Day: November 22, 2023

Hierarchies: Etymology and Concept

Hierarchies: Etymology

The term “hierarchy” has its roots in ancient Greek, combining the elements “hieros,” meaning sacred or divine, and “arkho,” meaning to rule or lead. The word initially denoted the order of celestial beings and divine entities. Over time, it evolved to encompass structured systems of authority or organization, reflecting a tiered arrangement with specific levels of power or importance. The etymology underscores the historical association of hierarchies with divine or sacred orders, contributing to its contemporary usage in various contexts.

Concepts of Hierarchies	Description
Organizational Structure	Layered authority in organizations, higher levels have more decision-making power.
Social Hierarchies	Stratification in society based on factors like wealth or social class, impacting access to resources.
Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)	Psychological pyramid outlining human needs from survival to self-actualization.
Taxonomic Hierarchy	Biological classification organizes living organisms into categories (kingdom, phylum, etc.).
Digital Hierarchy (Networking)	Structured data transmission rates in computer networks, ensuring efficient communication.
Language Hierarchy	Linguistic structures organize units (phonemes, morphemes) reflecting a hierarchical relationship.
Power Hierarchy	Distribution of influence or authority in a group or system, with varying power levels among entities.
Economic Hierarchy	Distribution of wealth and resources in society, influencing economic opportunities and social mobility.

Hierarchies: Meanings

Meanings of Hierarchies	Description
Literal Meaning:	Refers to a system or structure in which elements are ranked or organized based on levels of authority, importance, or classification.
Social Context:	Describes the stratification of individuals within a social group or society, often based on factors such as wealth, power, or social status.
Biological Classification:	In taxonomy, it represents the systematic arrangement of living organisms into hierarchical categories, from broader classifications to specific ones.
Organizational Structure:	Pertains to the arrangement of authority and responsibilities within an organization, where individuals or positions are organized in a hierarchical order.
Digital Networking:	In computer networks, it signifies the structured organization of data transmission rates, ensuring efficient and organized communication.
Psychological Framework (Maslow):	Based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, it outlines a pyramid of human needs, from basic survival needs at the base to higher-level needs like self-actualization.

Hierarchies: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Hierarchies, within theoretical frameworks, represent structured systems or arrangements where elements are organized or ranked based on levels of authority, significance, or categorization. The concept involves the delineation of hierarchical orders within diverse domains, ranging from organizational structures and social contexts to biological classifications and information systems. In theoretical terms, hierarchies serve as analytical models to understand the distribution of power, resources, and influence, offering insights into the structured relationships and dynamics inherent in complex systems.

Hierarchies: Types

In the realm of literary studies and theory, hierarchies take on various forms, reflecting the structures and relationships within literary works. Here are several types of hierarchies in the context of literary studies:

1. Narrative Hierarchy:
   • The organization of events and information within a narrative, including the prominence of characters and the sequencing of plot elements.
2. Character Hierarchy:
   • The delineation of importance and influence among characters within a story, often based on their roles, development, or narrative centrality.
3. Genre Hierarchy:
   • The classification and ranking of literary works based on their genre, such as fiction, poetry, drama, or subgenres like science fiction or mystery.
4. Authorial Hierarchy:
   • The status and influence of authors within the literary canon, reflecting the perceived significance of their works in the broader literary tradition.
5. Critical Hierarchy:
   • The evaluation and ranking of literary works by scholars and critics, influencing their reception and academic significance.
6. Structural Hierarchy:
   • The organization of elements within a text, including the hierarchy of themes, motifs, and symbols that contribute to its overall structure and meaning.
7. Intertextual Hierarchy:
   • The relationships between texts, where certain works or authors may be considered more influential or foundational within a literary tradition.
8. Language Hierarchy:
   • The exploration of linguistic elements in literature, considering the hierarchical use of language, rhetoric, and stylistic devices.
9. Cultural Hierarchy:
   • The examination of power dynamics and cultural influences within literary works, including how certain perspectives or voices may be privileged or marginalized.
10. Periodization Hierarchy:
    • The classification of literature into periods or movements, reflecting shifts in style, theme, and ideology across different historical epochs.

