A narrative arc encompasses key elements such as exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution, providing a framework for the unfolding of events.
A narrative arc, in literary theory, refers to the overarching structure that guides the development of a story. It encompasses key elements such as exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution, providing a framework for the unfolding of events. This theoretical term is instrumental in understanding how narratives achieve coherence and progression, shaping the reader’s or audience’s engagement with the storyline.
Narrative Arc: Meanings and Concept
Meanings:
Meaning/Concept
Description
Narrative Arc
The overarching structure or trajectory of a story, encompassing its beginning, middle, and end.
Exposition
The introduction of essential background information, including characters, setting, and context.
Climax
The turning point of the story, often the most intense moment where the conflict reaches its peak.
Resolution/Denouement
The conclusion of the narrative, where loose ends are tied up, and the story reaches its final state.
The central struggle or problem that drives the narrative and creates tension.
Concepts:
Meaning/Concept
Description
Rising Action
The series of events that build tension and develop the central conflict of the narrative.
Falling Action
The events that follow the climax, resolving the central conflict and leading toward the resolution.
Character Development
The evolution of characters’ traits, motivations, and relationships throughout the narrative.
Foreshadowing
Hints or clues provided early in the narrative that anticipate future events or developments.
Closure
The sense of completeness or finality that the narrative arc provides to the reader or audience.
Narrative Arc: Theorists, Works and Argument
Theorists:
Aristotle: In his seminal work “Poetics,” Aristotle laid the foundation for narrative theory, emphasizing the importance of a well-structured plot with a beginning, middle, and end.
Gérard Genette: A prominent figure in narrative theory, Genette’s “Narrative Discourse” introduced concepts like order and frequency, contributing to the analysis of narrative structures.
Joseph Campbell: Known for his monomyth theory, Campbell argued in “The Hero with a Thousand Faces” that many myths and stories share a fundamental structure, commonly known as the hero’s journey.
Key Works:
“Poetics” by Aristotle: Aristotle’s exploration of dramatic structure remains a cornerstone in narrative theory, influencing discussions on plot development and unity.
“Narrative Discourse” by Gérard Genette: Genette’s work provides a nuanced examination of narrative structures, introducing terms like analepsis and prolepsis to analyze temporal aspects of storytelling.
“The Hero with a Thousand Faces” by Joseph Campbell: Campbell’s influential work outlines the hero’s journey, a narrative template that transcends cultural boundaries and has become a pervasive concept in storytelling.
Central Arguments:
Structural Unity: Theorists argue for the necessity of a well-defined narrative structure, asserting that a coherent plot is essential for effective storytelling.
Temporal Complexity: Discussions around narrative arc often delve into the manipulation of time, with theorists emphasizing the significance of flashbacks, foreshadowing, and other temporal devices in enriching narratives.
Universal Patterns: Campbell’s argument revolves around the universality of the hero’s journey, suggesting that certain narrative patterns are deeply ingrained in human culture and psychology, transcending cultural and temporal boundaries.
Hints or clues about future events subtly woven into the narrative.
In Macbeth, the witches’ prophecies foreshadow Macbeth’s descent into tyranny and his eventual downfall.
Closure
Providing a sense of completeness or finality to the narrative.
In The Giver, the protagonist Jonas’ escape from the controlled society brings closure to the story’s exploration of conformity and individuality.
Narrative Arc: Relevance in Literary Theories
Structuralism: The narrative arc is foundational to structuralist literary theory, providing a framework for understanding the interrelated elements and patterns within a narrative.
Feminist Literary Theory: In examining the narrative arc, feminists explore how traditional story structures may reinforce or challenge gender norms, highlighting the role of women characters and their development.
Postcolonial Literary Theory: The narrative arc is relevant in postcolonial studies as it helps analyze the depiction of cultural and historical trajectories in narratives, shedding light on power dynamics and identity.
Reader-Response Literary Theory: The narrative arc is crucial in understanding how readers engage with texts over time, shaping their interpretations and emotional responses.
Deconstructionist Literary Theory: Deconstructionists may interrogate the linear nature of the narrative arc, questioning its ability to encapsulate the complexities and ambiguities inherent in language and storytelling.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory: Psychoanalytic approaches may utilize the narrative arc to explore the development of characters and the resolution of conflicts, aligning with Freudian concepts of progression and resolution.
Marxist Literary Theory: Marxist theorists examine how the narrative arc reflects or challenges social structures, class dynamics, and power relations, contributing to the critique of societal norms.
Cultural Studies: Narrative arcs are central to cultural studies, providing insight into how stories shape and reflect cultural values, ideologies, and societal changes.
Narratology: As a subfield of literary theory, narratology extensively studies narrative structures, including the narrative arc, to analyze the ways in which stories are constructed and perceived.
Critical Race Theory: In exploring issues of race and ethnicity in literature, critical race theorists consider how the narrative arc portrays the experiences and struggles of marginalized communities, contributing to discussions on representation and identity.
The narrative arc’s relevance extends across various literary theories, offering a versatile tool for the analysis of storytelling, character development, and societal themes in literature.
Narrative Arc: Application in Critiques
Critique of To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee:
Application of Narrative Arc: The narrative arc in To Kill a Mockingbird can be critiqued for its exploration of racial injustice in the American South. The exposition introduces the setting and characters, the rising action builds tension around Tom Robinson’s trial, the climax reveals the injustice, and the resolution grapples with the aftermath. A critique may examine how this arc effectively engages with social issues.
Critique of One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez:
Application of Narrative Arc: In this magical realist novel, the narrative arc spans generations and explores the cyclical nature of history. A critique could focus on how the exposition introduces the Buendía family and Macondo, the rising action weaves intricate plotlines, the climax unfolds pivotal events, and the resolution reflects on the family’s legacy. The critique may discuss the effectiveness of this unique narrative structure.
Critique of 1984 by George Orwell:
Application of Narrative Arc: Orwell’s dystopian narrative arc is crucial to the critique of totalitarianism. The exposition introduces the oppressive society, the rising action builds tension as Winston rebels, the climax reveals the extent of control, and the resolution explores the consequences. A critique might analyze how this arc effectively serves Orwell’s political and social commentary.
Critique of The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
Application of Narrative Arc: The narrative arc in The Great Gatsby is essential to the critique of the American Dream. The exposition introduces the characters and the Jazz Age, the rising action builds anticipation around Gatsby’s wealth, the climax reveals the tragic consequences, and the resolution reflects on the hollowness of the dream. A critique may explore how the narrative arc contributes to Fitzgerald’s commentary on societal values.
Narrative Arc: Relevant Terms
Term
Definition
Narrative Arc
Overarching story structure, typically including exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
Ontological inquiry, within academic discourse, centrally focuses on the systematic examination and exploration of the nature of existence and reality.
Ontological Inquiry: Concept
Ontological inquiry, within academic discourse, centrally focuses on the systematic examination and exploration of the nature of existence and reality. Scholars engaged in ontological inquiry seek to understand the fundamental categories of being, questioning the nature of entities, their properties, and the relationships that govern their existence. This philosophical pursuit delves into the very essence of what exists, exploring concepts such as identity, causation, and the nature of reality itself.
Ontological inquiries often involve nuanced discussions about the nature of objects, events, and the underlying principles that shape our understanding of the world. By grappling with these foundational questions, ontological inquiry contributes to a deeper comprehension of the metaphysical structures that underlie our perceptions and interpretations of the universe.
Ontological Inquiry: Meanings
Aspect
Meaning
Systematic Examination
Delving into a structured and methodical exploration of the nature of existence and reality.
Fundamental Categories
Understanding and questioning the essential categories of being, including the nature of entities and their properties.
Exploration of Concepts
Probing into abstract notions such as identity, causation, and the overarching nature of reality.
Nuanced Discussions
Engaging in detailed and subtle conversations about the nature of objects, events, and the underlying principles shaping our worldview.
