Tag: literary devices

Etymology of Inference

The term “inference” originated from the Latin verb inferre. It means “to bring in” or “to carry.” The word “inference” was first used in the English language in the 16th century. However, it used to refer to the act of bringing or carrying something particularly in the context of legal or philosophical arguments.

Meanings of Inference

It is a multidimensional term, having several semantic uses. Some of the meanings of this term are as follows.

1. Logical reasoning: It refers to the process of logical reasoning in which premises or evidence become the source of the conclusion.
2. Concluding from evidence: It refers, more broadly, to the act of drawing a conclusion or making a judgment based on available evidence or information.
3. Prediction: Inference refers to the act of predicting or projecting future outcomes based on current or past events.
4. Deduction: Inference is sometimes used synonymously with deduction, which refers, specifically, to the process of reasoning from general principles or assumptions to specific conclusions.
5. Induction: In this shape, it refers to the process of reasoning from specific instances to general conclusions.

Definition of Inference

Inference as a literary device/rhetorical device refers to the process of drawing conclusions or making judgments based on hints or clues within a text. It involves using evidence from the text to arrive at a deeper understanding of the characters, themes, or plot.

Types of Inference

Here are some examples of the types of inferences.

Inference Type	Definition	Example
Character inference	It means concluding a character’s traits, motivations, or intentions based on their actions, dialogue, or other textual clues.	For example, it would happen in a story that a character who consistently helps others is compassionate and caring.
Theme inference	It means using evidence from the text to determine the underlying themes or messages that the author is conveying.	Here it means that a novel explores the theme of redemption based on the protagonist’s journey from a life of crime to one of redemption and self-discovery.
Plot inference	It means using clues from the text to predict future events in the story or make sense of past events.	Here it means that a character’s suspicious behavior will lead to a plot twist or reveal later in the story.
Setting inference	It means using details about the setting (time, location, social context) to conclude the themes or messages of the text.	Here it means that a story set in a dystopian society comments on the dangers of unchecked governmental control.
Structural inference	It means using the structure of the text (foreshadowing, flashback) to draw concludes the themes or messages of the text.	Here infer means that a recurring symbol represents the cycle of life and death based on its appearance at key moments in the story.
Historical inference	It means using knowledge about the historical or cultural context of the text to conclude its meaning or significance.	Here it means that a poem written during a time of war reflects the poet”s feelings of despair and loss.
Emotional inference	It means using textual cues (tone, word choice) to infer the emotional state of characters or the overall mood of the text.	Here infer means a character’s use of sarcastic and bitter language indicates feelings of resentment or frustration.
Intertextual inference	It means using knowledge of other texts or cultural references to draw connections or deeper meaning from the text.	Here it means that an allusion to a famous Shakespearean tragedy in a novel that invites comparisons and adds layers of meaning to the story.
Reader-response inference	It means using the reader’s personal experiences and perspectives to conclude the text.	Here it means that a particular scene evokes a strong emotional response in the reader based on their personal history or background.
Authorial inference	It means concluding the author”s intentions or attitudes based on the text and other relevant information, such as biographical details.	Here infer means that a satirical essay criticizing societal norms reflects the author”s desire for social change and reform.
Psychological inference	It means using knowledge of psychology and human behavior to conclude about characters” motivations or reactions in the text.	Here it means that a character’s irrational fears stem from a traumatic experience based on their behavior and thought patterns.
Linguistic inference	It means using knowledge of language and linguistic structures to draw conclusions about the meaning and significance of the text.	Here it means that the repetition of a specific word in a poem emphasizes its central theme or idea.

Literary Examples of Inference

1. Character Inference:

Example: From To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee

Extract: “Jem threw open the gate and sped to the side of the house, slapped it with his palm, and ran back past us, not waiting to see if his foray was successful. Dill and I followed on his heels. Safely on our porch, panting and out of breath, we looked back.”

Explanation: In this extract, Jem’s impulsive act of running to the side of the house and slapping it implies that he is trying to conquer his fear or prove his bravery to his friends. This inference is based on his quick and excited response, suggesting a desire for validation.

2. Theme Inference:

Example: From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald

Extract: “Gatsby believed in the green light, the orgastic future that year by year recedes before us.”

Explanation: The recurring symbol of the green light and Gatsby’s belief in it suggests the theme of the American Dream and the relentless pursuit of an idealized future. The green light represents Gatsby’s hope and longing for wealth, success, and his desire to recapture the past.

3. Setting Inference:

Example: From Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

Extract: “It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.”

Explanation: This famous opening line suggests that the novel is set in a society where marriage and social status are highly valued. The inference is that the setting of the story revolves around the social conventions and expectations of a society where marriage is a primary concern for both men and women.

4. Structural Inference:

Example: From Macbeth by William Shakespeare

Extract: “By the pricking of my thumbs, Something wicked this way comes.”

Explanation: The use of foreshadowing through the witches’ prophecy creates a sense of impending evil or misfortune. The inference is that a malevolent force or character is about to enter the scene, which adds tension and builds anticipation for what is to come.Top of Form

These examples show how different types of inference could be identified and analyzed in various literary works, contributing to the reader’s understanding and interpretation of the text.