These types of hierarchies in literary studies illustrate the nuanced ways in which structures and relationships are analyzed within the realm of literature and literary theory.

Hierarchies: Theorists, Works and Argument

1. Michel Foucault:
   • Works: Foucault’s “Discipline and Punish” explores the concept of hierarchical structures in institutions and the exercise of power through disciplinary mechanisms.
   • Argument: Foucault argues that hierarchies play a crucial role in shaping societal norms and power dynamics, influencing the regulation and control of individuals within institutions.
2. Max Weber:
   • Works: Weber’s “Economy and Society” delves into the theory of social stratification and the organizational hierarchy of authority within bureaucratic systems.
   • Argument: Weber’s argument emphasizes the rationalization of authority structures, highlighting the role of bureaucracy and the formalization of hierarchies in modern societies.
3. Abraham Maslow:
   • Works: Maslow’s “A Theory of Human Motivation” introduces the hierarchy of needs, outlining a pyramid of human motivations ranging from basic physiological needs to self-actualization.
   • Argument: Maslow argues that individuals are motivated by a hierarchical progression of needs, and higher-level needs become prominent only after lower-level needs are satisfied.
4. Herbert Simon:
   • Works: Simon’s “Administrative Behavior” discusses administrative hierarchies and decision-making processes within organizations.
   • Argument: Simon’s argument focuses on the bounded rationality of decision-makers within hierarchical structures, exploring how individuals make choices within constraints.
5. Noam Chomsky:
   • Works: Chomsky’s linguistic theories, including “Syntactic Structures,” contribute to understanding the hierarchical organization of language.
   • Argument: Chomsky’s argument revolves around the innate human capacity for language acquisition and the hierarchical structure of grammatical rules underlying linguistic competence.
6. Karl Marx:
   • Works: Marx’s “Capital” examines economic hierarchies and class struggles within capitalist societies.
   • Argument: Marx argues that hierarchical class structures are inherent in capitalist systems, with the bourgeoisie and proletariat engaged in a perpetual struggle for control over means of production.

These theorists and their works collectively contribute to the understanding of hierarchies in diverse contexts, offering insights into their structural, social, psychological, and linguistic dimensions.

Hierarchies: Major Characteristics

Characteristic	Explanation	Example in Literature/Theory
Structural Framework	In literature and theory, hierarchies provide a structural framework that organizes elements, characters, or concepts in a tiered or ranked order.	In George Orwell’s “Animal Farm,” the hierarchical structure on the farm symbolizes the social and political order in a satirical allegory.
Power Dynamics	A prevalent characteristic is the portrayal of power dynamics within hierarchical structures, where certain individuals or entities hold authority over others.	Shakespeare’s “Macbeth” illustrates the tragic consequences of power dynamics within the hierarchy of royalty, showcasing ambition and corruption.
Social Stratification	Hierarchies often depict social stratification, reflecting the unequal distribution of resources, status, or opportunities among characters or groups.	Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” explores the social hierarchy of the 19th century, emphasizing class distinctions and their impact on relationships.
Symbolism of Authority	The hierarchical arrangement serves as a symbolic representation of authority, showcasing the dominance or subordination of characters in relation to each other.	Franz Kafka’s “The Trial” employs a surreal hierarchy within a legal system, symbolizing the arbitrary and oppressive nature of authority.
Conflict and Struggle	The presence of hierarchies frequently leads to conflicts and struggles, as characters contend with the established order or vie for higher positions within the hierarchy.	Suzanne Collins’ “The Hunger Games” portrays a dystopian society where characters engage in a deadly competition, highlighting the struggle within a hierarchical regime.
Narrative Tension	Hierarchies contribute to narrative tension, creating a dynamic interplay between characters positioned at different levels and fostering suspense and intrigue.	J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter” series builds tension through the hierarchical struggles within Hogwarts School, adding layers to the overarching narrative.
Social Commentary	In literary theory, hierarchies are often used to offer social commentary, exploring the implications of power imbalances, social inequalities, and institutional structures.	Aldous Huxley’s “Brave New World” critiques a dystopian society’s hierarchical control, examining the dehumanizing effects of a rigid social structure.
Representation of Systems	Hierarchies serve as a representation of various systems, including societal structures, organizational frameworks, and even psychological or emotional landscapes.	William Golding’s “Lord of the Flies” symbolizes the breakdown of societal order as a group of boys stranded on an island establishes and struggles within their own hierarchy.
Reflection of Realities	In both literature and theory, hierarchies are employed to reflect and critique real-world structures, shedding light on societal norms, power relations, and inherent inequalities.	Toni Morrison’s “Beloved” explores the legacy of slavery and its impact on individuals, reflecting the hierarchical structures and systemic injustices of the historical period.
Evolution and Transformation	Hierarchies may undergo evolution or transformation throughout a narrative, mirroring the changing dynamics within a society or the personal growth of characters.	Ursula K. Le Guin’s “The Dispossessed” explores the evolution of social hierarchies on two planets, challenging traditional power structures and envisioning alternative social models.

