Introduction: “The Problem of Speech Genres” by Mikhail Bakhtin
“The Problem of Speech Genres” by Mikhail Bakhtin, published in 1953 in a larger compilation of his works, is a cornerstone work in his contribution to sociolinguistic and literary theory. It emphasizes the importance of understanding language not as an abstract system but as it functions in real-life communication. He introduces the concept of “speech genres,” which are the diverse ways language is used in different social situations and contexts. He argues that these genres are not simply forms of expression but are deeply connected to social interactions, relationships, and power dynamics. Characterized by its insightful analysis, the essay is a departure from traditional linguistic approaches, and its emphasis on the dynamic and dialogic nature of language. “The Problem of Speech Genres” has had a profound and lasting impact on various fields, including linguistics, literary studies, anthropology, and communication studies.
Summary of “The Problem of Speech Genres” by Mikhail Bakhtin
Diversity of Language Use:
- Language Across Human Activities: Bakhtin emphasizes that language is integral to all areas of human activity, with its use being as varied as the activities themselves. He asserts, “The nature and forms of this use are just as diverse as are the areas of human activity” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 60). This diversity does not undermine the unity of a national language but showcases its flexibility and adaptability.
- Reflection in Utterances: Language manifests in individual concrete utterances, both oral and written, which are shaped by the specific conditions and goals of their context. These utterances incorporate thematic content, linguistic style, and compositional structure, all tailored to their communicative purposes.
Definition of Speech Genres:
- Concept of Speech Genres: Bakhtin defines speech genres as relatively stable types of utterances that emerge within specific spheres of language use. He notes, “Each sphere in which language is used develops its own relatively stable types of these utterances” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 60). These genres facilitate communication by providing recognizable forms.
- Examples of Genres: The range of speech genres is extensive, including simple rejoinders in dialogue, everyday narratives, scientific statements, military commands, business documents, and literary works. Each genre is adapted to its specific communicative context and purpose.
Heterogeneity of Speech Genres:
- Extensive Variety: Bakhtin highlights the vast and boundless diversity of speech genres, reflecting the endless possibilities of human activity. He observes, “The wealth and diversity of speech genres are boundless because the various possibilities of human activity are inexhaustible” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 60).
- Challenges in Study: This diversity presents a challenge for study, as speech genres can range from a single-word rejoinder to a multivolume novel. The functional heterogeneity of speech genres means that common features might seem excessively abstract, making comprehensive study difficult.
Primary and Secondary Speech Genres:
- Primary Genres: Primary (simple) genres emerge from direct, unmediated speech communication, such as everyday dialogue. These genres are straightforward and closely tied to immediate reality.
- Secondary Genres: Secondary (complex) genres develop in more organized cultural communications, such as literature, science, and politics. These genres absorb and transform primary genres, giving them a new character within more complex communicative structures.
Importance of Studying Speech Genres:
- Relevance to Linguistics and Philology: Bakhtin stresses the significance of understanding the nature of utterances and the diversity of speech genres for almost all areas of linguistics and philology. He states, “A study of the nature of the utterance and of the diversity of generic forms of utterances in various spheres of human activity is immensely important” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 63).
- Research Applications: Any linguistic research involving concrete language use inevitably deals with utterances from various spheres. Therefore, recognizing the nature and specific characteristics of speech genres is crucial for productive and historically accurate research.
Stylistics and Speech Genres:
- Inseparable Link: Style is inherently connected to the utterance and typical forms of utterances, or speech genres. Bakhtin explains, “Any style is inseparably related to the utterance and to typical forms of utterances, that is, speech genres” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 66).
- Individual and Generic Style: While each utterance can reflect the speaker’s individual style, the capacity for individuality varies across genres. Artistic literature allows for significant individual expression, whereas standardized genres like business documents offer limited scope for individuality.
Finalization of the Utterance:
- Specific Quality of Completion: An utterance is characterized by a specific quality of completion that allows for a response. Bakhtin notes, “An utterance has a specific quality of completion that expresses a particular position of the speaker” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 71).
- Necessary for Response: Finalization is crucial for the possibility of a response, as it signals that the speaker has finished their turn. This completion is not merely grammatical but involves the thematic and expressive aspects of the utterance.
Addressivity of Utterances:
- Directed to Someone: Unlike impersonal language units like words and sentences, utterances are inherently directed toward someone. Bakhtin states, “An essential (constitutive) marker of the utterance is its quality of being directed to someone, its addressivity” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 95).
- Influence on Style: The nature and style of an utterance depend significantly on the speaker’s perception of their addressee and the anticipated response. Different genres have typical conceptions of their addressees, shaping the utterance accordingly.