Suggested Readings

1. Booth, Wayne C. The Rhetoric of Fiction. University of Chicago Press, 1983.
2. Eco, Umberto. Interpretation and Overinterpretation. Edited by Stefan Collini, Cambridge University Press, 1992.
3. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Interpretive Communities. Harvard University Press, 1980.
4. I.A. Richards. The Philosophy of Rhetoric. Oxford University Press, 1936.
5. Perelman, Chaim, and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca. The New Rhetoric: A Treatise on Argumentation. Translated by John Wilkinson and Purcell Weaver, University of Notre Dame Press, 1969.
6. Toulmin, Stephen. The Uses of Argument. Cambridge University Press, 1958.
7. Walton, Douglas. Media Argumentation: Dialectic, Persuasion, and Rhetoric. Cambridge University Press, 2018.

Introduction

Creating hubris, a literary device, involves developing a character who possesses excessive pride, arrogance, or overconfidence, and then placing that character in situations where their hubris will lead to their downfall.

Using Hubris in Writing

Here are some tips for creating hubris in a literary work:

Tip	Explanation	Example
1. Strong Sense of Self-Importance	Develop a character with an unwavering belief in their invincibility and exemption from rules that bind others.	In “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley, the titular character erects a grand statue of himself, proclaiming his greatness to the world.
2. Consequences of Hubris	Establish situations where the character’s hubris leads to negative outcomes or a downfall, showcasing the repercussions of their arrogance.	Ozymandias’ once-mighty statue lies in ruins amidst a desolate landscape, a testament to the passage of time and the impermanence of his power.
3. Dialogue and Actions	Use dialogue and actions to portray the character’s overconfidence and arrogance, emphasizing their dismissive attitude towards others due to their perceived superiority.	Ozymandias’ inscription on the pedestal reads, “Look on my Works, ye Mighty, and despair!” – a stark display of his haughty demeanor.
4. Irony and Tragic Inevitability	Establish a sense of irony or tragic inevitability, allowing the audience to anticipate the character’s downfall even when the character remains oblivious to it.	While Ozymandias sought eternal glory, his statue’s ruins and the barren surroundings ironically convey the transience of human achievements.
5. Character Growth or Lack Thereof	Depict the character’s response to their hubris, highlighting whether they recognize their mistake and seek redemption or persist in their arrogant ways, refusing to learn from their errors.	Ozymandias’ lack of growth is evident in the ruins; he remains forever frozen in his prideful stance, unable to rectify his arrogance.

Benefits of Using Hubris

1. Complexity

• Adds Depth to Characters: Hubris introduces flaws and vulnerabilities, making characters more multi-dimensional and relatable.
• Humanizes Characters: Displaying hubris showcases the imperfections and weaknesses of characters, making them more authentic and easier for readers to connect with.

2. Conflict

• Internal Struggle: Characters’ hubris can create internal conflicts as they grapple with their own pride and its consequences.
• External Opposition: Hubris often leads to clashes with other characters or forces, driving the narrative forward through external confrontations.

3. Theme

• Exploration of Pride: Hubris allows writers to explore themes of arrogance, ego, and the consequences of overestimating one’s abilities.
• Moral Lessons: Through hubris, writers can convey moral lessons about humility, self-awareness, and the dangers of unchecked pride.

4. Catharsis

• Emotional Release: Readers experience emotional catharsis as characters with hubris face downfall or redemption, evoking empathy and reflection.
• Impactful Resolution: Such stories often culminate in intense and memorable resolutions, leaving a lasting impression on readers.

5. Realism

• Reflects Human Nature: It mirrors real-life tendencies where individuals sometimes overreach due to arrogance or self-assuredness.
• Heightens Authenticity: Including hubris in characters’ behaviors and decisions adds authenticity to the narrative, making it more believable and relatable.

Hubris and Literary Theory

Literary Theory	Type of Hubris	Example of Interpretation
Psychoanalytic	Unconscious	A psychoanalytic perspective sees hubris as a defense mechanism rooted in the character’s unconscious fears and insecurities. For example, in Sophocles’ play Oedipus Rex, Oedipus’ excessive pride and belief in his invincibility actually stems from his unconscious desire to avoid the painful truth about his own identity and fate.
Feminist	Gender and Power	The feminist theory examines it in relation to gender dynamics and power structures. Shakespeare’s Macbeth shows Lady Macbeth’s arrogance and thirst for power to be analyzed through a feminist lens, revealing how societal expectations of masculinity influence her behavior and ambition.
Marxist	Social and Economic Power	In a Marxist reading, hubris could be interpreted as a reflection of social and economic power imbalances. For instance, in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Jay Gatsby’s hubris is intertwined with his pursuit of wealth and social status, showing how his sense of superiority is tied to his position within the capitalist system.
Postcolonial	Power Dynamics	Postcolonial theory can analyze it in terms of the power dynamics between colonizers and colonized peoples. Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conard shows the character of Kurtz displaying hubris as he arrogantly imposes his will on the indigenous people of the Congo. It highlights the colonialist mindset of superiority and entitlement.
Structuralist	Patterns and Tragedy	A structuralist perspective views hubris as a recurring pattern leading to tragic consequences. For example, Sophocles’ Antigone shows the character of Creon demonstrating hubris by refusing to heed the warnings of the gods and insisting on enforcing his own laws. It results in a series of tragic events that follow a predictable pattern of downfall.