Hierarchies: Relevance in Literary Theories

1. Structuralism:
   • Relevance: Structuralism emphasizes the underlying structures that shape literary works. Hierarchies play a crucial role in defining relationships between elements, such as characters, symbols, and themes, contributing to the overall structural framework of a narrative.
2. Marxist Criticism:
   • Relevance: In Marxist literary theory, hierarchies are central to the analysis of class structures and power relations within a society. Literary works are examined for how they reflect or challenge hierarchical systems, shedding light on issues of social inequality and economic disparities.
3. Feminist Criticism:
   • Relevance: Feminist literary theories often focus on challenging gender hierarchies and patriarchal norms present in literature. Hierarchies within characters, relationships, and societal roles are scrutinized to unveil and critique gender-based power imbalances.
4. Postcolonialism:
   • Relevance: Postcolonial literary theories explore the impact of colonial histories and power structures on literature. Hierarchies, both cultural and political, are examined to understand how they influence narratives, representation, and the voices of marginalized communities.
5. Psychoanalytic Criticism:
   • Relevance: Psychoanalytic theories, particularly those of Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan, delve into the hierarchical structures of the psyche. Literary works are analyzed for the representation of subconscious elements, and hierarchies within the mind are explored to understand characters’ motivations and conflicts.
6. New Historicism:
   • Relevance: New Historicism considers the cultural and historical contexts that shape literary texts. Hierarchies within historical periods, social structures, and power dynamics are examined to reveal how they influence and are reflected in literary works.
7. Queer Theory:
   • Relevance: Queer theory challenges normative hierarchies related to sexuality and gender. Literary works are analyzed for how they subvert or reinforce these hierarchies, and the exploration of non-normative identities and relationships is a key aspect of queer literary criticism.
8. Reader-Response Theory:
   • Relevance: Reader-response theories focus on the interaction between readers and texts. Hierarchies in readerly engagement, such as the prioritization of certain interpretations or perspectives, are considered in understanding how readers construct meaning within a literary work.
9. Deconstruction:
   • Relevance: Deconstruction challenges fixed hierarchies and binary oppositions present in language and thought. Literary texts are deconstructed to reveal the instability of hierarchical structures, showcasing the fluidity and multiplicity of meanings within the narrative.
10. Cultural Studies:
    • Relevance: Cultural studies examine literature within broader cultural contexts. Hierarchies in cultural values, beliefs, and societal norms are explored to understand how literary works both reflect and shape cultural attitudes and power structures.

Hierarchies: Application in Critiques

1. Brave New World by Aldous Huxley:
   • Critique: In “Brave New World,” Huxley portrays a dystopian society where hierarchical control is maintained through technological and social conditioning. The critique could focus on how the rigid caste system, where individuals are genetically engineered for specific roles, serves as a commentary on the dehumanizing effects of an overly structured and controlled society.
2. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
   • Critique: Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby” explores hierarchical structures within the Jazz Age, particularly in terms of social class. A critique might examine how the novel depicts the illusion of the American Dream and critiques the social hierarchy by illustrating the superficiality and moral decay inherent in the pursuit of wealth and status.
3. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez:
   • Critique: Marquez’s novel is rich with themes of power, family, and societal change. A critique could explore how the cyclical nature of the Buendía family’s history reflects the recurring establishment and collapse of hierarchies, both within the family and the fictional town of Macondo. The novel may be seen as a commentary on the fragility of power structures.
4. The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood:
   • Critique: In Atwood’s dystopian narrative, hierarchical structures are starkly evident within the theocratic regime of Gilead. A critique might delve into how the novel critiques patriarchal hierarchies, exploring themes of gender oppression and the consequences of absolute authority. The story serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked hierarchical power.

