“Translation as Culture” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak: Summary and Critique

Introduction: “Translation as Culture” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

“Translation as Culture” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak first appeared in the 2000 issue of the journal Parallax. This piece has significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory, challenging traditional notions of translation as a mere transfer of meaning. Spivak argues that translation is a deeply cultural act, influenced by historical, political, and social contexts. Her essay has inspired critical discussions about power dynamics, representation, and the role of language in shaping cultural identities.

Summary of “Translation as Culture” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

1. Translation as an Incessant Shuttle: Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak explores the idea that translation is an ongoing, essential yet impossible process, likening it to a “shuttle” that moves back and forth, constantly coding experiences into sign-systems. This process is described as a natural mechanism that shapes the human mind from infancy, intertwining violence and conscience in the formation of the subject. Spivak writes, “From birth to death this ‘natural’ machine, programming the mind perhaps as genetic instructions program the body…is partly metapsychological and therefore outside the grasp of the mind.”
2. Translation as Catachresis: Spivak introduces the concept of catachresis in translation, where words are used in ways that stretch beyond their literal meanings. For example, she discusses how terms like “recognize” and “translation” lose their traditional sense and become metaphors for deeper, more complex processes. Spivak explains, “Translation in this general sense is not under the control of the subject who is translating…the production of the ethical subject.”
3. The Ethical Dimension of Translation: Translation is framed as an ethical task, where the translator assumes a responsibility not only to the original text but to the cultural context from which it emerges. This responsibility involves a “reparation” towards one’s mother tongue and the languages one translates into, acknowledging the guilt of treating one’s mother tongue as just one language among many. Spivak reflects, “This originary Schuldigsein…gives rise to a certain obligation for reparation.”
4. Violence of Cultural Translation: Spivak discusses the “violence” inherent in cultural translation, especially in the context of marginalized or colonized communities, such as the Australian Aboriginals. The loss of language and cultural identity is described as a loss of connection to their cultural base, leading to demands for mainstream education and the inclusion of their culture in the curriculum. She writes, “What the Aboriginals are asking for…is hegemonic access to chunks of narrative and descriptions of practice.”
5. Resistance and Cultural Hybridity: The article critiques the romanticization of cultural hybridity and the effortless resistance that is often claimed by those who engage in transcoding diasporic cultures. Spivak warns against the oversimplification of cultural conflicts and the erasure of the deeper historical wounds, arguing that true translation must acknowledge the complexity and violence of these processes. She notes, “The bad-faith hybridistic essentialism of discovering diasporic hybrids…cannot bind that wound of history.”
6. Translation as an Ethical Imperative: Spivak concludes by asserting that translation is not just a linguistic act but an ethical imperative that involves listening and responding to the other, recognizing the effort they have already made to communicate. This imperative goes beyond the literal translation of words to include the careful attention to the cultural and historical contexts that shape language. She emphasizes, “No speech is speech if it is not heard…the founding translation between people is a listening with care and patience.”
7. The Role of Dictionaries in Translation: In the context of primary education, particularly among the poorest, Spivak highlights the need for dictionaries that translate from idiom to standard language, arguing that such tools are essential for fostering democratic values and comprehension. She stresses the importance of practical resources for translation, writing, “A dictionary, translating from idiom to standard even as it resists the necessary impossibility of translation, travels everywhere.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Translation as Culture” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

Concept/Term	Definition in Spivak’s Context	Example in Text
Catachresis	A word used in a non-literal way, but no other word is suitable.	Spivak argues that “translation” loses its literal meaning when describing the infant’s development of subjectivity.
Idiom	A language or dialect specific expression.	Spivak contrasts idioms with semiotic systems, which are more generalizable.
Semiotic System	A system of signs and symbols used for communication.	Spivak uses semiotics to refer to the general rules of representation within a culture.
Subaltern	Someone with limited power or agency, often excluded from dominant narratives.	Spivak discusses the Aboriginal people of Australia as a subaltern group who have lost access to their cultural semiotics.
Transcoding	The act of converting information from one system to another, often with a loss of meaning.	Spivak argues that translation, particularly in the context of colonialism, often involves a loss of meaning for the subaltern culture.
Mnemonic Geography	A system of remembering places and their significance.	Spivak refers to the Aboriginal people’s “mnemonic geography” which is lost when their land is claimed as property.
Destined Errancy	The inevitable error or incompleteness in translation.	Spivak acknowledges that all translation involves a degree of “destined errancy” due to the differences between languages and cultures.
Subject in reparation	The ethical subject who is formed through a process of translation and responsibility.	Spivak argues that translation, even with its limitations, can contribute to the development of an ethical subject.

Contribution of “Translation as Culture” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak to Literary Theory/Theories

Theory	Contribution	Reference
Postcolonial Theory	Spivak’s essay challenges the notion of translation as a tool of cultural domination. She argues that translation can be a site of resistance and subaltern agency.	“Translation in the narrow sense is thus a reparation.”
Cultural Studies	Spivak’s concept of translation as a cultural act highlights the importance of considering cultural context in literary analysis. She argues that translation is not merely a linguistic process but also a cultural one.	“Translation is a deeply cultural act, influenced by historical, political, and social contexts.”
Deconstruction	Spivak’s essay aligns with deconstruction’s focus on the instability of language and meaning. She argues that translation reveals the inherent limitations and complexities of language.	“In every possible sense, translation is necessary but impossible.”
Feminist Theory	Spivak’s essay can be read as a feminist critique of translation, highlighting the gendered nature of language and power relations. She argues that translation can perpetuate or challenge gender stereotypes.	“The line between French and Bengali disappeared for this translator in the intimacy of the act of translation.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Translation as Culture” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