Suggested Readings

1. Aeschylus. Prometheus Bound. Translated by David Grene, University of Chicago Press, 1991.
2. Conrad, Joseph. Heart of Darkness. Penguin Classics, 2007.
3. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. Scribner, 2004.
4. Milton, John. Paradise Lost. Edited by John Leonard, Penguin Classics, 2003.
5. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Edited by Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstine, Simon & Schuster, 2009.
6. Sophocles. Oedipus Rex. Translated by David Grene, University of Chicago Press, 1991.
7. Tracy, David. “Horrors and Horror: The Response of Tragedy.” Social Research, vol. 81, no. 4, 2014, pp. 739–67. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26549652. Accessed 3 July 2023.

Etymology of Half Rhyme

The term “half rhyme” originated in the late 18th century, combining the prefix “half” to denote partial or imperfect, and “rhyme,” referring to the correspondence of sounds between words. Also known as slant rhyme or near rhyme, it describes a poetic technique where words have similar but not identical sounds at the end of their respective lines. Unlike perfect rhymes which involve exact matching sounds, it introduce subtle variations such as consonant similarities or slight vowel changes, creating a softer and more nuanced poetic effect.

Meanings of Half Rhyme

• Definition: Also known as slant rhyme or near rhyme, it refers to a type of poetic rhyme in which the ending sounds of two words are similar but not identical.
• Differences from Perfect Rhyme: Unlike perfect rhymes that involve the exact matching of sounds (e.g., “cat” and “hat”), they create a less precise correspondence between words.
• Sound Similarities: Half rhymes can include consonant similarities or slight vowel variations.
• Subtle and Nuanced: This technique adds a subtle and nuanced quality to the poem, often evoking a sense of tension or ambiguity.
• Unconventional: It has been widely used by poets to achieve unique and unconventional poetic effects.
• Versatility: It is a versatile tool in poetic composition, allowing poets to explore different patterns and styles while maintaining a poetic connection between words.

Half Rhyme in Grammar

Grammatically, it is a singular noun that takes a plural verb when referring to multiple instances of the concept. For example:

• “Half rhyme is a technique that many poets use.”
• “There are several examples of half rhyme in this poem.”

In both of these sentences, “half rhyme” is the subject and is treated as a singular noun, while “is” and “are” are the verbs that agree with the subject in number. However, when referring to multiple instances of half rhyme, the verb would be plural, as in:

• “These poems all contain half rhymes.” (where “contain” is a plural verb)

So, in short, “half rhyme” is a singular noun that can take either a singular or plural verb depending on the context.

Definition of Half Rhyme

Half rhyme is a literary device in which two words have similar consonant sounds at the end, but different vowel sounds. This technique creates a subtle, incomplete rhyme that can add complexity and texture to poetry or prose.

Types of Half Rhyme

Here are some common types of half rhyme:

Type	Explanation
Consonance	In consonance, the consonant sounds at the end of words are similar, but the vowel sounds may differ. For example, “milk” and “walk” have similar final “lk” sounds.
Assonance	Assonance involves the repetition of similar vowel sounds at the end of words, while the consonant sounds vary. For instance, “lake” and “late” share similar “ay” sounds.
Eye Rhyme	Eye rhyme is characterized by words that look like they should rhyme due to their spelling, but they have different pronunciations. For example, “move” and “love” have a similar ending, but their actual sounds differ.
Consonant Rhyme	In consonant rhyme, the final consonant sounds match, while the preceding vowel sounds differ. An example is “send” and “end.”
Pararhyme	Pararhyme is a type of half rhyme where the first and last consonants match, but the intervening vowel sound changes. For instance, “fall” and “full” share similar “f” and “l” sounds.
Unstressed Half Rhyme	This occurs when the final syllables of words have a similar sound in unstressed syllables, such as “forgotten” and “hasten.”

Literary Examples of Half Rhyme

Here are some common examples of half rhyme:

1. Consonance:
   • Poem: “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost
   • Example: “The woods are lovely, dark, and deep” (“deep” and “sleep” have similar “p” and “e” sounds)
2. Assonance:
   • Poem: “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe
   • Example: “Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary” (“dreary” and “weary” share similar “ee” sounds)
3. Eye Rhyme:
   • Poem: Sonnet 18 by William Shakespeare
   • Example: “So long as men can breathe or eyes can see” (“see” and “be” look like they should rhyme, but they do not have the same pronunciation)
4. Consonant Rhyme:
   • Poem: “Fire and Ice” by Robert Frost
   • Example: “Some say the world will end in fire, some say in ice” (“fire” and “ice” share similar “ce” sounds)
5. Pararhyme:
   • Poem: “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
   • Example: “In Flanders fields the poppies blow” (“blow” and “flow” share similar “ow” sounds, while “b” and “fl” match in consonants)

These examples showcase how it is used in poetry to create subtle and evocative effects, contributing to the richness of poetic expression.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2005.
2. Cushman, Stephen. The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton University Press, 2011.
3. Fussell, Paul. Poetic Meter and Poetic Form. Random House, 1965.
4. Hollander, John. Rhyme’s Reason: A Guide to English Verse. Yale University Press, 1981.
5. Preminger, Alex, et al., editors. The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton University Press, 2005.
6. Turco, Lewis. The Book of Forms: A Handbook of Poetics. University Press of New England, 1986.