These critiques could involve discussions on how each author employs hierarchies to convey broader societal messages, commentaries on power dynamics, and reflections on the human condition. Each work provides a unique lens through which hierarchies can be analyzed and critiqued in the context of their respective narratives and themes.

Hierarchies: Relevant Terms

1. Authority: Power to give orders and enforce obedience.
2. Subordination: Placement in a lower position within a hierarchy.
3. Power Dynamics: Interactions involving the distribution and exercise of power.
4. Social Stratification: Categorization based on wealth, status, or power, creating hierarchical divisions.
5. Caste System: Social hierarchy with predetermined roles based on birth.
6. Bureaucracy: Organizational structure with a hierarchy of authority and standardized procedures.
7. Class Structure: Hierarchical organization of society based on economic and social factors.
8. Meritocracy: System where positions are determined by abilities and achievements.
9. Oligarchy: Power structure where a small group holds significant influence.
10. Upward Mobility: Ability to move to higher positions within a hierarchy.

Hierarchies: Suggested Readings

1. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Vintage Books, 1995.
2. Orwell, George. Animal Farm. Signet Classic, 1996.
3. Austen, Jane. Pride and Prejudice. Penguin Classics, 2003.
4. Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. Anchor Books, 1998.
5. Marquez, Gabriel Garcia. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Harper Perennial, 2006.
6. Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World. Harper Perennial Modern Classics, 2006.
7. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. Scribner, 2004.
8. Golding, William. Lord of the Flies. Penguin Books, 2006.
9. Le Guin, Ursula K. The Dispossessed. Harper Voyager, 2019.
10. Collins, Suzanne. The Hunger Games. Scholastic Press, 2010.

More on Theoretical Terms below:

• Alter Ego in Literature & Literary Theory
• Circular Structure in Literature & Literary Theory
• Cultural Repertoire in Literature & Literary Theory
• Duality in Literature & Literary Theory
• Epistemological Uncertainty in Literature & Theory

Hegemonic Norms: Etymology and Concept

The term “hegemonic norms” is a fusion of two key concepts deeply rooted in sociology and political theory. “Hegemonic” traces its etymological origins to the Greek word “hegemon,” signifying a leader or ruler.

In sociopolitical contexts, particularly influenced by the ideas of Antonio Gramsci, hegemony refers to the dominance or control exerted by a ruling class over societal institutions and ideologies. “Norms” originates from the Latin word “norma,” denoting a standard or rule.

Together, “hegemonic norms” encapsulate the prevailing and often unspoken societal standards, values, and ideologies perpetuated by those in power, shaping accepted practices and behaviors within a given social structure. This term is frequently employed in critical discourse to scrutinize the subtle yet influential mechanisms through which dominant groups establish and maintain their authority over prevailing cultural, political, and social paradigms.

Concept

• Etymology:
  • Fusion of “hegemonic” (Greek, meaning leader or ruler) and “norms” (Latin, denoting a standard or rule).
• Hegemony:
  • Dominance or control exerted by a ruling class over societal institutions and ideologies.
• Norms:
  • Standards and rules governing accepted practices and behaviors within a social structure.
• Synthesis:
  • Combination of hegemony and norms, representing prevailing societal standards perpetuated by those in power.
• Critical Discourse:
  • Commonly used in critical discourse to analyze how dominant groups establish and maintain authority over cultural, political, and social paradigms.

Hegemonic Norms: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Hegemonic norms, in theoretical terms, refer to the prevailing societal standards, values, and ideologies perpetuated by dominant groups within a given social structure. This concept encompasses the implicit rules and expectations that shape accepted practices and behaviors, often reflecting the influence of those in power. The theoretical framework of hegemonic norms is crucial for analyzing how dominant groups establish and maintain authority over cultural, political, and social paradigms.

