Etymology Theory of Metaphor
The etymology of the Theory of Metaphor can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy, specifically to the Greek word “metaphora,” which means “transfer” or “carrying over.” The theoretical foundations of metaphor theory find their roots in the works of Aristotle, who delved into the concept of analogy and the use of one term to shed light on another.
Nomenclature and Origin of Theory of Metaphor
Nomenclature of the Theory of Metaphor:
- Metaphor: The central concept, derived from the Greek term “metaphora,” meaning “transfer” or “carrying over,” denotes the use of one term or concept to illuminate another by drawing a connection between them.
- Figurative Language: Encompasses various linguistic devices, including metaphors, similes, and analogies, used to convey abstract or complex ideas through comparison with more concrete or familiar elements.
Origin of the Theory of Metaphor:
- Ancient Greek Philosophy: The foundations of metaphor theory can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophers, notably Aristotle, who explored the concept of analogy and the use of figurative language to explain abstract notions.
- 20th-Century Development: Significant development in metaphor theory occurred in the 20th century, with the influential contributions of scholars like Max Black, I.A. Richards, and George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. These scholars expanded upon the understanding of metaphor, emphasizing its cognitive and conceptual significance.
- Metaphors We Live By: A pivotal work by Lakoff and Johnson, Metaphors We Live By, proposed that metaphors are not solely linguistic expressions but fundamental to human cognition. This perspective reshaped the study of metaphor within cognitive linguistics and highlighted its profound role in shaping human thought and communication.
Theory of Metaphor: Theorists, Works, and Arguments
Theorists:
- Aristotle: Ancient Greek philosopher who explored the concept of analogy and the use of figurative language in explaining abstract notions.
- Max Black: Influential scholar who made significant contributions to the understanding of metaphor, emphasizing its role in language and thought.
- I.A. Richards: Notable for his work on metaphor and its rhetorical and cognitive functions in communication.
- George Lakoff and Mark Johnson: Authors of Metaphors We Live By, who argued for the cognitive significance of metaphor and its fundamental role in human thought.
Works:
- Metaphors We Live By by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson: A seminal work that redefined the study of metaphor, emphasizing its cognitive and conceptual importance.
- Various works by Aristotle, including his writings on analogy and figurative language in philosophy.
Arguments:
- Aristotle’s argument that metaphor is a powerful tool for explaining complex ideas through analogy, bridging the gap between the known and the unknown.
- Max Black’s argument that metaphor is a fundamental aspect of language and thought, shaping our understanding of abstract concepts.
- I.A. Richards’ argument that metaphor plays a vital role in communication by evoking vivid imagery and emotional responses.
- Lakoff and Johnson’s argument that metaphors are not mere linguistic expressions but fundamental to human cognition, shaping our conceptual frameworks and worldviews.
Principles of Theory of Metaphor
| Principal | Explanation | Examples from Literature |
| Metaphorical Mapping | Metaphor involves mapping the characteristics of one domain (the source domain) onto another domain (the target domain) to highlight similarities and create meaning. This mapping helps express abstract or complex ideas in familiar terms. | In Shakespeare’s “All the world’s a stage,” the world (source domain) is mapped onto a stage (target domain), highlighting the similarity between life and a theatrical performance. |
| Embodiment | Metaphors often draw upon bodily experiences and sensory perceptions to convey abstract concepts. The embodied nature of metaphors links language and cognition to physical and emotional experiences. | In Langston Hughes’ “Dream Deferred,” the metaphor of a deferred dream evokes sensory experiences and emotional reactions to convey the idea of unfulfilled aspirations. |
| Conceptual Metaphor | Metaphors are not limited to linguistic expressions; they are fundamental to human thought and conceptualization. Conceptual metaphors structure our understanding of the world by highlighting certain aspects and suppressing others. | George Orwell’s “1984” uses the metaphor of “Big Brother” to conceptualize a totalitarian regime, emphasizing surveillance and control. |
| Universal and Culture-Specific Metaphors | While some metaphors are universal and cross-cultural, others are culture-specific and shaped by cultural norms, values, and experiences. Metaphors can vary in meaning and interpretation across different cultures. | The concept of “karma” is a culture-specific metaphor in Hinduism and Buddhism, representing the consequences of one’s actions, which may not have the same meaning in other cultures. |
| Metonymy and Metaphor | Metaphor and metonymy are closely related figures of speech. Metaphor involves substitution based on similarity, while metonymy involves substitution based on contiguity or association. Both contribute to the richness of figurative language. | In Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven,” the raven itself is a metaphorical symbol of death, while the mention of the “bust of Pallas” is metonymic, representing wisdom and knowledge. |
| Metaphor as Persuasion | Metaphor has persuasive power, influencing how people perceive and interpret information. It can shape attitudes, beliefs, and decision-making by framing issues in particular ways. | In Martin Luther King Jr.’s “I Have a Dream” speech, the metaphor of “sweltering with the heat of injustice” persuasively conveys the urgency of addressing civil rights issues. |
| Literary and Rhetorical Devices | Metaphor is a common literary and rhetorical device, enriching texts and speeches by providing layers of meaning, imagery, and emotional impact. | In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby,” the green light at the end of Daisy’s dock serves as a metaphor, symbolizing Gatsby’s unattainable dreams and desires. |
| Creativity and Innovation | Metaphor plays a creative role in language and thought, allowing for innovative expressions and novel interpretations. It fosters creativity in art, literature, and everyday communication. | In Salvador Dalí’s painting “The Persistence of Memory,” the melting clocks are metaphorical images that challenge conventional notions of time and reality. |
| Interplay with Other Figures of Speech | Metaphor often coexists with other figures of speech, such as simile, hyperbole, and irony, enhancing the depth and complexity of language and discourse. | In Emily Dickinson’s poem “Because I could not stop for Death,” the metaphor of Death as a courteous suitor is complemented by other figurative elements, such as personification. |
| Cognitive Linguistics Approach | The Theory of Metaphor is studied within the framework of cognitive linguistics, emphasizing the cognitive processes involved in metaphorical thinking and expression. | Cognitive linguists analyze how metaphors shape thought and language, revealing underlying conceptual structures. |
Suggested Readings
- Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, 2003.
- Ortony, Andrew. Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge University Press, 1993.
- Ricoeur, Paul. The Rule of Metaphor: The Creation of Meaning in Language. Routledge, 2003.
- Steen, Gerard J., et al. A Method for Linguistic Metaphor Identification: From MIP to MIPVU. John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2010.
- Turner, Mark. The Literary Mind: The Origins of Thought and Language. Oxford University Press, 1998.
- White, Hayden. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2014.
- Yu, Ning. The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor: A Perspective from Chinese. John Benjamins Publishing Company, 1998.