harcourt, Brace & World, 1956.
7. Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Oxford University Press, 1983.

Introduction: Extended Metaphor in Literature

Extended metaphor in literature serves as a potent literary device, transcending boundaries of traditional metaphors to offer a comprehensive and nuanced exploration of complex themes, ideas, and emotions.

Rooted in linguistic artistry, an extended metaphor unfolds over an extended narrative or discourse, intricately weaving connections between the primary subject and its metaphorical counterpart.

This device allows authors to present conceptual territories, providing readers with a rich tapestry of meaning while creating association with the text. As a versatile tool, extended metaphors contribute not only to the aesthetic dimensions of language but also to the thematic depth and structural intricacy of literary works.

Shakespearean Extended Metaphor in Literature

Example	Explanation
Sonnet 18 – “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?”	In this iconic sonnet, Shakespeare employs an extended metaphor to liken the beauty of the speaker’s beloved to that of a summer’s day. The comparison unfolds throughout the sonnet, with various elements of nature symbolizing aspects of the beloved’s enduring beauty. For example, the imagery of the “darling buds of May” represents the youthfulness and blossoming charm of the beloved.
As You Like It – “All the world’s a stage…”	In this monologue, the character Jaques uses an extended metaphor to describe the stages of human life. The world is metaphorically portrayed as a stage, and individuals progress through distinct roles, or “acts,” from birth to death. This extended metaphor allows Shakespeare to explore the universal experiences and transitions of human existence.
Macbeth – “Life’s but a walking shadow…”	Macbeth’s soliloquy in Act 5, Scene 5 contains an extended metaphor comparing life to a “walking shadow.” The metaphor reflects Macbeth’s nihilistic view of life, where he sees existence as a futile and purposeless march towards death. The shadow imagery conveys the transient and insubstantial nature of human existence.
Romeo and Juliet – “But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks?”	In this famous balcony scene, Romeo uses an extended metaphor to express his admiration for Juliet’s beauty. He compares her to the sun, describing her as the source of light that dispels the darkness of the night. This metaphor not only highlights Juliet’s radiant beauty but also conveys the transformative power of love.

Examples of an Extended Metaphor in Literature

1. “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee:

• Extended Metaphor: Atticus Finch’s lesson to Scout about understanding others by walking in their shoes.
• Explanation: The metaphorical idea of walking in someone’s shoes serves as an extended metaphor throughout the novel, emphasizing empathy and the importance of understanding others’ perspectives.

2. “The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

• Extended Metaphor: The green light at the end of Daisy’s dock.
• Explanation: The green light symbolizes Gatsby’s unattainable American Dream and serves as a recurring metaphor throughout the novel, reflecting themes of aspiration and the elusive nature of success.

3. “Animal Farm” by George Orwell:

• Extended Metaphor: The farm as an allegory for the Russian Revolution and subsequent political ideologies.
• Explanation: The entire farm setting functions as an extended metaphor, with each animal representing a specific historical figure or social class, providing a nuanced commentary on political upheavals.

4. “Moby-Dick” by Herman Melville:

• Extended Metaphor: The white whale, Moby-Dick.
• Explanation: Moby-Dick is a complex metaphor throughout the novel, representing various themes such as the elusive nature of truth, the struggle against nature, and the consequences of obsession.

5. “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost:

• Extended Metaphor: The forked road in the woods.
• Explanation: The diverging roads serve as an extended metaphor for life choices, symbolizing the difficulty of decision-making and the impact choices have on one’s journey.

Benefits of Using an Extended Metaphor in Literature

1. Nuanced Expression: Allows for a more nuanced and layered expression of complex ideas, emotions, or themes by providing a sustained and multifaceted comparison.
2. Thematic Depth: Enhances the thematic depth of a literary work by offering a continuous and cohesive metaphorical framework that can be explored throughout the narrative.
3. Reader Engagement: Captivates and engages readers by inviting them to unravel the layers of meaning within the extended metaphor, fostering a deeper connection with the text.
4. Symbolic Richness: Provides a rich and symbolic language that adds depth and texture to the narrative, allowing for the exploration of abstract concepts in a more vivid and relatable manner.
5. Structural Unity: Contributes to the structural unity of a literary piece, offering a cohesive thread that ties together disparate elements, characters, or events, creating a harmonious and interconnected narrative.

Extended Metaphor in Literature and Literary Theory

Theory	How to Critique Extended Metaphor in it
Structuralism	When applying a structuralist lens, one should assess how the extended metaphor contributes to the overall structural integrity of the text. Evaluate its role in shaping narrative coherence and thematic unity within the literary work.
Postmodernism	In the context of postmodern literary theory, the critique of the extended metaphor involves an examination of how it challenges or deconstructs traditional narrative elements. Explore its subversive or unconventional qualities and assess how it aligns with the principles of postmodernism.
Psychoanalysis	Employing a psychoanalytic perspective, analyze the symbolic elements within the extended metaphor and their potential psychological implications. Explore how the metaphor reflects or influences the characters’ inner worlds, motivations, and the underlying psychoanalytic themes.
Feminist Criticism	When critiquing an extended metaphor through the lens of feminist criticism, evaluate how it portrays gender dynamics, roles, or power relationships. Consider the implications for feminist discourse, assessing whether the metaphor reinforces or challenges existing gender stereotypes within the literary work.
Reader-Response	In the framework of reader-response theory, focus on the reader’s experience with the extended metaphor. Consider how it invites interpretation, emotional engagement, and personal connection, and assess its effectiveness in eliciting diverse reader responses to the literary work.