Literary Work and Author	Critique Through “Translation as Culture”	Key Points of Critique
Of Grammatology by Jacques Derrida	Spivak translated this seminal work, exploring how language and meaning are constructed and deconstructed. Through her translation, she engages with the complex relationship between language, meaning, and power, highlighting how translation is an act of ethical responsibility.	The translator’s role in maintaining the philosophical depth while making the text accessible. Translation as an ethical task.
Draupadi by Mahasweta Devi	Spivak translated this short story, illustrating the violence against women and marginalized communities in India. Her translation emphasizes the importance of preserving the cultural and socio-political context of the original work.	The necessity of maintaining the cultural and political nuances in translation to avoid erasing the subaltern voice.
Imaginary Maps by Mahasweta Devi	Spivak critiques the loss of cultural specificity in translation and the difficulty of translating the subaltern experience into a language that can be understood by a global audience.	Challenges of translating the experiences of marginalized communities without diluting their cultural context.
The Home and the World (Ghare Baire) by Rabindranath Tagore	Spivak critiques the English translation of Tagore’s novel, noting that it fails to capture the cultural and political subtleties of the original Bengali text. She highlights the inadequacy of translation in conveying the nuanced meanings of words and phrases that are deeply rooted in cultural contexts.	Importance of cultural context in translation; the inadequacy of translation in capturing all nuances of the original.

Criticism Against “Translation as Culture” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

1. Essentialism: Some critics argue that Spivak’s essay essentializes cultures, portraying them as monolithic entities with fixed characteristics.
2. Cultural Relativism: Critics have accused Spivak of promoting cultural relativism, which can undermine critical analysis and ethical considerations.
3. Western-Centric Perspective: Some argue that Spivak’s framework, while claiming to challenge Western dominance, is ultimately still rooted in a Western perspective.
4. Overemphasis on Power Dynamics: Critics suggest that Spivak places too much emphasis on power dynamics and neglects other aspects of translation, such as aesthetic considerations.
5. Idealization of Subaltern Cultures: Some argue that Spivak idealizes subaltern cultures, portraying them as inherently resistant to Western influence.
6. Limited Focus on Translation Practices: Critics suggest that Spivak’s essay focuses too much on the theoretical aspects of translation and neglects the practical aspects of translation practices.
7. Ambiguity and Complexity: Some critics find Spivak’s essay to be overly complex and ambiguous, making it difficult to understand and apply.
8. Lack of Practical Implications: Critics argue that Spivak’s essay fails to provide clear practical implications for translators or scholars.
9. Overreliance on Personal Anecdotes: Some critics suggest that Spivak’s essay relies too heavily on personal anecdotes and experiences, which may not be representative of all translation contexts.
10. Neglect of Translation as a Form of Art: Critics argue that Spivak’s essay neglects the aesthetic and artistic dimensions of translation.

Suggested Readings: “Translation as Culture” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak

1. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. The Post-Colonial Critic: Interviews, Strategies, Dialogues. Edited by Sarah Harasym, Routledge, 1990.
2. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Outside in the Teaching Machine. Routledge, 1993.
3. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “The Politics of Translation.” In Other Worlds: Essays in Cultural Politics, Methuen, 1987, pp. 179-200.
4. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Translation as Culture.” Parallax, vol. 6, no. 1, 2000, pp. 13-24.Niranjana, Tejaswini. Siting Translation: History, Post-Structuralism, and the Colonial Context. University of California Press, 1992.
5. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
6. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?” Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture, edited by Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg, University of Illinois Press, 1988, pp. 271-313.

Representative Quotations from “Translation as Culture” by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Translation is necessary but impossible.”	Spivak suggests that while translation is essential for communication across cultures and languages, it is inherently limited because it can never fully capture the nuances of the original text or context.
“The human subject is something that will have happened as this shuttling translation, from inside to outside.”	Here, Spivak views the human subject as being continuously formed through the process of translation, which shuttles between internal thoughts and external expressions, blending nature and culture in the making of ethical subjects.
“Translation is a reparation…a displacement of some primordial Schuldigsein.”	Translation is described as an act of reparation for the inherent guilt (“Schuldigsein”) in treating one’s mother tongue as just another language. This process reflects the deep ethical responsibility a translator feels towards the original.
“The idiom is singular to the tongue. It will not go over.”	Spivak emphasizes the uniqueness of linguistic idioms, which are deeply rooted in their specific cultural contexts, and notes the challenges in fully translating these idioms into another language.
“Every ‘original’ is a place-holder for the mother tongue.”	Spivak asserts that every text in a language carries the weight of the mother tongue, symbolizing the intimate connection between language, identity, and cultural heritage in the act of translation.
“Translation in the narrow sense is thus a reparation.”	This quotation highlights that translation, beyond its literal sense, is an attempt to repair the disconnect caused by the act of translating a language, addressing the translator’s sense of guilt for potentially losing cultural nuances.
“What the Aboriginals are asking for…is hegemonic access to chunks of narrative and descriptions of practice.”	Spivak discusses the loss of language and cultural identity among Aboriginals and their desire for mainstream education as a means to regain control over their cultural narratives and practices through translation.
“No speech is speech if it is not heard.”	This statement underlines the importance of reception in communication, suggesting that true translation involves not just the act of speaking, but also the act of listening and understanding the other.
“The founding translation between people is a listening with care and patience.”	Spivak emphasizes the ethical dimension of translation, arguing that it is not just about converting words, but about carefully listening and responding to the underlying cultural and emotional nuances.
“Translation flourishes by virtue of that paradox.”	Spivak reflects on the paradox that while translation seeks to bridge gaps between languages and cultures, it also highlights the inherent differences, thereby enriching the dialogue between the original and the translated text.