Deeper Comprehension
Contributing to a profound understanding of metaphysical structures that form the basis of our perceptions and interpretations of the universe.
Ontological Inquiry: Process
Define the Research Question:
Clearly articulate the specific aspects of existence and reality you aim to explore through ontological inquiry.
Literature Review:
Conduct a comprehensive review of existing literature in ontology to understand prior research, key concepts, and established theories.
Select Methodology:
Choose an appropriate methodology for your ontological inquiry, considering whether qualitative, quantitative, or a mixed-methods approach aligns with your research question.
Data Collection:
Implement the chosen methodology to gather relevant data. This may involve interviews, surveys, analysis of texts, or other methods depending on the nature of your inquiry.
Analysis of Data:
Systematically analyze the collected data, identifying patterns, themes, and connections related to the ontological aspects under investigation.
Interpretation:
Interpret the findings in the context of existing ontological theories and philosophical frameworks. Consider the implications of your results for our understanding of existence.
Synthesis of Insights:
Synthesize the insights gained from your research, creating a cohesive narrative that contributes to the broader ontological discourse.
Peer Review and Feedback:
Seek feedback from peers, mentors, or experts in the field to refine your ontological inquiry. Incorporate constructive criticism to enhance the robustness of your study.
Revision and Refinement:
Revise your ontological inquiry based on feedback, ensuring clarity, coherence, and alignment with academic standards.
Conclusion and Contribution:
Summarize your findings, reiterate the significance of your contribution to ontological understanding, and propose potential avenues for future research.
Ontological Inquiry: Theorists, Works, and Arguments
Martin Heidegger:
Key Work:“Being and Time” (1927)
Main Argument: Heidegger explores the concept of “Dasein,” or being-in-the-world, and delves into the nature of existence, time, and authenticity.
Jean-Paul Sartre:
Key Work:“Being and Nothingness” (1943)
Main Argument: Sartre is all about existentialism. He argues that existence precedes essence, emphasizing individual freedom and responsibility.
René Descartes:
Key Work: “Meditations on First Philosophy” (1641)
Main Argument: Descartes is famous for “Cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”). He’s a foundational figure in Western philosophy, exploring the relationship between mind and body.
Immanuel Kant:
Key Work:“Critique of Pure Reason” (1781)
Main Argument: Kant’s transcendental idealism investigates how we perceive and understand the world, suggesting that our experience is shaped by both the mind and external reality.
Parmenides:
Key Work:Fragments (circa 5th century BCE)
Main Argument: Parmenides challenged the idea of change and argued for the unity and permanence of being. His work laid the groundwork for metaphysical inquiries.
Gilbert Ryle:
Key Work:“The Concept of Mind” (1949)
Main Argument: Ryle critiques the mind-body dualism and introduces the idea of “category mistakes,” arguing against a Cartesian separation of mind and body.
Alfred North Whitehead:
Key Work:“Process and Reality” (1929)
Main Argument: Whitehead introduces process philosophy, suggesting that reality is a continuous process of becoming rather than fixed entities.
These are just a few key players in the vast landscape of ontological inquiry. Each has left a significant mark on the field, contributing unique perspectives and ideas about the nature of existence. Any particular area you’re interested in exploring further?
Connection: Phenomenology, which explores conscious experience, finds its way into literature by examining the ways characters perceive and experience their worlds. Think of it as the study of “lived experience” in literary narratives.
Connection: Existentialist themes often permeate literature, questioning the meaning of life, freedom, and choice. Works like Sartre’s “No Exit” or Camus’ “The Stranger” are classic examples where existentialist ideas take center stage.
Connection: Postmodern literature often challenges traditional notions of reality and truth. Authors like Jorge Luis Borges or Italo Calvino play with the boundaries of fiction and reality, creating narratives that question the very nature of existence.
Connection: New Materialism, which focuses on the agency of non-human entities, seeps into literature by exploring the relationships between characters and the material world. It challenges anthropocentrism and traditional human-centered narratives.
Connection: Narrative identity theories, influenced by poststructuralism, suggest that our sense of self is constructed through stories. This ties into ontological questions about the nature of identity and how it is shaped by narrative.
Connection: Metafiction, where a work acknowledges its own fictional nature, can be seen as an ontological exploration. It blurs the lines between reality and fiction, inviting readers to question the nature of the narrative they are engaging with.
Connection: Magical realism, popularized by authors like Gabriel García Márquez, introduces magical elements into realistic settings. This creates a sense of ontological ambiguity, challenging readers to reconsider the boundaries between the mundane and the fantastical.
Ontological Inquiry: Application in Critiques
Theory
Ontological Inquiry
Character Existence and Authenticity
Consider the authenticity of characters’ existence. How well-developed are they as individuals, and to what extent do they grapple with their own being? Do they undergo existential crises, questioning their purpose or identity?
Narrative Reality and Ontological Uncertainty
Explore how the novel constructs its own reality. Does the narrative play with the boundaries between reality and fiction? Look for instances of ontological uncertainty, where the nature of existence within the story becomes a central theme.
Temporal Constructs and Time in Novels
Ontological inquiry often involves a deep dive into the nature of time. How does the novel handle time? Does it follow a linear structure, or does it experiment with non-linear time, reflecting the fluidity of existence?
If the novel employs metafictional elements, analyze how it blurs the lines between reality and illusion. How does the self-awareness of the narrative impact the reader’s perception of the story’s ontological status?
Focus on the ontological struggles of the protagonists. Do they face existential dilemmas or grapple with the meaning of their own existence? How does their journey contribute to the overall ontological exploration of the novel?
Consider the world-building in the novel. How does the author depict the materiality of the fictional world? Are there elements of new materialism at play, where non-human entities shape the characters’ experiences?
Narrative Identity and Character Construction
Explore how narrative identity is constructed in the novel. Do characters actively participate in shaping their own identities through storytelling? How does the narrative structure contribute to the ontological understanding of the characters?
If the novel incorporates magical realism, analyze how it introduces ontological ambiguity. How do the magical elements challenge the characters’ understanding of reality, and how does this impact the overall narrative?
Ontological Inquiry: Relevant Terms
Dasein: Originating from Heidegger’s philosophy, Dasein refers to the unique mode of being of human existence, emphasizing its experiential and existential aspects.
Existentialism: A philosophical movement that explores the individual’s existence, emphasizing freedom, choice, and the subjective experience of reality.
Phenomenology: A philosophical approach that focuses on the study of consciousness and the structures of experience, aiming to describe phenomena as they appear to consciousness.
Essence: In ontology, essence refers to the fundamental nature or inherent characteristics that define the identity of a being or thing.
Cogito, ergo sum: Latin for “I think, therefore I am,” a foundational philosophical statement by René Descartes, highlighting the certainty of self-awareness as proof of one’s existence.
Transcendental Idealism: A concept from Kantian philosophy, suggesting that our perception of reality is shaped by both the mind’s structures and external phenomena.
Process Philosophy: A philosophical perspective, as advocated by Alfred North Whitehead, that views reality as an ongoing process of becoming rather than static entities.
Category Mistake: Coined by Gilbert Ryle, this term refers to a mistake in logic where one uses a concept inappropriately, often by assigning a category to something that doesn’t belong to it.
Narrative Identity: The idea that personal identity is constructed through storytelling, where individuals shape their sense of self through the narratives they create about their lives.
Magical Realism: A literary and artistic genre that blends realistic settings with magical or fantastical elements, challenging the boundaries between the ordinary and the extraordinary.
Ontological Inquiry: Suggested Readings
Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time.Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson, Harper & Row, 1962.
Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness. Translated by Hazel E. Barnes, Washington Square Press, 1992.
Narrative ambiguity, as a theoretical term in literary analysis, refers to a deliberate strategy employed by authors to introduce uncertainty or multiple, often conflicting, interpretations within a narrative.