Suggested Readings about Extended Metaphor in Literature

1. Alexander, Jonathan, Karen Lunsford, and Carl Whithaus. “Toward wayfinding: A metaphor for understanding writing experiences.” Written Communication 37.1 (2020): 104-131.
2. Semino, Elena, and Zsófia Demjén, eds. The Routledge Handbook of Metaphor and Language. Taylor & Francis, 2016.

Etymology of Extended Metaphor

The term “extended metaphor” finds its roots in the fusion of two linguistic components. The word “extended” emanates from the Latin “extendere,” meaning to stretch or prolong, while “metaphor” is derived from the Greek “metapherein,” signifying a transfer or carrying across.

Coined in literary discourse, an extended metaphor refers to a protracted and elaborate comparison between two distinct entities, where one subject is extensively explored and detailed through its association with another. This device transcends the brevity of traditional metaphors, providing an extended framework for conveying complex ideas and evoking a more nuanced understanding within the realm of language and literature.

Meanings of Extended Metaphor

Aspect	Meaning
1. Linguistic Roots	Originating from the Latin “extendere,” meaning to stretch or prolong, and the Greek “metapherein,” signifying a transfer or carrying across.
2. Literary Device	Coined in literary discourse to denote a protracted and elaborate comparison between two distinct entities.
3. Elaborate Comparison	Involves a prolonged exploration and detailed comparison of one subject with another, transcending the brevity of traditional metaphors.
4. Complex Ideas	Provides an extended framework for conveying complex ideas, allowing for a more nuanced understanding within the realm of language and literature.

Definition of Extended Metaphor

An extended metaphor is a literary device characterized by a prolonged and elaborate comparison between two distinct entities, transcending the brevity of traditional metaphors.

Originating from the Latin “extendere,” meaning to stretch or prolong, and the Greek “metapherein,” signifying a transfer or carrying across, it entails a detailed exploration that provides an extended framework for conveying complex ideas within the realm of language and literature.

This device allows for a nuanced understanding by fostering a deeper connection between the primary subject and the metaphorical vehicle.

Types of Extended Metaphor

Type	Definition	Example
Narrative Extended Metaphor	Unfolds over an entire narrative, with elements of the metaphor persisting throughout the storyline.	In Animal Farm by George Orwell, the metaphor of the farm as a microcosm of society persists throughout the entire narrative.
Conceptual Extended Metaphor	Explores a central idea or concept through an extended metaphorical framework, delving into various facets of the concept.	In As You Like It by Shakespeare, life is metaphorically portrayed as a theatrical performance with distinct stages in “All the world’s a stage.”
Allegorical Extended Metaphor	Represents abstract ideas or moral principles through a sustained metaphorical structure, often found in allegorical literature.	John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress employs an allegorical extended metaphor to convey spiritual truths through the journey of a pilgrim.
Structural	Integrates the metaphor into the very structure of the text, influencing its organization and thematic development.	In John Donne’s poem “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning,” the compass serves as a structural extended metaphor for a stable and enduring love.
Contiguous	Maintains a continuous metaphorical thread, where each component of the metaphor builds upon the preceding elements, creating a seamless and interconnected expression.	In Emily Dickinson’s poem “Hope is the thing with feathers,” the extended metaphor of hope as a bird with feathers provides a continuous thread throughout the poem.

Common Examples of Extended Metaphors

1. Journey of Life:

• Example: Life is often seen as a journey, with each step representing a stage, the challenges encountered as hurdles, and various milestones as destinations to be reached.

2. Garden of Friendship:

• Example: Friendships are akin to a garden, demanding care, attention, and occasional pruning to foster growth and maintain a thriving connection.

3. Seasons of Change:

• Example: Life’s transitions can be compared to the changing seasons, where each phase corresponds to different experiences and emotions, mirroring the cyclical nature of nature.

4. Ocean of Emotions:

• Example: Emotions are like the ebb and flow of ocean waves, possessing depths of complexity and occasional storms that characterize the unpredictability of human feelings.

5. Puzzle of Knowledge:

• Example: The pursuit of knowledge is akin to solving a puzzle, where each piece contributes to a broader understanding, and the complete picture unfolds through continuous learning.

6. Building Relationships as Construction:

• Example: Relationships are constructed much like buildings, requiring a solid foundation, ongoing construction efforts, and periodic maintenance to ensure stability and longevity.

Suggested Readings about Extended Metaphor

1. Alexander, Jonathan, Karen Lunsford, and Carl Whithaus. “Toward wayfinding: A metaphor for understanding writing experiences.” Written Communication 37.1 (2020): 104-131.
2. Semino, Elena, and Zsófia Demjén, eds. The Routledge Handbook of Metaphor and Language. Taylor & Francis, 2016.