Hegemonic Norms: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorists:

1. Antonio Gramsci (1891–1937):
   • Gramsci, an Italian Marxist philosopher, introduced the concept of cultural hegemony, emphasizing the role of dominant groups in shaping societal norms and ideologies.
2. Louis Althusser (1918–1990):
   • Althusser expanded on Gramsci’s ideas, highlighting the ideological state apparatuses through which hegemonic norms are transmitted and maintained in society.
3. Pierre Bourdieu (1930–2002):
   • Bourdieu’s work on cultural capital and habitus contributes to the understanding of how hegemonic norms are internalized and reproduced within different social groups.

Notable Works:

1. Antonio Gramsci – Prison Notebooks (1929–1935):
   • Gramsci’s influential work explores the concept of cultural hegemony and the ways in which ruling classes maintain control through ideological means.
2. Louis Althusser – Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (1970):
   • Althusser’s essay delves into the mechanisms through which hegemonic norms are disseminated and maintained, focusing on ideological apparatuses.
3. Pierre Bourdieu – Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste (1979):
   • Bourdieu’s book examines the concept of cultural capital and how individuals’ tastes and preferences are shaped by hegemonic norms, contributing to social distinctions.

Major Arguments:

• Pervasive Influence of Dominant Groups:
  • Hegemonic norms, according to Gramsci, Althusser, and Bourdieu, highlight the widespread impact of dominant groups in shaping societal values and behaviors.
• Non-Coercive Enforcement:
  • The argument asserts that these norms are not solely enforced through coercion but are deeply embedded in cultural, educational, and social institutions.
• Subtle and Ongoing Perpetuation:
  • Hegemonic norms perpetuate subtly and continuously, molding individuals’ perceptions and behaviors to align with the interests of those in power.
• Shaping Individuals’ Perspectives:
  • The theoretical framework emphasizes how hegemonic norms shape individuals’ perspectives, contributing to a collective acceptance of societal standards dictated by dominant groups.
• Need for Understanding and Challenge:
  • Recognizing and challenging hegemonic norms are deemed essential for fostering social change, dismantling systemic inequalities, and promoting inclusivity and equity.

Hegemonic Norms: Key Characteristics

Characteristic	Explanation
Dominant Group Influence	They are characterized by the influential role played by dominant social groups in shaping and dictating societal values and behaviors.
Cultural, Educational, and Social Embedding	These norms are deeply embedded in various aspects of society, including cultural practices, educational systems, and social institutions.
Non-Coercive Enforcement	Unlike overt coercion, the enforcement of hegemonic norms is often subtle, operating through cultural mechanisms and societal structures.
Subtle and Continuous Perpetuation	Hegemonic norms persist subtly and continuously, influencing individuals’ perceptions and behaviors over time.
Alignment with Power Interests	The perpetuation of these norms aligns with the interests of those in power, reinforcing existing social structures and hierarchies.
Shaping Collective Perspectives	These norms contribute to shaping collective perspectives, fostering a shared acceptance of societal standards dictated by dominant groups.
Need for Recognition and Challenge	Recognizing and challenging these norms is essential for promoting social change, dismantling systemic inequalities, and advancing inclusivity and equity.