Role of the Listener and Active Understanding:
- Active Role of the Listener: The listener is not a passive recipient but plays an active role in understanding and responding to speech. Bakhtin emphasizes, “Any understanding of live speech, a live utterance, is inherently responsive” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 68).
- Responsive Understanding: The listener’s active, responsive understanding begins during the process of listening, influencing the speaker’s utterance. This interaction reflects the dialogic nature of speech communication.
Expressive Aspect of Utterances:
- Emotional Evaluation: The expressive aspect, or the speaker’s emotional evaluation, is a key feature of the utterance. Bakhtin explains, “The expressive aspect… is a constitutive feature of the utterance” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 84).
- Language Tools for Expression: While the language system provides tools for expressing emotions, the actual expressive aspect emerges only in concrete utterances, not in isolated language units.
Interaction of Utterances:
- Chain of Communication: Each utterance responds to preceding utterances and anticipates future responses, creating a chain of communication. Bakhtin describes, “Each utterance is a link in the chain of speech communication” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 94).
- Influence of Other Utterances: An utterance reflects the speaker’s position within a dialogic interaction, influenced by other utterances on the same topic. This dialogic relationship shapes the content and style of the utterance.
Complexity of the Utterance:
- Multi-layered Phenomenon: Utterances are complex and multi-layered, requiring study within the context of speech communication. Bakhtin asserts, “The utterance proves to be a very complex and multi-planar phenomenon” (Bakhtin, 1986, p. 93).
- Contextual Study: To understand an utterance fully, it must be considered as a link in the chain of communication, reflecting both the speaker’s intentions and the social context. This approach reveals the interplay between language, ideology, and worldview.
Literary Terms in “The Problem of Speech Genres” by Mikhail Bakhtin
| Term | Definition | Explanation |
| Speech Genres | Relatively stable types of utterances specific to particular spheres of human activity. | Speech genres are types of communication forms that emerge and stabilize within specific areas of human activity, such as daily dialogue, scientific discourse, or literary works. Each genre has typical forms of thematic content, style, and compositional structure. |
| Primary (Simple) Speech Genres | Basic, unmediated speech forms such as everyday dialogue. | These genres arise from direct speech communication and are characterized by their simplicity and close connection to immediate reality. Examples include greetings, casual conversation, and orders. |
| Secondary (Complex) Speech Genres | More developed and organized forms of communication such as novels or scientific research. | Secondary genres develop in sophisticated cultural contexts and often incorporate and transform primary genres. They reflect more complex and structured communication, often in written form. |
| Utterance | A complete unit of speech communication, distinguished by its finalization and addressivity. | An utterance is any spoken or written communication that is complete and directed toward someone. It is characterized by a specific beginning and end, and by its ability to elicit a response from an addressee. |
| Finalization | The specific quality of completion that allows an utterance to be understood as a whole. | Finalization refers to the completeness of an utterance, marking its boundaries and enabling it to be responded to. This quality is essential for distinguishing an utterance from other linguistic units like sentences or phrases. |
| Addressivity | The inherent quality of an utterance being directed to someone. | Addressivity is a constitutive feature of an utterance, indicating that it is always aimed at an addressee. This aspect shapes the composition and style of the utterance based on the anticipated response and the nature of the addressee. |
| Expressive Aspect | The speaker’s emotional evaluation embedded within an utterance. | The expressive aspect involves the speaker’s subjective attitude towards the content of their speech, which influences the choice of linguistic means and contributes to the overall style and tone of the utterance. |
| Dialogic Overtones | The inherent responsiveness of an utterance to preceding and anticipated utterances. | Dialogic overtones refer to the way in which any utterance is shaped by its interaction with previous and expected future utterances, creating a continuous chain of communication and mutual influence. |
| Theme | The referential and semantic content of an utterance. | The theme is the main subject matter or topic of an utterance, which the speaker seeks to address or discuss. It forms the basis of the utterance’s meaning and direction. |
| Speech Plan or Speech Will | The speaker’s intended purpose and structure for their utterance. | This concept reflects the speaker’s strategic planning in constructing their utterance, encompassing their goals, the thematic content, and the intended effect on the addressee. |
| Generic Form | Typical compositional structure of an utterance within a particular speech genre. | Generic form refers to the standard way in which utterances within a specific genre are organized and presented. It includes common patterns of content, style, and structural elements. |
| Semantic Exhaustiveness | The degree to which the thematic content of an utterance is fully developed and complete. | Semantic exhaustiveness indicates how thoroughly an utterance covers its topic, ensuring that it is sufficiently complete to elicit a response or to stand alone as a meaningful unit. |
| Change of Speech Subjects | The transition from one speaker to another, which defines the boundaries of an utterance. | This concept highlights the dialogic nature of speech, where each utterance is marked by a shift in the speaker, creating clear demarcations and enabling interactive communication. |
| Intonation | The expressive modulation of voice that conveys the speaker’s attitude and emotion. | Intonation is a critical feature of spoken utterances, providing cues about the speaker’s emotional state, emphasis, and rhetorical intent. It plays a significant role in the expressiveness of an utterance. |
| Semantic Wholeness | The overall coherence and unity of an utterance, ensuring it is perceived as a complete thought. | Semantic wholeness ensures that an utterance is understood as a single, coherent entity with a clear beginning, middle, and end, facilitating its role in communication. |
Contribution of “The Problem of Speech Genres” by Mikhail Bakhtin to Literary Theory
- Dialogism and Heteroglossia
- Bakhtin’s concept of speech genres reinforces the idea that language is inherently dialogic, involving continuous interaction between speakers.