Narrative Ambiguity: Meanings and Concept
Narrative Ambiguity:
Literal Meaning: Narrative ambiguity refers to a storytelling technique where the author deliberately introduces uncertainty or multiple possible interpretations into the plot, characters, or events within a narrative. This literal meaning involves intentionally crafting elements that can be understood in more than one way, leaving the audience with open-ended questions about the story.
Other Meanings: Beyond its literal definition, narrative ambiguity serves as a powerful tool in literature and film. It allows authors to engage readers or viewers in active interpretation, encouraging them to analyze and discuss the work.
Ambiguity can be employed to evoke a sense of mystery, challenge conventional storytelling norms, or explore complex themes that resist clear resolution. It often prompts audiences to grapple with uncertainties, fostering a deeper engagement with the narrative as they seek to discern the intended meaning or embrace the multiplicity of interpretations.
Concept of Narrative Ambiguity:
As a Storytelling Technique
As an Engaging Device
Exploring Complex Themes
Deliberate introduction of uncertainty
Encourages active interpretation
Resistance to clear resolution
Multiple possible interpretations
Fosters audience engagement
Evoking a sense of mystery
Crafting open-ended questions
Challenges conventional norms
Promoting deeper analysis
Narrative Ambiguity: Definition of a Theoretical Term
Narrative ambiguity, as a theoretical term in literary analysis, refers to a deliberate strategy employed by authors to introduce uncertainty or multiple, often conflicting, interpretations within a narrative. This intentional creation of indeterminate elements invites readers or viewers to actively engage with the text, prompting them to grapple with uncertainties and contribute their own interpretations.
Narrative ambiguity serves as a nuanced storytelling device, challenging traditional notions of clear resolution and fostering a richer, more dynamic interaction between the work and its audience.
Narrative Ambiguity: Theorists, Works and Argument
Theorists:
Roland Barthes:
Works: Barthes, in his essay The Death of the Author, challenges the idea of a definitive interpretation and argues for the importance of the reader’s active engagement in creating meaning.
Jacques Derrida:
Works: Derrida, particularly in Of Grammatology and Writing and Difference, introduces the concept of deconstruction, emphasizing the inherent ambiguity in language and texts.
Wolfgang Iser:
Works: Iser’s The Act of Reading explores the role of the reader in completing the meaning of a text, highlighting the interpretive gaps and uncertainties intentionally left by the author.
Key Works:
Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot:
Argument: Beckett’s play is a prime example of narrative ambiguity, as the open-ended nature of the characters’ waiting and the elusive Godot allows for diverse interpretations, reflecting existential uncertainties.
Haruki Murakami’s Kafka on the Shore:
Argument: Murakami employs narrative ambiguity in this novel by intertwining surreal and realistic elements, challenging readers to navigate a narrative where boundaries between reality and fantasy blur.
Ambrose Bierce’s An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge:
Argument: Bierce’s short story exemplifies narrative ambiguity through its unexpected twist, leaving readers questioning the reality of the protagonist’s experiences and challenging preconceived notions of time and perception.
Central Arguments:
Deconstruction of Meaning:
Argument: Theorists like Derrida argue that language and texts are inherently ambiguous, resisting fixed meanings. Deconstruction involves unraveling binary oppositions and revealing the instability in the signification process.
Reader’s Role in Meaning-Making:
Argument: Iser emphasizes the active role of the reader in completing the meaning of a text. Narrative ambiguity is intentionally crafted by authors to invite readers to participate in the construction of meaning, fostering a collaborative interpretive process.
Argument: Barthes challenges the authority of the author’s intended meaning, suggesting that once a work is released, the reader becomes an active participant in assigning significance, contributing to the plurality of interpretations and embracing narrative ambiguity.
Narrative Ambiguity: Major Characteristics
Characteristics
Explanation
Examples from Literature
Open-Ended Plotlines
Lack of clear resolutions invites contemplation of potential outcomes.
In Kazuo Ishiguro’s Never Let Me Go, the fate of characters and ethical implications remain open-ended.
Multifaceted Characters
Characters defy simple categorization, prompting interpretation of their complexities.
Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment challenges readers with the morally ambiguous Raskolnikov.
Uncertain Motivations
Intentional obscuring of characters’ motivations adds depth and mystery.
Henry James’s The Turn of the Screw leaves the governess’s motivations and supernatural events ambiguous.
Conflicting Perspectives
Ambiguity arises from conflicting accounts, leaving readers uncertain about the objective truth.
Gillian Flynn’s Gone Girl uses alternating perspectives to challenge readers’ understanding of a marriage.
Symbolic and Metaphorical Elements
Symbolism with multiple meanings allows for diverse and subjective readings.
Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s One Hundred Years of Solitude employs magical realism, blurring reality and fantasy.
Relevance: Ambiguity engages readers, making them active participants in constructing meaning. Different interpretations arise based on individual responses to the narrative gaps.
Relevance: Narrative ambiguity challenges the notion of a fixed, objective truth, aligning with postmodern skepticism towards grand narratives and inviting multiple, equally valid interpretations.
Relevance: Ambiguity allows for exploration of the unconscious and the complexity of human psychology, providing a canvas for symbolic and enigmatic elements.
Relevance: Ambiguity can be employed to challenge traditional gender roles and expectations, allowing for diverse and open-ended depictions of characters and relationships.
Relevance: Ambiguity can be explored in relation to class dynamics, power structures, and societal uncertainties, reflecting the complexities of social and economic systems.
Relevance: Ambiguity challenges the notion of a stable structure, disrupting binary oppositions and highlighting the instability in narrative meaning, aligning with structuralist deconstruction.
Relevance: Ambiguity in narratives can be a tool for challenging colonial perspectives, allowing for the exploration of diverse cultural interpretations and resistance to hegemonic narratives.
Relevance: Ambiguity in character relationships and identities can be central to queer narratives, providing space for fluid and non-normative expressions of gender and sexuality.
Ecocritical Literary Theory:
Relevance: Ambiguity can be explored concerning human-nature relationships, reflecting the complex and often ambiguous interactions between human and non-human entities.
Relevance: Ambiguity aligns with existentialist themes of uncertainty, choice, and the absence of absolute meaning, offering narratives that reflect the existential condition.
Narrative Ambiguity: Application in Critiques
Novel
Author
Application of Narrative Ambiguity in Critique
Never Let Me Go
Kazuo Ishiguro
Ishiguro employs narrative ambiguity to explore the ethical implications of human cloning, leaving the fate of the characters open-ended and prompting readers to reflect on the broader societal issues raised by the narrative.
The Road
Cormac McCarthy
McCarthy utilizes narrative ambiguity to convey the bleak and desolate post-apocalyptic world. Uncertainty about the cause of the catastrophe and the characters’ future enhances the novel’s atmospheric intensity, allowing readers to engage with the existential themes of survival and hope amid uncertainty.
In the Lake of the Woods
Tim O’Brien
O’Brien employs narrative ambiguity to explore the psychological complexities of memory and truth. The mysterious disappearance of a character and the unreliable nature of the narrator create a narrative puzzle, prompting readers to question the nature of reality and the subjective nature of storytelling.
Blindness
José Saramago
Saramago uses narrative ambiguity to depict the breakdown of society in the face of a sudden epidemic of blindness. The lack of clear explanations and the open-ended conclusion invite readers to interpret the novel’s allegorical elements, engaging with themes of human nature, societal collapse, and resilience in the face of uncertainty.
In these novels, narrative ambiguity serves as a central literary device, contributing to the thematic richness and complexity of each work. The intentional uncertainties in plotlines, characters, and motivations prompt readers to actively engage with the narratives, fostering a deeper exploration of the novels’ underlying themes and implications.
Narrative Ambiguity: Relevant Terms
Ambiguous Ending: Unresolved conclusion inviting diverse interpretations.
