Introduction: “Varieties Of Ecofeminism” by Mary Mellor
“Varieties of Ecofeminism” by Mary Mellor first appeared in 1994 in the journal Capitalism Nature Socialism. This influential article examines the diverse schools within ecofeminism and critiques the intersection of environmental degradation, capitalism, and patriarchy, with a particular focus on the disproportionate effects on women, especially those in the Global South. Mellor explores varying ecofeminist perspectives, ranging from the grassroots activism emphasized by Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva to Val Plumwood’s more theoretical critique of dualisms inherent in Western thought. Her work is central to ecofeminist literature, highlighting the connections between feminist and ecological activism and emphasizing the cultural and material subjugation of both women and nature. Mellor’s article has become a cornerstone in literary theory, provoking further scholarly exploration of the socio-environmental implications of capitalist systems and inspiring more inclusive, intersectional approaches to feminism and environmentalism in critical theory.
Summary of “Varieties Of Ecofeminism” by Mary Mellor
- Diverse Frameworks within Ecofeminism: Mary Mellor’s Varieties of Ecofeminism explores multiple frameworks within ecofeminist theory, emphasizing the unique blend of environmental activism and feminist analysis. She reviews different perspectives, such as the grassroots activism of Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva and the theoretical lens of Val Plumwood, noting that all ecofeminist frameworks focus on resisting the “patterns of domination” that exploit both women and nature (Mellor, 1994, p. 125).
- Capitalism, Patriarchy, and Environmental Degradation: Mellor highlights the interlocking systems of capitalism and patriarchy that underpin environmental exploitation, arguing that these forces disproportionately impact women, particularly in the Global South. She references how Mies and Shiva critique the “commodification of needs” in capitalist systems, which, according to them, underlies “the unlimited growth of goods and money” (Mellor, 1994, p. 297). These observations underscore ecofeminism’s critical stance against capitalist practices that devalue both ecological and social systems.
- Material and Cultural Dimensions of Ecofeminist Thought: The article contrasts materialist approaches that focus on direct, grassroots activism with cultural critiques of Western philosophical traditions. For instance, Plumwood’s theoretical approach targets the “master form of rationality” in Western thought, which she argues privileges reason over nature, creating an artificial hierarchy that marginalizes the “sphere of materiality, subsistence and the feminine” (Mellor, 1994, p. 3). This cultural analysis highlights how ecofeminists critique dualistic thinking as central to environmental and gender oppression.
- Grassroots Empowerment and Praxis-Oriented Theory: Mellor emphasizes that ecofeminism prioritizes practical, community-driven activism as a pathway to environmental and social justice. She illustrates this with Shiva’s and Mies’ advocacy for “subsistence economies,” which promote sustainable, localized practices and resist the exploitative forces of global capitalism. According to Mellor, this “subsistence perspective” is vital in presenting an alternative to the commodification of nature and essential to ecofeminist theory and practice (Mellor, 1994, p. 8).
- Holistic Analysis and Intersectionality: Mellor describes ecofeminism as a holistic analysis that considers intersections between environmental, social, and economic issues. She quotes Mies and Shiva, who argue that ecofeminism reveals “the interconnections that lie behind policies and practices,” such as the impact of patriarchal and capitalist ideologies on gender relations, labor division, and environmental exploitation (Mellor, 1994, p. 293). This multidimensional approach allows ecofeminism to tackle a broad range of issues that affect women and the environment.
- Critique of Western and Global Power Dynamics: Finally, Mellor’s analysis notes ecofeminism’s critical stance toward both Western industrial systems and indigenous patriarchal practices. While recognizing the destructive effects of Western exploitation on non-Western communities, Mellor also cautions against ignoring indigenous “destructive and dominating forces” such as patriarchy within local communities (Mellor, 1994, p. 119). This critical balance calls for an acknowledgment of both external and internal factors contributing to environmental and social injustices.