- Emphasizes the multiplicity of voices (heteroglossia) in any discourse, as each utterance responds to and anticipates other utterances.
- Genre Theory
- Introduces the notion of speech genres, expanding genre theory beyond literary forms to include everyday and professional communication.
- Differentiates between primary (simple) and secondary (complex) genres, offering a framework for understanding the evolution and interaction of various communicative forms.
- Structuralism
- Challenges the structuralist focus on language systems (langue) by highlighting the importance of concrete utterances (parole) in real-life communication.
- Emphasizes the contextual and situational nature of language use, which structuralism often overlooks.
- Pragmatics
- Contributes to the field of pragmatics by emphasizing the importance of the speaker’s intention (speech plan) and the addressee’s role in shaping utterances.
- Highlights the communicative purpose and function of language, aligning with pragmatic concerns about language in use.
- Stylistics
- Explores the relationship between style and genre, arguing that style is deeply intertwined with the typical forms of utterances within specific speech genres.
- Introduces the expressive aspect of speech, which stylistics must consider to fully understand how language conveys emotion and evaluation.
- Rhetoric
- Provides insights into rhetorical analysis by showing how different speech genres employ various strategies to achieve their communicative goals.
- Highlights the role of addressivity and the anticipation of the addressee’s response in shaping rhetorical effectiveness.
- Sociolinguistics
- Examines how speech genres reflect and are shaped by social contexts and activities, contributing to an understanding of language as a social phenomenon.
- Analyzes how different social spheres develop distinct speech genres, revealing the interaction between language and society.
- Cultural Studies
- Offers a framework for analyzing how cultural practices and discourses are organized through specific speech genres.
- Shows how genres evolve and adapt in response to changing cultural and social conditions, providing a tool for studying cultural dynamics.
- Philosophy of Language
- Challenges traditional views of language by proposing that utterances, rather than sentences or words, are the primary units of meaning in communication.
- Emphasizes the ethical and relational aspects of language, as each utterance is inherently addressed to another and anticipates a response.
Examples of Critiques: “The Problem of Speech Genres” by Mikhail Bakhtin
| Critique | Explanation | Example |
| Analysis of Genre and Form in War and Peace | Applying Bakhtin’s concept of speech genres to Tolstoy’s novel reveals how different genres (e.g., historical narrative, personal letters, philosophical discourse) are interwoven to reflect diverse spheres of human activity. | “In War and Peace, Tolstoy masterfully blends various speech genres, creating a polyphonic narrative that captures the complexity of Russian society. This fusion of genres aligns with Bakhtin’s view of language as a reflection of multifaceted human experience.” |
| Dialogic Nature of Ulysses | Bakhtin’s idea of dialogism helps critics understand the multiplicity of voices and perspectives in Joyce’s work, emphasizing how characters’ voices interact and overlap. | “Joyce’s Ulysses exemplifies Bakhtin’s concept of heteroglossia, as the novel’s diverse voices and styles create a rich tapestry of urban life. Each character’s speech reflects distinct social and cultural contexts, embodying Bakhtin’s dialogic principle.” |
| Heteroglossia in Beloved | Morrison’s novel is analyzed for its use of multiple speech genres and voices to convey the African American experience and collective memory. | “In Beloved, Morrison employs a variety of speech genres, from personal monologues to historical recounting, to represent the fragmented and multifaceted nature of African American history. This approach resonates with Bakhtin’s concept of heteroglossia, illustrating how language embodies diverse social experiences.” |
| Speech Genres in The Great Gatsby | Critics examine how Fitzgerald uses different genres (e.g., Nick’s reflective narration, dialogues, social commentaries) to construct the novel’s social critique. | “Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby utilizes distinct speech genres to highlight the contrast between characters’ public personas and private realities. Nick’s narrative blends elements of social observation and personal reflection, showcasing Bakhtin’s idea that utterances are shaped by their communicative context.” |
Criticism Against “The Problem of Speech Genres” by Mikhail Bakhtin
Complexity and Accessibility
- Bakhtin’s dense and intricate writing style makes the text difficult for readers to grasp, especially those new to his ideas.