Narcissism, as a theoretical term in psychology, encompasses a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, an exaggerated sense of self-importance, and a preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, or beauty.
Narcissism: Etymology and Concept
Etymology: The term “narcissism” finds its roots in Greek mythology, specifically in the story of Narcissus, a beautiful youth who fell in love with his own reflection in a pool of water. The name “Narcissus” is derived from the Greek word “narke,” meaning numbness or stupor, reflecting the self-absorbed and self-admiring nature associated with narcissistic traits.
Concept of Narcissism:
Narcissistic Traits
Description
Grandiosity
Exaggerated sense of self-importance and a preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love.
Need for Admiration
Constant craving for excessive admiration and affirmation, often disregarding the feelings and needs of others.
Lack of Empathy
Difficulty or inability to recognize and understand the feelings of others, leading to a lack of empathy in interpersonal relationships.
Sense of Entitlement
Unreasonable expectations of favorable treatment and a belief that one is deserving of special privileges.
Exploitative Behavior
Willingness to exploit others for personal gain, coupled with a disregard for ethical standards and boundaries.
Envy and Arrogance
Strong feelings of envy toward others and a tendency to display arrogant attitudes and behaviors.
Fragile Self-Esteem
Paradoxically, beneath the façade of confidence, individuals with narcissistic traits often harbor a fragile self-esteem that is easily threatened.
Impaired Relationships
Difficulty maintaining healthy and mutually satisfying relationships due to a focus on self-gratification and a lack of genuine connection with others.
Narcissism: Meanings
Literal Meaning: Narcissism, in its literal sense, refers to a personality disorder characterized by an excessive interest in or admiration of oneself. The term is derived from the Greek myth of Narcissus, a youth who fell in love with his own reflection, representing self-love and vanity.
Common Meanings:
Excessive Self-Love: A common meaning of narcissism is an exaggerated love or admiration for oneself, often at the expense of recognizing and valuing others.
Vanity: It is associated with excessive pride and preoccupation with one’s appearance, achievements, or qualities.
Egocentrism: Narcissism can manifest as a heightened focus on one’s own needs, desires, and concerns, often leading to a lack of consideration for others.
Lack of Empathy: Individuals displaying narcissistic traits may struggle to empathize with the emotions and experiences of others.
Entitlement: Narcissism often involves a sense of entitlement, where individuals believe they deserve special treatment and privileges.
Manipulative Behavior: People with narcissistic tendencies may engage in manipulative behavior to achieve their goals and maintain a positive self-image.
Impact on Relationships: Narcissism can negatively impact interpersonal relationships due to a focus on self-interest and difficulties in forming genuine connections with others.
Narcissism: Definition of a Theoretical Term
Narcissism, as a theoretical term in psychology, encompasses a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, an exaggerated sense of self-importance, and a preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, or beauty. Individuals with narcissistic traits often display a notable lack of empathy, an insatiable need for admiration, and a tendency to exploit others for personal gain. This theoretical construct serves as a framework for understanding and diagnosing a cluster of maladaptive behaviors that impact both individual functioning and interpersonal relationships.
Narcissism: Theorists, Works and Argument
Theorists:
Sigmund Freud:
Contributions: Freud introduced the concept of narcissism in his seminal work On Narcissism: An Introduction (1914). He distinguished between primary narcissism, a normal developmental stage, and secondary narcissism, associated with pathological self-love.
Heinz Kohut:
Contributions: Kohut expanded on Freud’s ideas and developed the concept of narcissistic personality disorder. In his work The Analysis of the Self (1971), Kohut emphasized the role of narcissism in the formation of the self and its impact on psychopathology.
Otto Kernberg:
Contributions: Kernberg contributed to the psychoanalytic understanding of narcissism by integrating object relations theory. In Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism (1975), he explored the connection between narcissism and borderline personality disorders.
Key Works:
On Narcissism: An Introduction (1914) by Sigmund Freud:
Argument: Freud’s essay delves into the dual nature of narcissism, distinguishing between normal developmental narcissism and pathological manifestations. He explores the role of narcissism in the formation of the self and its implications for mental health.
The Analysis of the Self (1971) by Heinz Kohut:
Argument: Kohut’s work focuses on the significance of narcissism in the development of the self. He introduces the concept of narcissistic needs and describes how disruptions in the mirroring and idealizing functions during childhood can contribute to narcissistic pathology.
Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism (1975) by Otto Kernberg:
Argument: Kernberg’s book examines the relationship between narcissism and borderline conditions. He discusses the integration of narcissistic and borderline personality disorders, emphasizing the impact of early object relations on the development of pathological narcissistic traits.
Central Arguments:
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Perspective:
Argument: Freud posits that narcissism is an inherent part of human development, with a normal phase occurring in infancy. He argues that disruptions in the progression beyond this phase can lead to pathological narcissism, contributing to various psychological disorders.
Kohut’s Self-Psychology:
Argument: Kohut challenges traditional psychoanalytic views by placing a greater emphasis on the role of narcissism in the formation of the self. He argues that healthy narcissism is essential for the development of a cohesive and stable self-structure, and disruptions in this process contribute to narcissistic personality disorders.
Kernberg’s Object Relations Theory:
Argument: Kernberg integrates object relations theory into the understanding of narcissism, emphasizing the impact of early relationships on the development of pathological narcissistic traits. He argues that narcissistic pathology is closely linked to disturbances in object relations and self-identity.
Narcissism: Major Characteristics
Characteristics of Narcissism
Explanation
Examples from Literature
Grandiosity
Exaggerated sense of self-importance and superiority. Individuals with grandiosity often engage in conspicuous displays of wealth or status.
In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, Jay Gatsby’s lavish parties and illusions of opulence exemplify grandiosity in his pursuit of Daisy Buchanan’s love.
Need for Admiration
Insatiable desire for excessive praise, attention, and validation from others.
Shakespeare’s Othello portrays the manipulative Iago, driven by a deep need for admiration and willing to destroy those around him to fulfill his ego.
Lack of Empathy
Difficulty or inability to understand and share the feelings of others. Narcissists may engage in callous or cruel behavior without remorse.
Bret Easton Ellis’s American Psycho depicts Patrick Bateman’s lack of empathy as he commits violent acts without emotional connection to his victims.
Sense of Entitlement
Belief in the inherent right to special privileges and favorable treatment.
Heathcliff in Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights exhibits a strong sense of entitlement in his obsessive pursuit of Catherine Earnshaw’s love and vengeful actions.
Exploitative Behavior
Willingness to exploit others for personal gain, often without regard for ethical standards or the well-being of others.
Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray showcases Dorian’s exploitative behavior as he manipulates and harms those around him to maintain his youthful appearance.
Envy and Arrogance
Strong feelings of envy toward others coupled with an arrogant attitude.
John Milton’s Paradise Lost portrays Satan’s narcissistic traits, including envy of God’s power and an arrogant rebellion that leads to his fall from grace.
Fragile Self-Esteem
Paradoxically, beneath a façade of confidence, individuals with narcissistic traits may harbor a fragile self-esteem susceptible to criticism and rejection.
Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar explores Esther Greenwood’s fragile self-esteem as she grapples with societal expectations, leading to mental distress.
Impaired Relationships
Difficulty forming and maintaining healthy relationships due to a focus on self-gratification and a lack of genuine connection with others.
In Tennessee Williams’s A Streetcar Named Desire, Stanley Kowalski’s narcissistic tendencies contribute to the breakdown of his relationship with Blanche DuBois.
Relevance: Narcissism is a key concept in psychoanalytic literary theory, as it explores characters’ motivations and behaviors based on Freudian principles. Texts are analyzed for unconscious desires, conflicts, and the manifestation of narcissistic traits in character development.
Relevance: In postcolonial literary theory, narcissism is examined in the context of cultural imperialism and the colonizer’s self-centered perspective. Works are scrutinized for representations of colonial powers’ narcissistic attitudes, exploitation, and disregard for indigenous cultures.