Main Features of Haiku Poems

• Traditional Japanese Poetry: It is a traditional form of Japanese poetry that originated in the 17th century.
• Concise Three-Line Structure: It is a concise and evocative three-line poem with a syllable pattern of 5-7-5. This is a specific haiku format.
• Focus on Nature and Seasonal Themes: Traditionally, they focus on nature and seasonal themes, capturing fleeting moments or observations in the natural world.
• Evoke Tranquility and Simplicity: Haiku poems often seek to evoke a sense of tranquility, simplicity, and appreciation for the beauty of the world around us.
• Deep Emotions and Insights: They are known for their brevity and ability to convey deep emotions and insights with just a few carefully chosen words.
• Reflection and Connection: They invite readers to reflect on the essence of life and the interconnectedness of all things.
• Modern Haikus: Over time, it has evolved, allowing for more flexibility in subject matter and structure, resulting in modern haikus that may not strictly adhere to the 5-7-5 syllable pattern but still capture the essence of the traditional form.

How to Write a Haiku

The question of how to write a haiku seems quite easy in that there are certain steps that must be followed to learn to write a haiku. These steps are as follows.

Step	Explanation	Example
i.	Plan writing and think about the topic: They are concise poems that often revolve around nature, seasonal themes, or moments of reflection. Start by choosing a topic or a moment you want to capture in your haiku.	Topic: Cherry blossoms
ii.	Use the topic as a phrase in the first verse: The first verse sets the stage for your haiku and should be a standalone phrase that introduces the theme or image. Keep it simple, and use sensory language to create a vivid picture.	First Verse: “Pink petals bloom”
iii.	Connect the first verse to the second and then the third: The second verse should expand on or relate to the first, while the third verse should complement and complete the image. The goal is to create a seamless flow between the verses, providing a coherent snapshot of the moment or scene.	Second Verse: “Amidst gentle breeze” Third Verse: “Nature’s soft ballet”
iv.	See that all verses have a connection and all are images: Check that each verse contributes to the overall theme or image you want to convey. Remove any unnecessary words or ideas to maintain the simplicity and focus of the haiku. Ensure that the three verses together paint a complete and harmonious picture.	First Verse: “Pink petals bloom” Second Verse: “Amidst gentle breeze” Third Verse: “Nature’s soft ballet”
v.	Read it aloud and see how sounds create melody: They have a musical quality when read aloud, so pay attention to the rhythm and flow of the syllables. Use alliteration, assonance, or other sound devices to enhance the musicality of the haiku. Ensure that the syllable count remains 5-7-5.	First Verse: “Pink petals bloom” (5 syllables) Second Verse: “Amidst gentle breeze” (7 syllables) Third Verse: “Nature’s soft ballet” (5 syllables)
vi.	Check it for syllables: They traditionally follow a 5-7-5 syllable pattern across the three verses. Count the syllables in each verse to ensure they meet the requirements. Adjust the phrasing or choose different words if necessary to maintain the correct syllable count while preserving the haiku’s meaning and imagery.	First Verse: “Pink petals bloom” (5 syllables) Second Verse: “Amidst gentle breeze” (7 syllables) Third Verse: “Nature’s soft ballet” (5 syllables)

Benefits of Using Haiku

1. It helps form images: Concise and sensory language allows poets to create vivid and evocative images. Through carefully chosen words and phrases, they capture a moment or scene, painting a picture in the reader’s mind.
2. It helps writers to write concisely and precisely: Composing them requires distilling thoughts and emotions into a limited number of syllables. This practice encourages writers to be economical with their language, conveying powerful messages with brevity.
3. It helps poets to try hands in versifying: Structured syllable pattern (5-7-5) provides an opportunity for poets to explore and experiment with the poetic form. This discipline leads to creativity and challenges poets to find new ways to express their ideas within the framework.
4. It helps create linking images: Haikus often connect disparate elements in surprising and thought-provoking ways. The juxtaposition of images lead to deeper insights and spark the reader’s imagination, encouraging them to find meaning in the relationships between the images presented.