Hegemonic Norms: Relevance in Literary Theories

• Representation and Power Dynamics:
  • In literary theories that focus on representation and power dynamics, the examination of these norms explores how characters and narratives reinforce or challenge societal power structures. It scrutinizes how literature reflects and perpetuates dominant ideologies through its portrayals.
• Cultural Hegemony in Texts:
  • The relevance of these norms in cultural hegemony within literary theories highlights how literature contributes to the dissemination of cultural norms. It probes into the ways in which dominant ideologies are conveyed and normalized through the narrative structure and thematic elements.
• Subversion and Resistance:
  • Literary theories emphasizing subversion and resistance find relevance in the exploration of how literature serves as a space for challenging these norms. It investigates how authors employ narrative strategies to subvert or resist established societal expectations and norms.
• Character Agency and Normative Expectations:
  • In theories that delve into character agency and normative expectations, the examination of these norms in literature sheds light on how characters navigate and respond to societal expectations. This analysis provides insights into the negotiation of normative frameworks within fictional worlds.
• Language and Ideological Constructs:
  • The relevance of hegemonic norms in theories focusing on language and ideology centers on the linguistic choices in literature. It scrutinizes how language constructs and perpetuates these norms, offering an understanding of the role of language in reinforcing power dynamics.
• Intersections with Gender, Race, and Class:
  • Literary theories examining intersections with gender, race, and class find relevance in the analysis of these norms. This exploration uncovers how power structures manifest in various social contexts within literature, emphasizing the intersectionality of dominant ideologies.
• Reader Response and Ideological Impact:
  • In theories centered on reader response and ideological impact, the study of hegemonic norms in literature investigates how readers interpret and internalize societal norms through literary texts. It considers the impact of literature on shaping cultural perceptions and values.
• Authorial Intent and Ideological Critique:
  • The relevance of hegemonic norms in theories focused on authorial intent and ideological critique explores how authors either reinforce or critique prevailing norms. It analyzes literature as a medium for reflecting and commenting on societal ideologies, providing insights into authors’ intentions and ideological engagement

Hegemonic Norms: Application in Critiques

1. Half of a Yellow Sun by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie (Nigeria):
   • Post-Colonial Hegemonic Legacy: Adichie’s novel critically examines the post-colonial hegemonic norms in Nigeria, particularly the impact of the Biafran War. It delves into how historical events shape societal expectations, identity, and power structures.
2. Weep Not, Child by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (Kenya):
   • Colonial Hegemonic Control: Thiong’o’s novel critiques the hegemonic norms imposed by colonialism in Kenya. It explores how these norms perpetuate cultural erasure, displacement, and the suppression of indigenous identities, emphasizing the lasting effects of colonial hegemony.
3. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe (Nigeria):
   • Cultural Hegemony in Pre-Colonial Nigeria: Achebe’s classic critiques the cultural hegemonic norms in pre-colonial Nigeria disrupted by colonial forces. It analyzes the clash between traditional norms and colonial imposition, highlighting the societal transformations and power struggles.
4. Petals of Blood by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o (Kenya):
   • Post-Independence Hegemonic Struggles: Thiong’o’s novel critiques post-independence hegemonic struggles in Kenya. It examines how political and economic structures perpetuate inequalities, reflecting on the complexities of nation-building and power dynamics.

In these critiques, the novels from Nigeria and Kenya offer profound insights into the historical and contemporary challenges posed by hegemonic norms. The analysis considers how these norms influence characters’ lives, societal expectations, and the broader socio-political landscape, providing a nuanced exploration of cultural, colonial, and post-independence experiences.

Hegemonic Norms: Relevant Terms

Relevant Terms in Hegemonic Norms

1. Cultural Hegemony: Dominance of specific cultural norms.

2. Ideological State Apparatuses: Institutions reinforcing hegemonic ideologies.

3. Power Structures: Hierarchical arrangements aligned with norms.

4. Subaltern Voices: Marginalized perspectives challenging norms.

5. Internalized Oppression: Acceptance of hegemonic norms within marginalized groups.

6. Counter-Hegemony: Movements resisting dominant norms.

7. Intersectionality: Interconnected impact of social categorizations.

8. Neocolonialism: Indirect perpetuation of colonial power dynamics.

9. Cultural Capital: Symbolic resources contributing to social status.

10. Discursive Practices: Language shaping and disseminating hegemonic ideologies.

Hegemonic Norms: Suggested Readings

1. Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited and translated by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, International Publishers, 1971.
2. Althusser, Louis. “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.” Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 1971, pp. 127-186.
3. Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste. Translated by Richard Nice, Harvard University Press, 1984.
4. Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. Half of a Yellow Sun. Knopf, 2006.
5. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. Weep Not, Child. Heinemann, 1964.
6. Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Anchor Books, 1994.
7. Orwell, George. 1984. Signet Classic, 1950.
8. Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. Anchor Books, 1998.
9. Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. Purple Hibiscus. Algonquin Books, 2003.
10. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. Petals of Blood. Heinemann, 1977.