Relevance: Narcissism is relevant in feminist literary theory when examining gender dynamics and power structures. Texts are analyzed for depictions of male characters’ narcissistic behaviors, exploring how such traits contribute to the oppression and objectification of female characters.
Relevance: Within Marxist literary theory, narcissism can be examined concerning class dynamics and socioeconomic structures. Texts are scrutinized for depictions of characters’ self-interest, exploitation, and the perpetuation of inequality, reflecting broader societal issues.
Relevance: In reader-response literary theory, narcissism is explored in the context of reader engagement with characters. Readers may identify with or react to characters exhibiting narcissistic traits, influencing their interpretation of the narrative and their emotional responses.
Relevance: Narcissism plays a role in postmodern literary theory by examining the self-reflexivity and metafictional elements in texts. Authors may incorporate narcissistic characters or themes, challenging traditional narrative structures and engaging readers in a critical reflection on the nature of storytelling.
Relevance: Narcissism is relevant in queer literary theory as it explores the construction of identity and desire. Texts are analyzed for representations of narcissistic tendencies in characters, examining how these traits intersect with LGBTQ+ experiences and contribute to narrative complexity.
Ecocritical Literary Theory:
Relevance: In ecocritical literary theory, narcissism is considered concerning human-nature relationships. Texts are examined for depictions of anthropocentrism and ecological narcissism, exploring how human characters’ self-centered attitudes contribute to environmental degradation and disconnection from nature.
Narcissism: Application in Critiques
Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations
Critique: In Dickens’s Great Expectations, the character of Miss Havisham exhibits narcissistic tendencies, frozen in time and consumed by her own thwarted desires. Through Miss Havisham, Dickens explores the destructive nature of unchecked pride and the impact of ego on personal relationships in Victorian society.
Emily Brontë’s Wuthering Heights
Critique: Brontë’s Wuthering Heights is a tale steeped in narcissism, particularly embodied by Heathcliff. His obsessive pursuit of revenge and the destruction of those around him reflects the darker aspects of Victorian egoism. The novel serves as a Gothic exploration of the consequences of unrestrained self-importance.
Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray
Critique: Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray is a poignant exploration of narcissism through its titular character. Dorian Gray’s relentless pursuit of pleasure and the preservation of his own image at any cost serves as a satirical critique of Victorian society’s preoccupation with appearances and the consequences of unchecked vanity.
George Eliot’s Middlemarch
Critique: Eliot’s Middlemarch delves into the complexities of Victorian social expectations, where characters like Rosamond Vincy embody narcissistic traits. Rosamond’s focus on societal status and her own desires highlights the tensions between individual aspirations and societal norms, providing a nuanced critique of Victorian egoism.
In these revised critiques, the novel titles are presented without quotes, adhering to the standard formatting conventions.
Narcissism: Relevant Terms
Egoism: Excessive self-interest, often at others’ expense. Solipsism: Belief that only one’s mind is certain to exist.
Mood congruence, in psychological terms, delineates a phenomenon where an individual’s prevailing emotional state significantly influences the processing and recall of information.
Mood Congruence: Meanings and Concept
Meanings
Mood congruence refers to the psychological phenomenon where an individual’s emotional state aligns or corresponds with the content of their thoughts, perceptions, or memories.
Concept
Description
Definition
The psychological phenomenon where an individual’s emotional state aligns with the content of thoughts.
Memory Recall
People are more likely to recall information consistent with their current emotional mood.
Perception Bias
Emotional states can influence how individuals perceive and interpret events around them.
Impact on Cognition
Mood congruences play a role in shaping cognitive processes, affecting memory, attention, and decision-making.
Literary Application
In literature, characters’ emotions and the overall mood of a narrative can impact readers’ interpretation and engagement.
Mood Congruence: Definition of a Theoretical Term
Mood congruence, in psychological terms, delineates a phenomenon where an individual’s prevailing emotional state significantly influences the processing and recall of information.
This concept posits that individuals are more likely to remember and perceive content that aligns with their present mood, creating a cognitive bias toward emotionally congruent information. The implications of mood congruences extend into various cognitive domains, impacting memory retrieval, perception, and decision-making processes.
Mood Congruence: Theorists, Works and Argument
Theorists:
Albert Ellis:
Ellis, a prominent cognitive-behavioral psychologist, contributed to the understanding of mood congruence by emphasizing the role of beliefs and thoughts in shaping emotional experiences.
John Teasdale:
Teasdale, a key figure in cognitive psychology, explored mood congruence as it relates to information processing and cognitive biases, particularly in the context of depression.
Key Works:
A Cognitive Theory of Dreams by Calvin S. Hall:
Hall’s work delves into the relationship between dreams and mood congruence, suggesting that dream content is influenced by the dreamer’s emotional state.
The Feeling of What Happens by Antonio Damasio:
Damasio’s exploration of the neurobiological basis of emotions provides insights into how mood congruence may be rooted in the intricate interplay between cognition and emotional processing.
Argument:
Influence on Cognitive Processes:
The theorists posit that an individual’s emotional state acts as a filter, significantly influencing the recall of memories.
Perception and Interpretation:
Mood congruence plays a pivotal role in shaping how individuals perceive and interpret incoming information.
Clinical Significance:
Understanding the dynamic interaction between mood and cognition is crucial in clinical contexts, emphasizing the need to consider emotional context in various psychological processes.
Mood Congruence: Major Characteristics
Major Characteristics of Mood Congruence
Examples in Literature
Influence on Memory Recall
Characters recalling past events with emotions mirroring their present mood. For example, a protagonist reminiscing about a joyful childhood when currently happy.
Perception Bias
Narratives portraying the environment in a manner consistent with the protagonist’s emotional state. In a melancholic mood, descriptions of settings may focus on somber or desolate aspects.
Cognitive Processing
Characters exhibiting altered decision-making based on their prevailing emotions, affecting plot trajectories. A distressed character may make impulsive choices reflective of their emotional turmoil.
In literature, these characteristics manifest through the interplay of mood and narrative elements, showcasing how emotional states intricately shape the experiences and actions of character
Mood congruences align with the psychoanalytic exploration of the subconscious mind. Characters may reveal repressed emotions or desires congruent with their mood, enriching the analysis of unconscious motives.
In cognitive approaches, understanding how mood congruences influence characters’ thought processes enhances insights into reader engagement. Cognitive responses to text, influenced by emotional congruence, play a pivotal role in literary interpretation.
Mood congruences contribute to reader-response theories by acknowledging that readers’ emotional states can influence their interpretation of a text. Readers may resonate more strongly with characters whose moods align with their own.
In postcolonial literature, mood congruence can be crucial in depicting the psychological impact of colonial experiences on characters. Emotional states may reflect the complexities of identity and cultural hybridity.
Mood congruence intersects with feminist criticism as characters’ emotional responses may highlight gendered experiences. Examining how mood aligns with societal expectations deepens the analysis of gender roles and expectations.
Understanding mood congruence/s within these theoretical frameworks enriches literary analysis by providing nuanced perspectives on characters, narrative structures, and reader engagement.
Mood Congruence: Application in Critiques
Novel
Application of Mood Congruence/s in Critique
The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger
Examining the protagonist, Holden Caulfield’s, mood congruence provides insights into his authenticity as a narrator. Analyzing how his emotional state aligns with his perceptions enriches the critique of teenage angst and societal disillusionment.
One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez
Mood congruences is vital in understanding the cyclical nature of the Buendía family’s struggles. Analyzing how the characters’ emotions mirror the broader themes enhances the critique of magical realism and the impact of history on personal narratives.
The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath
The protagonist, Esther Greenwood’s, mood congruences is central to a feminist critique. Examining how her emotional states align with societal expectations provides a lens for critiquing gender roles and the constraints imposed on women in the 1950s.