Literary Device of Haiku in Literary Theory

Theory	How to Critique Haiku	Specific Example of Critique
Formalism and New Criticism	Analyze the haiku’s form, structure, and language, focusing on the syllable pattern (5-7-5), imagery, and thematic elements. Assess how the verses contribute to the overall impact and coherence of the poem.	Example Critique: “Pink petals bloom/Amidst gentle breeze they sway/Nature’s soft ballet” by John Doe shows 5-7-5 syllable structure. It creates a harmonious rhythm. The imagery of blooming pink petals and swaying in a gentle breeze evokes a serene natural scene. It achieves unity and coherence through the skillful use of concise language and sensory images.
Postcolonialism	Examine how colonial history and power dynamics influence the haiku. Explore themes of cultural identity, resistance, and the impact of colonization on the portrayal of nature and seasonal motifs. Consider how haikus from colonized regions challenge Eurocentric interpretations.	Example Critique: In the haiku “Bamboo shadows sweep/Over my sandaled feet —/Moon’s all that’s left” by Basho Matsuo, the portrayal of bamboo and sandaled feet may carry cultural significance related to Japan’s history. The haiku invites reflection on the interplay between nature and human presence, with the moon symbolizing the ephemeral essence of existence. The critique highlights the need to acknowledge diverse cultural perspectives in haiku analysis.
Feminism	Uncover gender roles, representation of women, and issues of patriarchy in the haiku. Analyze how gender is portrayed, the agency of women or nature, and whether the poem challenges or reinforces traditional gender norms.	Example Critique: In the haiku “A world of dew,/And within every dewdrop/A world of struggle” by Issa Kobayashi, the dewdrops metaphorically represent individuals and their struggles. The haiku subtly questions the perception of women and marginalized groups in society, emphasizing the resilience and challenges faced in their lived experiences. The critique highlights how haikus can challenge gender norms and explore deeper socio-cultural themes.
Postmodernism	Explore fragmentation, ambiguity, and the breakdown of traditional structures in the haiku. Analyze how the poem challenges conventional norms, embraces paradoxes, and reflects the complexity of contemporary life.	Example Critique: In the haiku “An old silent pond…/A frog jumps into the pond,/Splash! Silence again.” by Basho Matsuo, the haiku breaks the silence with a sudden splash, disrupting the tranquility of the pond. This haiku plays with paradoxes, combining stillness and action, noise and silence. It invites readers to contemplate the coexistence of opposing elements, reflecting the postmodern theme of embracing complexity and uncertainty.

Suggested Readings

1. Beichman, Janine. Masaoka Shiki: His Life and Works. Cheng & Tsui, 2002.
2. Henderson, Harold G. An Introduction to Haiku: An Anthology of Poems and Poets from Basho to Shiki. Doubleday, 1958.
3. Higginson, William J. The Haiku Handbook: How to Write, Share, and Teach Haiku. Kodansha International, 1989.
4. Ueda, Makoto. The Path of Flowering Thorn: The Life and Poetry of Yosa Buson. Hokuseido Press, 1998.
5. Yuasa, Nobuyuki. The Narrow Road to the Deep North and Other Travel Sketches. Penguin Classics, 1966.

More from Literary Devices:

• Half Rhyme

Etymology of Haiku

The term has its roots in Japanese literary tradition, dating back to the 17th century. The word “haiku” itself evolved from the earlier collaborative linked-verse form called renga or renku. Renga involved multiple poets taking turns composing alternating sections of verse, usually consisting of three lines each with a syllabic pattern of 5-7-5.

Meanings of Haiku

Semantically, it is stated to have been formed from two Japanese words; hai which means amusement or enjoyment, and ku which means verses. In other words, it means the verse written to amuse. However, grammatically, it is a plural with haikus.

Types of Haiku

Type	Features	Example
Traditional	Follows the 5-7-5 syllable pattern and focuses on nature and seasonal themes.	An old silent pond… A frog jumps into the pond, Splash! Silence again. – Matsuo Basho
Modern	While still brief and nature-oriented, modern type may not strictly adhere to the 5-7-5 syllable structure, allowing for more flexibility in expression.	The light of a candle In the old shrine Is transferred to another – Masaoka Shiki
Senryu	Similar to haiku but focuses on human nature, emotions, and everyday life rather than nature and the seasons, it also follows a 5-7-5 syllable pattern.	New Year’s Day everything is in blossom! I feel about average. – Kobayashi Issa
Tanka	A longer form of Japanese poetry consisting of five lines with a syllable pattern of 5-7-5-7-7, Tanka often explores themes of love, emotions, and personal experiences.	In the moonlight The color and scent of the wisteria Seems far away. – Fujiwara no Teika
Haibun	A combination of prose and poetry, it typically consists of a concise prose paragraph followed by a related haiku that complements or enhances the prose.	The sound of the water   Gazing at the moon – Matsuo Basho
Renku/Renga	A collaborative linked-verse poem, often composed by multiple poets taking turns to add verses. Renku follows specific structural rules and themes.	On this road Where nobody else travels Autumn nightfall – Matsuo Basho
Shisan	A modern form of haiku that uses 3 lines, each with 3-5-3 syllables, which sums up to 11 syllables in total.	Melted snow, Floating in the waves of Rivers – Yosa Buson
Sedoka	A form of Japanese poetry consisting of two three-line stanzas with syllable patterns of 5-7-7 and 5-7-7, respectively.	People gather And in evening Grass smoke rises – Ki no Tsurayuki
Mondo	A type of haiku that poses a question or presents a problem to the reader.	Over the wintry Forest, winds howl in rage With no leaves to blow. – Natsume Soseki
Zappai	A playful and informal type, usually incorporating puns or wordplay.	In the cicada’s cry No sign can foretell How soon it must die. – Matsuo Basho

Please note that the examples provided are English translations of the original Japanese haiku poems, and syllable patterns may vary slightly due to the nature of translation.

Definition of Haiku

In literature or English literature, it is a short poem having three verses in structure as given above, demonstrating the presentation of themes through images. However, it is to be noted that in Japanese even single-line exists, while in English a haiku poem examples has three verses.

Literary Examples of Haiku

In order to understand better, it is essential to read more haiku examples as follows in English.