Lack of Empirical Evidence
- Critics argue that Bakhtin’s work lacks empirical data to support his claims about speech genres and their functions, relying heavily on theoretical assertions.
Overemphasis on Dialogue
- Some critics believe Bakhtin overemphasizes the dialogic nature of language, potentially downplaying the significance of monologic forms of communication.
Ambiguity in Definitions
- The definitions of key concepts like “utterance” and “speech genres” are sometimes seen as vague or inconsistent, leading to varied interpretations and applications.
Neglect of Non-Linguistic Factors
- Bakhtin’s focus on speech genres and linguistic elements may overlook important non-linguistic factors that influence communication, such as cultural and psychological aspects.
Insufficient Attention to Written Communication
- While Bakhtin discusses both oral and written genres, some critics feel that his analysis is more heavily weighted towards oral communication, potentially neglecting the nuances of written texts.
Abstract Nature of Concepts
- Bakhtin’s concepts are sometimes seen as too abstract, making it challenging to apply them practically in the analysis of specific texts or communication scenarios.
Limited Scope of Analysis
- Some argue that Bakhtin’s analysis, while profound, is limited in scope and may not fully encompass the diversity and complexity of all speech genres across different cultures and historical periods.
Suggested Readings: “The Problem of Speech Genres” by Mikhail Bakhtin
- Bernard-Donals, Michael F. “Mikhail Bakhtin: Between Phenomenology and Marxism.” College English, vol. 46, no. 1, 1984, pp. 32-47.
- Clark, Katerina, and Michael Holquist. Mikhail Bakhtin. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1984.
- Emerson, Caryl. “The Outer Word and Inner Speech: Bakhtin, Vygotsky, and the Internalization of Language.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 10, no. 2, 1983, pp. 245-264.
- Holquist, Michael. Dialogism: Bakhtin and His World. Routledge, 1990.
- Morson, Gary Saul, and Caryl Emerson. Mikhail Bakhtin: Creation of a Prosaics. Stanford University Press, 1990.
- Todorov, Tzvetan. Mikhail Bakhtin: The Dialogical Principle. Translated by Wlad Godzich, University of Minnesota Press, 1984.
- Vice, Sue. Introducing Bakhtin. Manchester University Press, 1997.
Extracts with Explanation from “The Problem of Speech Genres” by Mikhail Bakhtin
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Each separate utterance is individual, of course, but each sphere in which language is used develops its own relatively stable types of these utterances. These we may call speech genres.” | Bakhtin explains that while every utterance is unique, the context in which language is used creates stable types of utterances, termed “speech genres.” This concept highlights how different social and professional settings generate specific forms of communication. |
| “The wealth and diversity of speech genres are boundless because the various possibilities of human activity are inexhaustible, and because each sphere of activity contains an entire repertoire of speech genres that differentiate and grow as the particular sphere develops and becomes more complex.” | This quotation emphasizes the limitless variety of speech genres, driven by the endless range of human activities. As activities evolve, so do the speech genres associated with them, reflecting the dynamic nature of language in different contexts. |
| “It is especially important here to draw attention to the very significant difference between primary (simple) and secondary (complex) speech genres.” | Bakhtin distinguishes between primary and secondary speech genres. Primary genres are simple, everyday forms of communication, while secondary genres are complex and often incorporate primary genres within them, such as in novels or scientific articles. This distinction helps understand the layering of communication forms in sophisticated texts. |
| “A clear idea of the nature of the utterance in general and of the peculiarities of the various types of utterances (primary and secondary), that is, of various speech genres, is necessary, we think, for research in any special area.” | Understanding the general nature of utterances and the specific characteristics of different speech genres is essential for specialized research. This insight is crucial for analyzing how language functions across different fields and contexts. |
| “After all, language enters life through concrete utterances (which manifest language) and life enters language through concrete utterances as well.” | Bakhtin highlights the reciprocal relationship between language and life, mediated by concrete utterances. Language shapes and is shaped by real-life interactions, illustrating the importance of studying specific instances of speech to understand this dynamic. |