The Road by Cormac McCarthy
Mood congruences plays a crucial role in critiquing the dystopian atmosphere. Analyzing how the characters’ emotions align with the bleak landscape enhances the critique of survival, father-son relationships, and the human condition in a post-apocalyptic world.
In each novel, the application of mood congruences add depth to the critique by providing a lens through which to analyze character development, thematic resonance, and the overall emotional impact on the reader.
Mood Congruences: Relevant Terms
Emotional Resonance: Capacity of a narrative to evoke similar emotions in the reader, creating congruence.
Affective Priming: Emotional state influencing subsequent responses, impacting interpretation.
Catharsis: Emotional release through vicarious experience, fostering congruence.
Narrative Empathy: Reader’s ability to understand and share characters’ feelings, leading to congruence.
Reader-Response: Literary theory emphasizing reader’s emotional responses, highlighting mood congruence.
Affective Dissonance: Discomfort when narrative conflicts with reader’s mood, disrupting congruence.
Parallel Emotional Arcs: Synchronized development of characters’ emotions and narrative, fostering congruence.
Environmental Mood: Emotional tone within narrative setting influencing congruent experiences.
Protagonist-Reader Synchronization: Alignment of protagonist’s emotional trajectory with reader’s emotions for congruence.
Cognitive Appraisal: Mental process evaluating narrative events, contributing to emotional response and mood congruence.
Leitmotif in literature functions as a subtle yet powerful device that weaves thematic unity throughout a narrative.
Leitmotif in Literature: Introduction
Leitmotif in literature functions as a subtle yet powerful device that weaves thematic unity throughout a narrative. Derived from musical origins, the leitmotif entails the recurring use of a distinctive motif, symbol, or theme, echoing through the work to convey underlying meanings and connect disparate elements.
Often serving as a mnemonic anchor, leitmotifs enhance the reader’s interpretative experience by providing continuity and resonance across varied sections of a literary composition.
Beyond mere repetition, leitmotifs contribute to the structural cohesion of a narrative, offering a nuanced layering of significance that enriches the overall aesthetic and thematic tapestry of the literary work. In this way, the leitmotif becomes a subtle conductor, orchestrating a harmonious symphony of meaning within the intricate narrative landscape.
Leitmotif in Literature: Shakespearean Examples
Play
Leitmotif
Significance
“Macbeth”
The Motif of Blood
Represents guilt, violence, and the psychological consequences of immoral actions.
“Hamlet”
The Motif of Madness
Reflects Hamlet’s internal turmoil and the blurred line between sanity and insanity.
“Othello”
The Motif of Jealousy
Drives the tragic conflict, exposing the destructive power of unchecked jealousy in relationships.
“Romeo and Juliet”
The Motif of Light and Dark
Symbolizes the opposing forces of love and hatred, fate and free will, throughout the tragic love story.
“King Lear”
The Motif of Sight and Blindness
Represents insight and the consequences of moral blindness, recurring as a thematic exploration in the play.
“A Midsummer Night’s Dream”
The Motif of Dreams
Highlights the fantastical nature of the play, blurring the lines between reality and imagination.
These leitmotifs in Shakespearean works serve as recurring symbols, enriching the thematic depth and contributing to the overall dramatic impact of the plays.
Leitmotif in Literature: Examples
Work
Leitmotif
Significance
“To Kill a Mockingbird”
The Mockingbird
Symbolizes innocence and the moral imperative not to harm the innocent, echoing throughout the narrative.
“The Great Gatsby”
The Green Light
Represents Gatsby’s unattainable dreams and the elusive nature of the American Dream in the Jazz Age.
“1984”
Big Brother’s Eye
Signifies the omnipresent surveillance and control by the authoritarian government in a dystopian society.
“The Catcher in the Rye”
The Red Hunting Hat
Reflects Holden Caulfield’s desire for individuality and his struggles with authenticity in a conformist society.
“One Hundred Years of Solitude”
The Buendía Family’s Names
Symbolizes the cyclical nature of history and the repetition of familial patterns across generations in Macondo.
“The Tell-Tale Heart”
The Heartbeat
Represents the protagonist’s guilt and paranoia, intensifying the psychological tension in Poe’s short story.
“The Lottery”
The Lottery Ritual
Functions as a sinister leitmotif, building suspense and culminating in the shocking revelation of the lottery’s nature.
These leitmotifs illustrate how recurring symbols can enhance thematic exploration, deepen narrative complexity, and leave a lasting impact on readers.
Focuses on the close analysis of leitmotifs as integral components of a literary work, examining how their repetition contributes to the text’s overall meaning and coherence.
Examines leitmotifs in the context of cultural identity, investigating how repeated symbols may reflect, challenge, or perpetuate colonial narratives and power structures.
Analyzes leitmotifs as expressions of class struggle, exploring how repeated symbols may reveal or critique societal inequalities and power imbalances.
Interprets leitmotifs through the lens of psychology, uncovering symbolic meanings and unconscious desires that are expressed through recurring symbols.
Examines how leitmotifs may represent or challenge normative ideas about sexuality and gender, contributing to a nuanced understanding of LGBTQ+ experiences within literature.
Focuses on how readers engage with and interpret leitmotifs, recognizing the subjective and personal nature of meaning-making in response to recurring symbols.
Explores the instability and multiplicity of meaning within leitmotifs, emphasizing their potential to disrupt fixed interpretations and challenge binary oppositions.
Cultural Studies:
Investigates leitmotifs as cultural symbols, exploring how they contribute to the construction of cultural identities and the representation of societal norms.
Studies leitmotifs within the broader framework of narrative theory, examining how their repetition shapes the structure and meaning of a literary work.
Leitmotif in Literature: Relevant Terms
Term
Definition
Recurrence
The repeated appearance of a leitmotif in a literary work.
Thematic Unity
The cohesive connection of leitmotifs, enhancing thematic coherence.
Symbolic Anchoring
Leitmotifs serving as symbolic anchors, guiding interpretation.
Motivic Development
The evolution of leitmotifs, reflecting shifts in narrative elements.
Interconnectedness
The relationship between different leitmotifs, revealing interconnected meanings.
The term “leitmotif” has its roots in the German words “leit,” meaning leading or guiding, and “Motiv,” signifying motive or theme. Coined in the 19th century by the composer Richard Wagner, a leitmotif refers to a recurring musical theme or motif associated with a particular character, emotion, or idea in an opera or other musical composition.
Wagner’s innovative use of leitmotifs in his epic operas, such as “The Ring Cycle,” marked a departure from conventional musical structures, allowing for a nuanced and symbolic connection between the music and the narrative elements.
Over time, the concept of leitmotif has expanded beyond music, finding application in literature, film, and other art forms, representing a guiding thematic element that enhances the overall cohesion and depth of the work.
Leitmotif: Literal and Conceptual Meanings
Literal Meaning
Conceptual Meaning
– “Leit” means leading or guiding
– Symbolic recurrence: A guiding musical theme or motif associated with specific elements in a composition.
– Narrative cohesion: Represents a thematic anchor enhancing the overall coherence of a musical, literary, or cinematic work.
Leitmotif: Definition as a Literary Device
A leitmotif in literature refers to a recurring theme, phrase, or symbol that holds symbolic significance and recurs throughout a narrative, contributing to the work’s thematic unity.
This literary device serves as a distinctive marker, guiding the audience’s interpretation and connecting various elements within the text. Employed strategically, a leitmotif enhances the depth and cohesion of the narrative, providing a nuanced and interconnected understanding of key ideas or characters.
A musical theme or motif that symbolizes key narrative elements, events, or motifs.
The use of specific motifs in Prokofiev’s Peter and the Wolf to represent different characters and events.
Geographical Leitmotif
Musical motifs associated with specific locations or settings, creating a sonic landscape in the narrative.
The use of distinct musical themes for different locations in Howard Shore’s score for The Lord of the Rings.
