“The End of English” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

“The End of English” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1986 in the Journal of Literary Studies, is considered a pivotal moment in the evolution of literary theory, marking a shift away from traditional approaches and embracing a more politically conscious and interdisciplinary perspective. Eagleton’s essay challenges the notion of English literature as a unified and timeless body of work, instead arguing that it is a socially constructed discourse shaped by historical, political, and economic forces. This groundbreaking insight has had a profound impact on the field of literary studies, inspiring scholars to examine literature within broader cultural and ideological contexts.

Summary of “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

• Colonial Modernism as a Literary Revolt
  Eagleton explores how Irish and American writers like James Joyce and T.S. Eliot used their outsider status to challenge and transform English literary traditions. These writers, free from the emotional ties to England, “objectify and appropriate” its traditions to their own ends, positioning themselves both “inside and outside” the dominant discourse. This allowed for a “profoundly dialogical” form of modernism, where peripheral figures like Joyce and Synge exploited English conventions while subtly mocking them. As Eagleton notes, modernist writers “revealingly inhabit English culture” but maintain a critical distance from it.
• English Literary Tradition as Imperialist and Nationalist
  The Victorian era’s English literature reflected the anxieties of the imperial middle class, attempting to establish a unified national identity. However, this identity was challenged by three interrelated events: World War I, modernism, and shifts in capitalist production. Eagleton argues that modern English literature “was violently assailed” by these global forces, creating a tension between national cultural formations and a rising internationalism. This led to English literary criticism adopting a regressive stance, turning back toward an “imaginary past” rather than engaging with the radical modernist movement.
• Modernism vs. Englishness
  Eagleton discusses how modernism, rooted in cosmopolitanism and transgression, collided with English nationalism. He draws a distinction between modernism’s borderless, international vision and the insular, reactionary nature of the English literary establishment, represented by figures like F.R. Leavis. The struggle of modernism to find acceptance in England is explained by the nation’s “resistance to subversive cultural forms” and its focus on maintaining national identity through literary realism and liberal empiricism. This resulted in modernism being seen as a foreign aberration and pushed to the margins of English culture.
• The Decline of Empire and the Collapse of “Englishness”
  Eagleton posits that English literature’s global significance was buttressed by the reach of the British Empire, which allowed the English language to “subsume all regional particularities” and position itself as a universal medium. However, with the decline of empire, English literature began to lose its global guarantee. Eagleton refers to this as the “pathetic farce” of Commonwealth Literature, marking the diminishing global relevance of English literature. The “loss of empire” marked a significant blow to the cultural ideology of Englishness.
• Postmodernism and the Erosion of Liberal Humanism
  Eagleton highlights how postmodernism has further threatened the ideology of “Englishness.” He identifies the audio-visual dominance of contemporary culture as symptomatic of this threat, noting that while postmodernism deconstructs traditional literary forms, it also exposes the “increasing irrelevance” of English literary discourse. Eagleton notes the irony that postmodern theories of cultural relativism and intertextuality have arisen at a time when Englishness is “culturally speaking, pretty much like North America,” stripped of its unique identity and authenticity.
• Theory as the New Battleground
  In the absence of a vibrant national literature, Eagleton argues that critical theory has become the new space for contesting cultural and political ideas. He draws a parallel between the earlier struggles of modernism and contemporary theory, suggesting that the debates over “high modernism” are being re-enacted within literary criticism today. The rise of theory represents a shift away from traditional Englishness and towards a more international, politically charged discourse.

Quotations:

1. “It is the colonised and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth.”
2. “English literature was violently assailed by three phenomena: the Great War, the explosion of modernism, and the mutation of the capitalist mode of production.”
3. “Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Eagleton’s Context
Modernism	A movement in literature and the arts characterized by a break with traditional forms.	Eagleton examines how modernist writers like Joyce and Eliot, positioned outside the English tradition, challenged and subverted its conventions, bringing in international and cosmopolitan elements.
Colonialism	The practice of acquiring political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.	Eagleton connects the rise of English literature with British imperialism and shows how colonized writers used the English language to critique and subvert imperial culture.
Liberal Humanism	An ideology that emphasizes the autonomy of the individual, moral values, and universal truths.	Eagleton argues that the English literary tradition is steeped in liberal humanism, which is increasingly irrelevant in the postmodern and post-colonial world.
Postmodernism	A cultural, artistic, and literary movement characterized by a rejection of traditional narratives, embracing relativism and fragmentation.	Postmodernism, according to Eagleton, poses a significant threat to the ideology of “Englishness,” especially as it undermines fixed narratives and notions of cultural stability.
Cosmopolitanism	The ideology that all human beings belong to a single community based on shared morality.	Eagleton highlights the cosmopolitan nature of modernist writers, who transcended national boundaries and engaged with diverse literary traditions.
Parody	A work created to imitate, make fun of, or comment on an original work, often as a form of critique.	Eagleton describes how modernist writers like Joyce parodied English literary conventions, using them as tools to both inhabit and critique English culture.
Imperialism	A policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means.	Eagleton links the rise of English literature and its academic study to the British Empire’s desire to create a cohesive national identity, now challenged by post-colonial and global developments.
Hegemony	The dominance of one group over others, culturally, politically, or ideologically.	Eagleton sees the English literary tradition as an expression of bourgeois, imperial hegemony, which is now being undermined by modernist and postmodernist forces.
Avant-garde	Works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, particularly in art and literature.	Eagleton discusses how modernist writers, operating from the margins, adopted avant-garde techniques to break away from bourgeois and imperialist literary traditions.
Nativism	A policy or belief that favors the interests of native inhabitants over those of immigrants or colonizers.	Eagleton refers to the conservative reaction of English critics who sought to defend “native” Englishness against the perceived threats of modernist cosmopolitanism and colonial influence.
Discourse	Written or spoken communication, often associated with power structures and ideologies.	Eagleton examines the “discourse” of English literature as a form of cultural power, historically used to support imperialism and liberal humanism.
Cultural Relativism	The idea that a person’s beliefs and practices should be understood based on that person’s own culture, rather than judged against the criteria of another.	Postmodernism, according to Eagleton, embraces cultural relativism, challenging the universalizing tendencies of liberal humanism and the English literary tradition.
Realism	A literary movement aimed at representing everyday experiences and conditions as they are, without idealization or romanticism.	Eagleton argues that English literature’s traditional attachment to realism was a defense against the disruptive forces of modernism and the declining empire.
Internationalism	The principle of cooperation and understanding between nations.	Eagleton identifies modernism’s internationalism as opposed to the insular nature of the English literary tradition, which sought to preserve a national cultural identity.
Aesthetic Elitism	The belief that certain art forms, styles, or cultural products are inherently superior to others.	Eagleton critiques how modernist and colonial writers often became isolated due to their aesthetic elitism, resulting from their marginalized cultural positions.

Contribution of “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through “The End of English”	Key Concepts from Eagleton’s Text
Ulysses by James Joyce	Eagleton would view Ulysses as a quintessential example of a colonial modernist work, where Joyce, a peripheral Irish writer, subverts and appropriates the English language. Joyce’s complex narrative form challenges imperialist traditions of language and identity.	– Modernism – Colonial Modernism – Subversion of English Literary Tradition
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Eliot’s The Waste Land embodies the modernist breakdown of national and cultural boundaries. Eagleton might critique Eliot’s cosmopolitan approach, where fragments of different cultures are appropriated and integrated, reflecting the collapse of English cultural hegemony.	– Cosmopolitanism – Breakdown of National Formations – Modernism’s Challenge to “Englishness”
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett	Eagleton might argue that Waiting for Godot exemplifies the post-colonial condition of alienation from one’s own language. Beckett, an Irish writer, writes in French, signaling the dislocation of identity and language central to modernism and post-colonialism.	– Disinheritance from Mother Tongue – Post-Colonial Alienation – Modernist Deracination
Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf	Through Eagleton’s lens, Mrs Dalloway can be critiqued for its bourgeois liberal humanism, focusing on the internal consciousness of individuals. Eagleton would argue that Woolf’s modernist technique remains anchored in the subjective experience of the imperial center.	– Liberal Humanism – Bourgeois Consciousness – Resistance to Radical Modernist Subversion of Imperial Norms