Literary Terms/Concepts in “Varieties Of Ecofeminism” by Mary Mellor
| Literary Term/Concept | Definition | Usage in “Varieties of Ecofeminism” |
| Ecofeminism | A movement and theoretical framework connecting ecological concerns with feminist perspectives, advocating for both environmental and social justice. | Mellor explores ecofeminism as a response to interconnected systems of oppression—capitalism and patriarchy—emphasizing grassroots activism and critique of Western practices. |
| Dualism | A division or contrast between two opposing concepts or entities, often used in philosophy to describe hierarchies like mind/body or male/female. | Val Plumwood criticizes Western thought for its dualistic thinking, which places “reason” over “nature,” creating hierarchical power structures that degrade both women and nature. |
| Subsistence Perspective | A view emphasizing sustainable, self-sufficient economic systems that meet basic needs without overexploitation, often contrasting with capitalist models. | Mies and Shiva advocate for a subsistence economy as a practical alternative to capitalist systems, highlighting its role in preserving both biodiversity and local cultures. |
| Materialism | A philosophical approach that emphasizes material conditions (such as economic and environmental factors) as fundamental to understanding social reality. | Mellor contrasts materialist ecofeminism, which centers on economic and environmental conditions affecting women, with cultural critiques focused on Western ideology. |
| Patriarchy | A social system where men hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and social privilege. | Ecofeminism critiques patriarchy as a root cause of environmental and gender-based oppression, arguing that it exploits both women and nature under capitalist systems. |
| Commodification | The process of turning something (such as labor, nature, or human relationships) into a commodity with market value, often leading to exploitation. | Mellor references Mies and Shiva’s critique of “commodification of needs,” describing how capitalist systems reduce environmental and social needs to economic transactions. |
| Grassroots Activism | Social and political action initiated and organized by community members at the local level, often outside of formal institutions. | Grassroots activism, emphasized by Mies and Shiva, is seen as a core strategy within ecofeminism to challenge systemic injustices from the ground up, particularly in the Global South. |
| Colonization | The process of dominating and exploiting a people, territory, or resources, historically associated with European empires and expansion. | Mellor discusses colonization’s legacy in ecofeminism, highlighting how Western systems of control continue to exploit non-Western people and environments. |
| Intersectionality | A framework for understanding how aspects of a person’s social and political identities combine to create unique modes of discrimination and privilege. | Mellor’s analysis incorporates intersectionality, noting how ecofeminism addresses overlapping systems of oppression, including gender, race, class, and environmental exploitation. |
| Essentialism | The belief in an inherent essence or set of characteristics within a group, often critiqued for oversimplifying identities. | Mies and Shiva refute accusations of essentialism, emphasizing that women’s environmental activism stems from material conditions, not inherent characteristics. |
| Postmodern Critique | A perspective that questions universal truths and structures, advocating for diverse, localized knowledge rather than singular narratives. | Mellor contrasts postmodernism with ecofeminism, critiquing its tendency to fragment social movements, while ecofeminists emphasize interconnected struggles and grassroots unity. |
Contribution of “Varieties Of Ecofeminism” by Mary Mellor to Literary Theory/Theories
- Intersectional Feminist Theory
Mellor expands feminist theory by integrating an ecofeminist lens, arguing that both gender and environmental injustices stem from the same systems of oppression. She references Mies and Shiva’s assertion that ecofeminism unveils “the interconnections…behind policies and practices” influenced by capitalist and patriarchal ideologies (Mellor, 1994, p. 293). - Critical Theory and Capitalism Critique
Mellor’s work enriches critical theory by providing a critique of capitalism’s exploitative nature, particularly in its treatment of nature and marginalized communities. Her analysis aligns with the ecofeminist critique of “commodification of needs,” describing capitalism’s transformation of environmental and social essentials into marketable goods (Mellor, 1994, p. 297). - Dualism in Cultural Theory
Addressing dualisms central to Western thought, Mellor draws from Val Plumwood’s critique of the “master form of rationality,” which places reason above nature. This dualistic framework reinforces power hierarchies and marginalizes “the sphere of materiality, subsistence and the feminine,” influencing literary and cultural theories by challenging Western philosophical constructs (Mellor, 1994, p. 3). - Postcolonial Theory
Mellor’s ecofeminist perspective extends to postcolonial theory by highlighting how Western systems colonize both non-Western people and environments. This critical perspective offers a framework for understanding the global impacts of “patterns of domination that exploit women, nature, and the peoples of the South” (Mellor, 1994, p. 125). - Ecocriticism and Environmental Literary Theory
Mellor’s emphasis on the interconnectedness of gender and ecological issues contributes to ecocriticism, a literary theory focusing on nature’s representation and the human-nature relationship in literature. She foregrounds ecofeminist principles in environmental literary theory, urging a critique of Western narratives that privilege domination over nature. - Marxist and Socialist Feminist Theory
Mellor’s ecofeminism integrates Marxist and socialist feminist theories by emphasizing material conditions as central to environmental and social oppression. She notes that subsistence economies form “the material base of commodified economies,” foregrounding how unpaid and undervalued labor in subsistence work underpins capitalist systems (Mellor, 1994, p. 297).