Example	Author	Explanation
“The Light of a Candle”	Yosa Buson	The light of a candle Is transferred to another candle spring twilight.
		This haiku is the English translation of the haiku of Yosa Buson, a Japanese poet of the 18th century. Although it is just a translation, it fulfills some conditions of being a haiku. The poem also fulfills the condition of having three verses and the number of syllables in each verse. Therefore, it is a good example of a Japanese haiku in English translation.
“In the Moonlight”	Yosa Buson	In pale moonlight the wisteria’s scent comes from far away.
		This is another good haiku by the same poet. It shows that Buson has created some of the best haikus. The haiku also shows the conditions a poet must have to be called a haiku. It has three verses that make up good images and has also a three-five-three ratio of syllables in each verse.
“A World of Dew”	Kobayashi Issa	This world of dew is a world of dew, and yet, and yet.
		Another Japanese master of the 18th century, this beautiful poet has penned down several haikus that fulfill all the conditions of a haiku poem. This haiku shows very good images of dew and the delay. However, it is interesting that it fulfills the major condition of syllables even in its English translation.
“In a Station of the Metro”	Ezra Pound	The apparition of these faces in the crowd; Petals on a wet, black bough.
		This poem seems a trial version of Ezra Pound as an attempt to write haiku in original English instead of translation from the Japanese. It shows that Ezra Pound has come up to the yardstick of writing good haiku with a different ratio of syllables and different modern images.
“Haiku [for you]”	Sonia Sanchez	love between us is speech and breath. loving you i a long river running.
		Written by a modern poet, Sonia Sanchez, this beautiful piece shows that English poets have started writing good haikus. This haiku shows that English poets have also matured in writing better and good haikus.
“After Killing a Spider”	Masaoka Shiki	After killing spider, how lonely I feel in the cold of night!
		This haiku by Masaoka Shiki captures the emotions of loneliness and regret after killing a spider. It adheres to the 5-7-5 syllable pattern and showcases the human-centric theme often seen in senryu. The poem reflects on the consequences of an action and the emotions it evokes in the poet.

Suggested Readings

1. Beichman, Janine. Masaoka Shiki: His Life and Works. Cheng & Tsui, 2002.
2. Henderson, Harold G. An Introduction to Haiku: An Anthology of Poems and Poets from Basho to Shiki. Doubleday, 1958.
3. Higginson, William J. The Haiku Handbook: How to Write, Share, and Teach Haiku. Kodansha International, 1989.
4. Ueda, Makoto. The Path of Flowering Thorn: The Life and Poetry of Yosa Buson. Hokuseido Press, 1998.
5. Yuasa, Nobuyuki. The Narrow Road to the Deep North and Other Travel Sketches. Penguin Classics, 1966.

Introduction

Genre, as a literary device, refers to the specific category or type of literary work characterized by its distinct style, content, and form. It serves as a framework for writers to create and readers to understand different types of literature, providing a set of conventions and expectations.

By exploiting and manipulating genres, authors effectively convey their ideas, emotions, and themes while readers engage with familiar structures and interpret the text within a broader literary context.

Literary Examples of Genre

Genre	Example	Explanation
Science Fiction	Dune by Frank Herbert	This novel takes place in a distant future where noble houses battle for control of the planet Arrakis, the only source of the spice melange. It explores themes of politics, religion, ecology, and human evolution.
Romance	Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	This novel tells the story of Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy, who initially dislike each other but eventually fall in love. It is a classic example of the romance genre, delving into societal expectations, class, and love.
Mystery	The Maltese Falcon by Dashiell Hammett	The novel revolves around private detective Sam Spade, hired to recover a valuable statue, the Maltese Falcon. It is a classic example of the hardboiled detective genre, featuring a tough detective, a femme fatale, and a twisty plot.
Historical Fiction	The Underground Railroad by Colson Whitehead	This novel portrays the story of Cora, a young slave who escapes a Georgia plantation via the Underground Railroad. It powerfully exemplifies historical fiction, delving into the cruelty of slavery and the resilience of its fighters.

How to Create Genre in a Fictional Work

Creating a genre is a challenging but rewarding process. Here are some steps that you can follow to create a genre:

1. Identify Common Theme or Characteristic: A genre is defined by a common theme or characteristic found in all its works. Select an intriguing theme or characteristic that could serve as the foundation for a new genre.
2. Research Existing Genres: Prior to inventing a new genre, explore established genres, their conventions, and notable literary works associated with them to understand their true nature.
3. Brainstorm Creative Ideas: Develop the chosen theme into a genre by brainstorming elements such as characters, settings, conflicts, and other components that align with the theme.
4. Experiment with Formats: Explore diverse formats, ranging from novels to films to video games, to determine the most suitable platform for inventing and exploring your genre.
5. Test Your Genre: Create a work that embodies the essence of your genre, such as a short story or film, and seek feedback from friends or beta readers to gauge their response.
6. Refine Your Genre: Utilize received feedback to refine and enhance the impact of genre, potentially adjusting themes, elements, or formats for greater effectiveness and engagement.
7. Promote Your Genre: Once your genre is polished, actively promote it through social media, word of mouth, and other channels. Create a community around your genre by connecting with like-minded individuals and sharing your work with a broader audience.