Temporal Leitmotif
Represents the passage of time or specific historical periods through recurring musical motifs.
The use of period-specific musical motifs in film scores for historical dramas, like in Pride and Prejudice.
This table provides a concise overview of different types of leitmotifs, their descriptions, and examples from various artistic works.
Leitmotif: Examples in Everyday Life
Personal Jingles:
Personalized ringtones or notification sounds on a mobile phone that instantly associate a specific sound with an individual.
Signature Scents:
The use of a particular fragrance or cologne consistently worn by a person, creating an olfactory leitmotif associated with their presence.
Entrance Music:
Athletes, performers, or public figures often have specific songs or musical themes played when they enter an arena or stage, serving as a leitmotif for their presence.
Family Traditions:
Repeated rituals, activities, or phrases within a family setting that create a familiar and symbolic leitmotifs representing shared experiences.
Workplace Rituals:
Regular routines, phrases, or practices within a professional environment that become associated with the workplace culture, creating leitmotifs for daily operations.
Seasonal Decor:
Specific decorations, colors, or themes associated with particular seasons or holidays, creating a recurring visual leitmotifs in homes or public spaces.
Coffee Shop Ambiance:
The consistent background music, aromas, and visual elements in a favorite coffee shop that become associated with relaxation or productivity.
Social Media Posts:
Regular use of specific emojis, hashtags, or posting styles on social media platforms that serve as leitmotifs, representing an individual’s online presence.
Trademark Sounds:
Brands often incorporate specific sounds or jingles in their advertisements, creating an auditory leitmotif associated with their products.
Morning Routine:
Personal rituals or activities performed consistently each morning, such as a specific breakfast, music playlist, or exercise routine, creating a daily leitmotif.
Legends in literature serve as enduring narratives that transcend time, weaving together elements of myth, history, and cultural identity.
Legends in Literature: Introduction
Legends in literature serve as enduring narratives that transcend time, weaving together elements of myth, history, and cultural identity. Rooted in the collective imagination of societies, these tales often feature heroic figures, supernatural beings, or events that shape the cultural and moral landscape. Legends function as repositories of shared wisdom, providing insights into social values, historical perspectives, and the perennial human quest for meaning.
As dynamic expressions of storytelling, legends illuminate the intersections of mythic imagination and the cultural fabric, fostering a connection between the past and the present through the artistry of literary representation.
Legends in Literature: Examples
King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table:
The Arthurian legends, encompassing tales of the legendary King Arthur, the wizard Merlin, and the Knights of the Round Table, explore themes of chivalry, honor, and the pursuit of an idealized kingdom.
The Iliad and The Odyssey by Homer:
Homer’s epic poems are foundational in Western literature, presenting legendary figures like Achilles, Odysseus, and gods of Mount Olympus. These tales delve into heroism, the consequences of war, and the challenges of the heroic journey.
Beowulf:
An Old English epic, Beowulf narrates the heroic deeds of its eponymous protagonist as he battles monstrous creatures, embodying themes of heroism, loyalty, and the inevitable confrontation with mortality.
The Ramayana:
An ancient Indian epic, the Ramayana recounts the adventures of Prince Rama, his wife Sita, and the monkey god Hanuman. The narrative explores duty, morality, and the cosmic battle between good and evil.
The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving:
Washington Irving’s short story introduces the iconic character Ichabod Crane and the ghostly figure of the Headless Horseman, blending folklore with a humorous and eerie depiction of the supernatural.
The Song of Roland:
A medieval French epic, The Song of Roland, recounts the heroic deeds of Charlemagne’s knight Roland and his companions in the Battle of Roncevaux. It explores themes of loyalty, honor, and the clash between Christianity and Islam.
These examples showcase the diversity of legendary narratives across different cultures and time periods, highlighting their enduring impact on literature and cultural imagination.
Legends in Literature: Foreign
“Popol Vuh” (Guatemala):
The “Popol Vuh” is a Maya-K’iche’ creation myth and legendary narrative that explores the origins of the world, humanity, and the adventures of heroic figures in the Mayan mythology.
“The Book of One Thousand and One Nights” (Arabian Nights):
A collection of Middle Eastern folk tales, including “Aladdin,” “Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves,” and “Sindbad the Sailor,” the Arabian Nights offers a rich tapestry of legendary stories from the Islamic Golden Age.
“Journey to the West” (China):
Attributed to Wu Cheng’en, this Chinese classic follows the legendary Monkey King, Sun Wukong, on a journey to retrieve sacred scriptures, blending mythology, Buddhist teachings, and adventure.
“Kalevala” (Finland):
Compiled by Elias Lönnrot, the “Kalevala” is an epic poem that gathers Finnish folklore and mythology, featuring legendary heroes like Väinämöinen and Lemminkäinen and exploring themes of creation and magic.
One of the earliest known literary works, the Epic of Gilgamesh tells the story of the legendary king Gilgamesh and his quest for immortality, offering insights into Mesopotamian mythology and the human condition.
“The Tale of Heike” (Japan):
An epic account of the Genpei War, “The Tale of Heike” portrays legendary samurai warriors and Buddhist themes, providing a cultural and historical narrative deeply ingrained in Japanese literature.
These foreign examples exemplify the rich tapestry of legendary narratives across various cultures, offering insights into the unique perspectives, values, and mythologies of different societies.
Legends in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories
Examining legends through a gender lens to uncover underlying power dynamics, representations of women, and the impact of cultural narratives on gender roles.
Investigating legends for depictions of social class, economic structures, and power relations, highlighting the ways in which literature reflects and critiques societal inequalities.
Investigating how readers engage with and interpret legends, considering the impact of cultural backgrounds and personal experiences on the reading experience.
Analyzing legends for contradictions, ambiguities, and moments of instability, aligning with deconstructive principles that challenge fixed meanings and binary oppositions.
Cultural Studies:
Using legends to explore cultural identities, examining how they contribute to the construction of national, ethnic, or regional narratives.
Studying the structure and conventions of legends within the broader framework of narrative theory, exploring how storytelling shapes meaning and understanding.
The relevance of legends in literary theories showcases their adaptability to various critical approaches, allowing scholars to uncover layers of meaning, cultural significance, and societal implications within these timeless narratives.
In literature, a legend serves as a narrative form that encompasses both historical and mythical elements, typically recounting the extraordinary deeds or adventures of heroic figures.
Legend: Etymology
The term “legend” has its etymological origins in the Latin word “legenda,” which refers to things to be read. It later evolved through Old French into Middle English, acquiring the meaning of a story or narrative that is to be read or recited. In contemporary usage, “legend” denotes a traditional narrative often involving extraordinary or mythical elements, passed down through generations.
Legend: Literal and Conceptual Meanings
Literal Meaning
Conceptual Meaning
– Derives from Latin “legenda,” meaning “things to be read”
– Refers to a traditional narrative or story passed down over time
– Evolved through Old French and Middle English
– Often involves extraordinary or mythical elements
– Originally meant something to be read or recited
– Carries cultural significance and is transmitted through generations
In literature, a legend serves as a narrative form that encompasses both historical and mythical elements, typically recounting the extraordinary deeds or adventures of heroic figures. Often transmitted orally and later recorded in written form, legends contribute to a cultural repository of shared stories that carry moral, cultural, or societal significance. Through their enduring nature, legends shape collective identities, impart cultural values, and provide a lens through which societies interpret their past.
Legend: Types
Type
Description
Example
Heroic Legends
Narratives focusing on the extraordinary exploits and adventures of heroic figures, often possessing superhuman qualities and embodying virtues admired by a society.
The legend of King Arthur and the Knights of the Round Table.
Folk Legends
Stories passed down through generations within a community, reflecting the cultural beliefs, traditions, and values of a specific group or region.
The Native American legend of the creation of the Milky Way.
Historical Legends
Narratives blending historical events with mythical elements, creating a semi-historical account that contributes to the cultural understanding of a specific time period.