Examples of Critiques Through “Varieties Of Ecofeminism” by Mary Mellor
| Literary Work & Author | Ecofeminist Critique through Mellor’s Lens | Reference to Mellor’s Ideas |
| Frankenstein by Mary Shelley | Examines human attempts to dominate nature and life, aligning with Mellor’s critique of “mastery” over nature as a patriarchal act that disrupts ecological and social balance. | Mellor draws on Val Plumwood’s idea of Western “rationality” that views nature as a domain to be mastered, critiquing the alienation of nature. |
| The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck | Analyzes economic exploitation and environmental degradation impacting rural communities, paralleling Mellor’s critique of capitalism’s environmental and social toll. | Mellor’s ecofeminism critiques capitalism’s “commodification of needs” and its impact on marginalized communities and natural resources. |
| The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood | Views gender and reproductive control as a metaphor for ecofeminist critiques of patriarchal domination, where women’s bodies and nature are subjugated for profit and control. | Mellor highlights how ecofeminism exposes connections between environmental exploitation and the control over women’s bodies and labor. |
| Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe | Critiques colonial exploitation and cultural erosion, which Mellor’s ecofeminism would see as a consequence of Western patriarchy and capitalism impacting indigenous systems. | Mellor’s postcolonial ecofeminist view reveals how Western colonization degrades local communities and environments, especially in the Global South. |
Criticism Against “Varieties Of Ecofeminism” by Mary Mellor
- Potential Essentialism
Critics argue that Mellor’s ecofeminism, though nuanced, occasionally veers towards essentialist views by associating women’s roles too closely with nature, potentially reinforcing gender stereotypes rather than challenging them. - Overemphasis on Material Conditions
Mellor’s materialist approach, focusing on economic and environmental conditions, is critiqued for possibly overlooking the cultural and ideological complexities in gender and ecological issues, thus simplifying broader social dynamics. - Limited Applicability to Western Feminism
Some argue that Mellor’s emphasis on issues in the Global South may narrow the relevance of her ecofeminist framework within Western contexts, where environmental issues and gender roles manifest differently. - Tension with Postmodern Theories
Mellor’s critique of postmodernism for fragmenting social movements and her preference for holistic frameworks have been viewed as dismissive of the value that postmodern perspectives bring to feminist and ecological debates. - Insufficient Analysis of Class Dynamics
While addressing patriarchy and capitalism, Mellor’s ecofeminist framework has been critiqued for not fully integrating class analysis, potentially limiting its effectiveness in addressing intersectional issues that impact marginalized communities.
Representative Quotations from “Varieties Of Ecofeminism” by Mary Mellor with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “Ecofeminism reveals the interconnections that lie behind policies and practices.” | Mellor highlights ecofeminism’s role in connecting environmental, gender, and social issues, showing how policies often reflect capitalist and patriarchal ideologies that affect both women and nature. |
| “The commodification of needs underpins capitalist patriarchy’s model of unlimited growth of goods and money.” | This quote critiques capitalism’s reduction of essential needs to mere economic transactions, which Mellor argues reinforces both environmental degradation and gender exploitation. |
| “Western rationality views nature as a domain to be mastered, privileging reason over nature.” | Mellor references Val Plumwood’s critique of Western dualistic thinking, which positions nature as inferior, reinforcing power structures that harm both the environment and women. |
| “Women as guardians of biodiversity challenge the destructive tendencies of modern industrial practices.” | This statement underscores the ecofeminist view that women’s traditional roles in biodiversity and subsistence practices offer an alternative to industrial and exploitative practices damaging ecosystems. |
| “The ecofeminist perspective must not ignore the indigenous patriarchal practices that also exploit women and nature.” | Mellor warns against viewing only Western practices as destructive, advocating for a balanced critique that includes local practices contributing to environmental and social injustices. |
| “The subsistence perspective offers a model that opposes the commodification of life.” | Mellor references Mies and Shiva’s “subsistence perspective,” a sustainable approach that ecofeminism promotes as an alternative to capitalism’s exploitative tendencies. |
| “The denial of dependence on nature is at the core of Western patriarchal rationality.” | This quote critiques Western ideologies that ignore humanity’s reliance on natural systems, arguing that this denial fuels environmental harm and social injustices. |
| “There is a need to reject the master’s story of conquest and control.” | Mellor calls for an ecofeminist narrative that challenges Western traditions of domination and control, promoting stories that emphasize care, interdependence, and ecological harmony. |
| “While intellectuals focus on theory, international capital continues to exploit natural resources and commodify cultures.” | This critique of theory-centric approaches calls for practical action, emphasizing that abstract theorizing may overlook urgent environmental and social issues exacerbated by capitalist expansion. |
| “The grassroots struggle must empower local people, especially women, to resist environmental degradation.” | Mellor advocates for grassroots activism as a core ecofeminist principle, asserting that empowering local communities is essential for effective resistance against oppressive systems harming both women and the environment. |
Suggested Readings: “Varieties Of Ecofeminism” by Mary Mellor
- Carlassare, Elizabeth. “Socialist and Cultural Ecofeminism: Allies in Resistance.” Ethics and the Environment, vol. 5, no. 1, 2000, pp. 89–106. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27766057. Accessed 26 Oct. 2024.
- Thompson, Charis. “Back to Nature?: Resurrecting Ecofeminism after Poststructuralist and Third‐Wave Feminisms.” Isis, vol. 97, no. 3, 2006, pp. 505–12. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.1086/508080. Accessed 26 Oct. 2024.
- Krech, Shepard, et al., editors. “E.” Encyclopedia of World Environmental History: Volume 1: Acid Rain to Extinction, 1st ed., Berkshire, 2004, pp. 355–516. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1jd94s5.13. Accessed 26 Oct. 2024.
- Gaard, Greta. “Ecofeminist Roots.” Ecological Politics, Temple University Press, 1998, pp. 11–52. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt14bs866.5. Accessed 26 Oct. 2024.