Benefits of Writing in Genre

Creating a new genre can have several benefits, both for the writer and the readers. Here are some of the benefits of creating a specific genre:

1. Unique Storytelling: Inventing a new type offers the opportunity to present a distinctive narrative style, setting your work apart and captivating readers seeking originality.
2. Target Specific Audience: By defining a particular genre, you can attract readers with a shared interest in its theme or style, gathering a devoted fan base and establishing expertise within that genre.
3. Creative Challenge: Creating a novel genre entails abundant creativity and experimentation, presenting an enjoyable and rewarding challenge that encourages innovative thinking and exploration of novel ideas.
4. Showcase Writing Skills: A new form of it allows writers to exhibit their prowess, showcasing their ability to conceive truly exceptional and captivating literary works.
5. Inspiration for Others: Pioneering a new genre can inspire fellow writers to explore similar themes or styles, broadening literary boundaries and contributing to a more diverse and dynamic literary landscape.
6. Potential Lucrativeness: A successful new genre, attracting a substantial audience, holds the potential for significant financial reward, affording financial stability and sustaining the pursuit of writing passion.

Genre and Literary Theory

Here are some literary theories and how they relate to different genres:

Literary Theory	Perspective and Critique	Example in Gothic Literature
Formalism	This theory emphasizes the inherent structure and genre of the text. Then it critiques how Gothic literature employs suspense and atmosphere.	In Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Fall of the House of Usher,” the meticulous description of the mansion’s decay contributes to the eerie mood.
Psychoanalytic	This theory analyzes characters’ subconscious desires and fears. Then it critiques how Gothic characters’ psychology drives the narrative of the genre.	In Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, Victor’s creation of the monster reflects his own psychological turmoil and desire for power.
Feminist Criticism	This theory focuses on gender roles and stereotypes. Then it critiques how Gothic literature portrays female characters and social expectations.	In Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s “The Yellow Wallpaper,” the protagonist’s descent into madness is shaped by patriarchal norms.
Marxist Criticism	This theory examines social class and power dynamics. Then it critiques how Gothic settings highlight economic disparities and exploitation shown through this genre.	In Bram Stoker’s Dracula, the Count’s control over the aristocratic Lucy symbolizes the fear of upper-class decadence.
Postcolonial Theory	This theory explores the impact of colonialism and cultural hegemony. Then it critiques how Gothic narratives reflect colonial fears and anxieties.	In Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea, the portrayal of the Creole Antoinette’s isolation reflects the aftermath of colonialism.
Reader-Response	This theory focuses on how readers interpret and engage with the text. Then it critiques how Gothic elements evoke varied emotional responses.	In Shirley Jackson’s The Haunting of Hill House, the ambiguous supernatural occurrences allow for diverse reader interpretations.
Deconstruction	This theory challenges binary oppositions and hierarchies. Then it critiques how Gothic literature blurs boundaries between reality and illusion.	In Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Tell-Tale Heart,” the narrator’s unstable perception of reality destabilizes the narrative.

Suggested Readings

1. Attridge, Derek. The Singularity of Literature. Routledge, 2004.
2. Bakhtin, Mikhail. The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. Edited by Michael Holquist, translated by Caryl Emerson and Michael Holquist, University of Texas Press, 1981.
3. Fowler, Alastair. Kinds of Literature: An Introduction to the Theory of Genres and Modes. Harvard University Press, 1982.
4. Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Parody: The Teachings of Twentieth-Century Art Forms. Methuen, 1985.
5. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
6. Kristeva, Julia. Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art. Edited by Leon S. Roudiez, Columbia University Press, 1980.
7. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. University of California Press, 1991.
8. Todorov, Tzvetan. The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre. Translated by Richard Howard, Cornell University Press, 1975.
9. Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Revised edition, Oxford University Press, 1985.

Introduction

Free verse is a form of poetry characterized by its departure from conventional metrical and rhyming patterns. It lacks a fixed structure, allowing for greater freedom in line length, rhythm, and organization.

In this poetic output, poets focus on conveying meaning through imagery, language, and thematic exploration rather than adhering to predetermined formal constraints. This style encourages a fluid and natural flow, emphasizing the significance of individual expression and the unique interplay between content and form.

How to Write Free Verse

Step	Explanation	Example
Understanding Free Verse	Acquaint yourself with the concept characterized by a lack of traditional rules.	Imagine crafting a poem about urban life in which rhythm mimics the hustle and bustle of city streets.
Selecting a Theme	Choose a subject that resonates with you as free verse allows diverse themes to be explored.	Go for “identity” as a theme, and go into its dimensions through personal experiences and culture.
Exploring Perspectives	Explore through various viewpoints on your chosen theme, broadening the poem’s emotional and intellectual scope.	Analyze identity through lenses of ethnicity, gender, and generational differences for a richer narrative.
Embracing Imagery	Use sensory descriptions to evoke emotions and immerse readers in the atmosphere of the poem.	Depict a scene where “melancholic raindrops kiss cobblestones, painting a portrait of solitude in the city.”
Playing with Language	Experiment with language, utilizing metaphors, similes, and unconventional phrasings to enhance meaning.	Compare “time” to a “wandering minstrel, whispering tales of yesterday and tomorrow in hushed verses.”
Structural Fluidity	Let the structure show the essence of theme, allowing lines and stanzas to flow organically.	Create lines that flow like a conversation, capturing the spontaneity of moments shared among diverse voices.
Line Breaks and Pacing	Strategically place line breaks to control the poem’s rhythm, creating pauses and emphasizing thoughts.	Break lines to capture pauses in conversation, revealing the unspoken nuances that shape diverse identities.
Symbolism and Allusion	Incorporate symbols or allusions to add depth, drawing from cultural references to amplify the poem’s layers.	Integrate imagery of “phoenix” to symbolize rebirth, invoking narratives of renewal across different cultures.
Revising and Refining	Review the poem for clarity and coherence, ensuring each word contributes to the theme and message.	Polish lines, removing surplus words, allowing the poem’s essence to shine in its succinct exploration of identity.
Feedback and Perspective	Seek input from peers and teachers to have a good insight into the poem’s impact, considering diverse viewpoints for refinement.	Share the poem with colleagues, inviting feedback on how the portrayal of identity resonates across backgrounds.
Finalizing Your Work	Make final adjustments based on feedback, ensuring the poem conveys the intended emotions and insights.	Revise with feedback in mind, refining imagery and language to ensure the poem reflects a tapestry of identities.
Reflection on Themes	Reflect on how the exploration of diverse perspectives enriched the poem’s depth and thematic resonance.	Contemplate how weaving together various facets of identity created a poem that mirrors the complexity of humanity.