The legend of Robin Hood, combining historical and legendary elements.
Religious Legends
Narratives embedded within religious traditions, recounting the lives and deeds of revered figures or explaining the origins of religious practices.
The biblical legend of Moses parting the Red Sea.
Urban Legends
Modern stories circulating within communities, often centered around unusual or supernatural events, presented as real incidents, and shaping contemporary folklore.
The urban legend of the vanishing hitchhiker.
Literary Legends
Legends created within literary works, where authors invent mythical stories or characters to convey symbolic meanings or explore cultural themes.
J.R.R. Tolkien’s legendarium in “The Lord of the Rings.”
Origin Legends
Stories explaining the beginnings of natural phenomena, geographical features, or cultural practices, providing a mythic context for the world’s existence.
The Greek myth of the creation of the world by Chaos.
National Legends
Narratives contributing to a nation’s identity, recounting events or figures considered pivotal in the formation of the nation and its values.
The American legend of Paul Revere’s midnight ride.
Moral or Didactic Legends
Stories conveying moral lessons or ethical principles through the experiences and actions of characters, often aimed at instructing or inspiring the audience.
Aesop’s Fables, such as “The Tortoise and the Hare.”
Mythical Legends
Narratives involving gods, goddesses, and supernatural beings, often explaining the creation of the world, the origins of humanity, and the forces governing the universe.
The Hindu legend of the churning of the ocean to obtain the elixir of life.
Legend: Examples in Everyday Life
Heroic Legends:
Modern Heroes: Stories of everyday individuals overcoming immense challenges, akin to the hero’s journey, such as tales of resilience in the face of adversity.
Folk Legends:
Local Folklore: Urban legends or traditional stories shared within a community, like the tale of a haunted house or the mysterious figure who once lived nearby.
Historical Legends:
Founding Stories: Narratives surrounding historical events that have taken on legendary status, such as the founding fathers’ exploits in the American Revolution.
Religious Legends:
Miraculous Accounts: Stories within religious traditions, like the miraculous deeds attributed to saints or figures in various faiths.
Urban Legends:
Modern Myths: Contemporary stories shared in everyday conversations, like the cautionary tales of hitchhiking ghosts or eerie occurrences in abandoned places.
Literary Legends:
Fictional Worlds: Legends created within literary works that captivate readers, such as the enduring legacy of characters like Sherlock Holmes or Harry Potter.
Origin Legends:
Cultural Creation Stories: Myths explaining the origins of cultural practices or natural features, like stories about the creation of local landmarks or traditional ceremonies.
National Legends:
National Heroes: Stories that contribute to a nation’s identity, like legendary accounts of leaders, war heroes, or pivotal moments in a country’s history.
Moral or Didactic Legends:
Aesop’s Fables: Timeless moral tales, such as “The Boy Who Cried Wolf,” providing lessons on honesty, integrity, and the consequences of one’s actions.
Mythical Legends:
Creation Myths: Stories explaining the origin of the world, humanity, and natural phenomena, like the Norse myth of the creation of the cosmos.
The exploration of closure in literature delves into the intricate facets of narrative resolution, examining how authors strategically utilize structural and thematic elements to convey a profound sense of completeness to their works.
Closure in Literature: Introduction
The exploration of closure in literature delves into the intricate facets of narrative resolution, examining how authors strategically utilize structural and thematic elements to convey a profound sense of completeness to their works. More than a mere conclusion of plotlines, closure encompasses the harmonious resolution of conflicts, the culmination of character arcs, and the overall satisfaction experienced by readers. This thematic exploration embraces a spectrum of forms, ranging from the linear and circular to more abstract and open-ended conclusions.
The study of closure in literature illuminates the deliberate choices authors make, shaping readers’ expectations, emotional responses, and interpretations of a text. In doing so, it significantly contributes to our understanding of narrative construction and its profound impact on the audience.
Closure in Literature: Examples
Book and Author
Closure Aspect and Significance
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen
The marriage of Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy resolves familial and social conflicts, providing a satisfying conclusion to the romantic tension and social expectations.
One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez
The cyclical nature of the Buendía family’s history creates closure as the novel returns to its beginning, emphasizing the inevitability of fate and the interconnectedness of past and present.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald
Gatsby’s tragic fate and the disillusionment of the American Dream contribute to a poignant and conclusive ending, examining the pursuit of the American Dream and the consequences of obsession.
1984 by George Orwell
The protagonist’s acceptance of the Party’s ideology marks a disturbing closure, emphasizing the triumph of authoritarianism over individual resistance, concluding with a bleak vision of a dystopian future.
The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien
The destruction of the One Ring and the departure of the elves bring closure to the epic quest and the fate of Middle-earth, concluding a monumental fantasy saga exploring themes of friendship, heroism, and the enduring struggle between good and evil.
The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger
Holden Caulfield’s acceptance of growing up and the reconnection with his sister symbolize a form of emotional closure, marking a pivotal moment in the protagonist’s journey toward self-acceptance and understanding.
The Road by Cormac McCarthy
The novel concludes with a sense of ambiguous closure, leaving the fate of the father and son open to interpretation, offering a haunting exploration of a post-apocalyptic world and the enduring bond between a parent and child.
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee
The trial of Tom Robinson and Boo Radley’s role in saving the children contribute to the novel’s closure, addressing racial injustice and societal prejudices, representing a significant moment in the fight against racial injustice in the American South.
The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka
Gregor Samsa’s transformation and subsequent death bring a disturbing but conclusive end to the protagonist’s alienation and suffering, exploring existential themes of isolation and identity.
The Fault in Our Stars by John Green
The death of one of the protagonists and acknowledgment of the impermanence of life provide a bittersweet yet emotionally resonant closure, confronting themes of mortality and love.
Closure is significant in structuralism as it involves the analysis of the narrative’s overall structure, focusing on how elements come together to form a cohesive whole.
Examines how the narrative’s organization and resolution contribute to the overall meaning and interpretation of the text.
Closure is relevant to reader-response theory as it explores how readers actively engage with and interpret a text, finding closure based on their subjective responses.
The theory acknowledges that closure is a dynamic and individual process influenced by readers’ experiences, beliefs, and cultural contexts.
Closure in feminist criticism involves analyzing how the resolution of a narrative addresses gender roles, power dynamics, and the portrayal of female characters.
Examines whether closure reinforces or challenges traditional gender norms and stereotypes within the literary work.
In postcolonial literary theory, closure is examined in the context of how the resolution addresses colonial legacies, cultural clashes, and the representation of marginalized voices.
Explores whether closure contributes to or critiques existing power structures and colonial narratives.
Psychoanalytic perspectives on closure involve analyzing how a character’s psychological resolution contributes to the overall meaning of the narrative.
Explores how closure may reflect the protagonist’s psychological growth, resolution of internal conflicts, or the manifestation of unconscious desires.
Closure is relevant in Marxist criticism as it involves examining how the resolution addresses issues of class struggle, societal structures, and power dynamics.
Explores whether closure reinforces or challenges existing social hierarchies and economic systems within the literary work.
Postmodernist views on closure challenge traditional narrative structures and question the idea of a neatly resolved ending.
Emphasizes open-endedness, fragmentation, and the blending of genres, rejecting straightforward closure in favor of multiple interpretations.
Cultural Studies:
Closure in cultural studies involves analyzing how the resolution of a narrative reflects cultural values, norms, and societal ideologies.
Examines whether closure reinforces or challenges cultural assumptions, contributing to a broader understanding of cultural representations in literature.
In queer theory, closure is examined in the context of how the resolution addresses LGBTQ+ identities, relationships, and societal norms.
Explores whether closure reinforces or challenges heteronormative narratives and contributes to the representation of diverse sexual and gender identities.
These bullet points highlight the relevance of closure in various literary theories, showcasing how it is considered and analyzed within different critical frameworks.