Criticism Against “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Political Ideology:Critics argue that Eagleton focuses too heavily on the political and ideological implications of literature, often overshadowing aesthetic and literary qualities. This Marxist approach reduces literature to merely a tool for class struggle and imperialist critique, ignoring the artistic innovations and individual expressions in the works he critiques.
2. Reductionist View of English Literature: Eagleton’s argument that English literature is primarily a product of Victorian imperialism and bourgeois ideology is seen as reductionist by some scholars. They claim that this perspective overlooks the diversity of English literary traditions, which include dissenting voices and works critical of empire and nationalism.
3. Limited Engagement with Postcolonial Voices: While Eagleton discusses postcolonialism and the subversion of the English literary tradition, some critics suggest that he doesn’t fully engage with postcolonial writers from non-Western regions. His focus remains on Irish, American, and European modernists, neglecting voices from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean.
4. Neglect of Feminist Perspectives: Eagleton’s critique largely overlooks feminist perspectives in literature, failing to engage with how gender intersects with imperialism and modernism. Scholars argue that his analysis of works like Mrs. Dalloway underplays the role of gender in shaping narratives of identity and alienation within English literature.
5. Postmodernism Critique Oversimplified: Some critics claim that Eagleton’s dismissal of postmodernism as a threat to “Englishness” lacks nuance. They argue that postmodernism is more than just a critique of national identity; it offers valuable insights into fragmentation, plurality, and the complexities of cultural production in a globalized world.
6. Binary Between National and Cosmopolitan Literature: Eagleton establishes a rigid binary between English national literature and modernist cosmopolitanism. Critics argue that this dichotomy oversimplifies the relationship between local and global influences in literature, failing to recognize how even English writers were shaped by cosmopolitan movements and global exchanges.
7. Nostalgic for Marxist Criticism: Some critics view Eagleton’s critique as overly nostalgic for the Marxist critical tradition, particularly his longing for the kind of politically engaged criticism associated with movements like Scrutiny. This focus on a specific type of Marxist literary criticism is seen as outdated in a more pluralistic academic environment.

Representative Quotations from “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“It is the colonized and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth.”	Eagleton argues that writers from colonized or peripheral nations, such as Ireland and America, have taken over the English literary tradition, challenging the imperial center by appropriating and subverting its language and conventions.
“English literature was the product of a Victorian imperial middle class, anxious to crystallize its spiritual identity in a material corpus of writing.”	Eagleton critiques how English literature, as a discipline, emerged from imperialist and bourgeois concerns, particularly in the Victorian era, where it was used to forge a cohesive national identity and justify colonial domination.
“Modernism’s bold dissolution of national formations, that heady transgression of frontiers between both art-forms and political states…”	This highlights how modernist writers broke down traditional boundaries, not just in literary form but in cultural and political spheres, moving away from the rigid nationalisms that defined English literary tradition and embracing cosmopolitanism.
“Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”	Eagleton argues that the British Empire allowed English literature to resist modernism’s destabilizing forces. The global reach of the English language enabled the country to maintain its cultural hegemony even as modernist and internationalist movements threatened national boundaries.
“Post-modernism, whether it knows it or not, is the appropriate coding of this real historical situation.”	Eagleton suggests that postmodernism reflects the current historical condition, particularly the disintegration of national and imperial identities, and the global commodification of culture. It captures the fragmented, decentered nature of contemporary capitalism.
“Liberal humanism, already in the process of being historically superseded, remains the major subjacent ideology of English studies.”	He critiques how liberal humanism—focused on universal values and individual morality—continues to dominate English literary studies, even though it has become irrelevant in the face of modern and postmodern cultural shifts.
“The contradiction of such a system is that in order to secure the political and ideological conditions for the international circulation of commodities, it needs to exploit exactly the national allegiances and identities which its economic activities constantly undermine.”	This emphasizes the paradox of capitalism, where national identities are manipulated to maintain political control, while global economic activities erode those very identities, creating a tension within capitalist societies.
“The final discrediting of ‘native Englishness’ in a post-modernist epoch at least clarifies the issues at stake.”	Eagleton points out that in the postmodern age, the concept of “native Englishness” is no longer tenable, and this collapse clarifies the cultural and ideological conflicts between global capitalism and its political opponents.
“Criticism confronts the unenviable destiny of becoming its own avant-garde, doubly estranged from its contemporary cultural moment.”	Eagleton argues that English literary criticism has become increasingly disconnected from contemporary cultural production. In trying to preserve past traditions while opposing modernism, criticism has become an avant-garde movement of its own, detached from the realities of current culture.
“The experiences of both modernism and colonialism were kept at bay, but in the latest historical irony now offer to repossess the metropolitan culture from inside in the shape of post-modernism.”	Eagleton identifies a historical irony: while English literature resisted both modernism and colonialism, these forces have now returned in the form of postmodernism to challenge and undermine the core ideologies of English culture from within.

Suggested Readings: “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
2. ___ After Theory. Basic Books, 2004.
3. ___ Culture and the Death of God. Yale University Press, 2014.
4. ___ The Event of Literature. Yale University Press, 2012.
5. ___ The Function of Criticism. Verso, 2005.
6. ___ The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell, 1990.
7. ___ Why Marx Was Right. Yale University Press, 2011.