This table demonstrates practical steps for writing this poetry, using the example of exploring the theme of “identity.” Each step reflects your aim to encourage students’ engagement with literary creation.

Benefits of Using Free Verse

• Expressive Freedom: Free verse allows unrestricted creativity, enabling poets/writers to convey emotions and ideas without the constraints of traditional rhyme and meter.
• Authentic Voice: Poets can use their natural speaking rhythms, making their verses sound more conversational and genuine, enhancing the personal connection with readers.
• Versatile Themes: The lack of formal structure accommodates a wide range of themes and subjects, facilitating the exploration of current, complex and multidimensional topics.
• Innovative Imagery: Poets can experiment with unique imagery and figurative language, increasing the impact of their verses and offering fresh perspectives.
• Emotional Resonance: Organic flow and intimate language of the free verse create a direct emotional link with readers, creating engagement and reflection.
• Accessible: Its approachability makes free verse accessible to both experienced poets and newcomers, democratizing poetry creation and appreciation.
• Reflecting Modernity: In a changing literary landscape, free verse aligns with the evolving sensibilities of the modern readers and writers.
• Encouraging Interpretation: The absence of rigid rules encourages diverse interpretations, promoting rich discussions and critical thinking.
• Capturing Moments: Free verse excels at capturing fleeting moments, making it an apt medium for conveying transient experiences and emotions.
• Innovative Structures: While free from traditional constraints, poets can still employ innovative line breaks and stanza arrangements to enhance meaning.

Free Verse in Literary Theory

Literary Theory	Perspective & Key Points	Application to Critique of Free Verse Poetry	Practical Example
Formalism	Focus on Form and Structure	Analyze how Free Verse adheres to or deviates from traditional poetic forms.	It may examines the rhythmic patterns and line breaks in a Free Verse poem to analyze or discuss deliberate structural choices.
Chaos Theory	Embracing Complexity and Unpredictability	Explore how Free Verse captures chaotic and nonlinear aspects of human experience.	It may analyze how seemingly random imagery and shifts in tone in a Free Verse poem reflect the unpredictability of emotions.
Globalization Theory	Cross-Cultural Exchange and Influence	Examine how Free Verse reflects global cultural interactions and influences.	It can identify cultural references from various parts of the world within a Free Verse poem and analyzing how they contribute to its meaning.
Feminism	Gender & Power Dynamics	Critique how Free Verse portrays gender roles, empowerment, and societal expectations.	It can analyze the representation of women and their agency in a Free Verse poem, considering how it challenges or reinforces traditional gender norms.
Queer Theory	Non-Heteronormative Perspectives	Explore how Free Verse can express diverse sexual orientations and challenge heteronormativity.	It could be used to interpret the use of language and imagery in a Free Verse poem to uncover hidden or explicit queer narratives.
Indigenous Theory	Indigenous Perspectives & Decolonization	Consider how Free Verse engages with indigenous voices and reclaims cultural identity.	It could analyze references to indigenous traditions and landscapes in a Free Verse poem, examining how they contribute to decolonization efforts.

Incorporating these various literary theories into the critique of free verse poetry allows for a comprehensive examination of its intricacies and multifaceted meanings. By applying each perspective, students and teachers are able to unveil layers of interpretation that contribute to a richer understanding of the poems.

Suggested Readings

1. Hirshfield, Jane. Nine Gates: Entering the Mind of Poetry. HarperCollins, 1997.
2. Kooser, Ted. The Poetry Home Repair Manual: Practical Advice for Beginning Poets. University of Nebraska Press, 2005.
3. Oliver, Mary. A Poetry Handbook. Mariner Books, 1994.
4. Roethke, Theodore. The Collected Poems of Theodore Roethke. Doubleday, 1966.
5. Young, Dean. The Art of Recklessness: Poetry as Assertive Force and Contradiction. Graywolf Press, 2009.
6. Snyder, Gary. The Practice of the Wild: Essays. North Point Press, 1990.
7. Strand, Mark, and Eavan Boland, editors. The Making of a Poem: A Norton Anthology of Poetic Forms. W. W. Norton & Company, 2001.
8. Vendler, Helen. Poems, Poets, Poetry: An Introduction and Anthology. Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2010.