November 11, 2023 - English Studies

Decolonial Theory in English Literature

Decolonial theory in literature constitutes a vital intellectual framework that has arisen in response to the pervasive colonial underpinnings present in literary works.

Introduction: Decolonial Theory in English Literature

Decolonial theory in English literature constitutes a vital intellectual framework that has arisen in response to the pervasive colonial underpinnings present in literary works. Rooted in an acknowledgment of historical injustices, this theoretical perspective strives to dismantle entrenched Eurocentric narratives and power structures inherent in literature.

Its primary objective is to represent the voices of marginalized communities, interrogate dominant cultural hegemonies, and shed light on the diverse experiences of formerly colonized peoples. Through the deconstruction and decolonization of literary discourse, scholars employing decolonial theory aim to cultivate a more inclusive and equitable representation of narratives, perspectives, and identities that have historically endured marginalization or suppression. This theoretical paradigm not only recognizes the enduring impact of colonialism on literature but actively participates in the reclamation of cultural autonomy and agency for previously oppressed communities, thereby contributing to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the intricate dynamics within the literary landscape.

Decolonial Theory: Theorists, Works and Arguments

1. Frantz Fanon:

Works:
- “The Wretched of the Earth”
- “Black Skin, White Masks”
Arguments:
- Fanon explored the psychological impact of colonialism, asserting that the oppressed must reclaim agency through revolutionary action.
- Emphasized the dehumanizing effects of colonial structures on both the colonized and colonizers, advocating for a complete decolonization process.

2. Edward Said:

Works:
- “Orientalism”
Arguments:
- Said critiqued Western representations of the East, asserting that these representations served imperialistic agendas.
- Highlighted how Orientalism contributed to the construction of a superior Western identity and the marginalization of Eastern cultures.

3. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o:

Works:
- “Decolonising the Mind”
- “Petals of Blood”
Arguments:
- Advocated for the decolonization of language, asserting that the imposition of colonial languages perpetuates cultural subjugation.
- Emphasized the importance of embracing native languages as a means of reclaiming cultural autonomy and resisting neocolonial influences.

4. Aníbal Quijano:

Works:
- “Coloniality of Power, Eurocentrism, and Latin America”

Arguments:
- Developed the concept of the “coloniality of power,” highlighting the persistence of colonial structures in contemporary power dynamics.
- Explored how Eurocentrism continues to shape global power relations and the need to challenge these structures.

5. Walter Mignolo:

Works:
- “The Darker Side of Western Modernity”
- “Local Histories/Global Designs”

Arguments:
- Extended Quijano’s work, emphasizing the importance of de-linking from Western-centric epistemologies.
- Advocated for diverse forms of knowledge production and the recognition of pluriversal perspectives.

6. Gloria Anzaldúa:

Works:
- “Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza”
Arguments:
- Explored the intersections of cultural, linguistic, and gender identities in borderland spaces.
- Advocated for the acceptance and celebration of hybrid, mestiza identities as a form of resistance against rigid categorizations.

7. Homi Bhabha:

Works:
- “The Location of Culture”
Arguments:
- Developed the concept of the “third space,” highlighting the emergence of cultural identities in the interstices between colonizer and colonized.
- Emphasized the potential for subversion and resistance in these hybrid, in-between spaces.

8. María Lugones:

Works:
- “Pilgrimages/Peregrinajes: Theorizing Coalition Against Multiple Oppressions”

Arguments:
- Developed the concept of “world-traveling,” advocating for understanding and respecting diverse perspectives and knowledges.
- Emphasized the importance of coalition-building against multiple forms of oppression.

These theorists collectively contribute to the rich tapestry of decolonial theory, offering nuanced insights into the complexities of colonial legacies and strategies for fostering transformative, equitable futures.

Principals of Decolonial Theory in Literature

Principal	Explanation
Historical Acknowledgment:	Recognition and acknowledgment of historical injustices and the enduring impact of colonialism on literature.
Deconstruction of Eurocentric Narratives:	Active deconstruction and dismantling of entrenched Eurocentric narratives that have historically dominated literary discourse.
Amplification of Marginalized Voices:	Prioritization of marginalized voices and narratives, aiming to provide a platform for those historically silenced or excluded.
Interrogation of Cultural Hegemonies:	Critical examination and interrogation of dominant cultural hegemonies within literary representations.
Representation of Diverse Experiences:	Promotion of a more inclusive literary landscape by shedding light on the diverse experiences of formerly colonized peoples.
Decolonization of Literary Discourse:	Active engagement in the decolonization of literary discourse, challenging and transforming structures that perpetuate colonial ideologies.
Equitable Narrative Representation:	Commitment to fostering equitable representation of narratives, perspectives, and identities that have been historically marginalized or suppressed.
Cultural Autonomy and Agency:	Advocacy for the reclamation of cultural autonomy and agency by communities that have experienced historical oppression.
Resistance to Cultural Appropriation:	Vigilance and resistance against cultural appropriation, ensuring that the representation of cultures is respectful and authentic.
Comprehensive Understanding:	Contribution to a more comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the intricate dynamics within the literary landscape by incorporating decolonial perspectives.

Decolonial Theory: Application in Critiques

Novel	Critique

*Things Fall Apart* by Chinua Achebe	In analyzing through Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s lens of language decolonization, we explore how Achebe’s choice to write in English influences the representation of Igbo culture. This critique delves into the potential impact of using indigenous languages, examining how language choices shape the cultural portrayal and the dynamics of cultural preservation and adaptation.
*One Hundred Years of Solitude* by Gabriel García Márquez	By utilizing Aníbal Quijano’s concept of the “coloniality of power,” this critique delves into the power dynamics within the Buendía family. It explores how colonial legacies intricately shape the family’s trajectory and their interactions with external forces, providing a nuanced understanding of power structures in the narrative and the lasting impacts of colonization on personal and collective destinies.
*The God of Small Things* by Arundhati Roy	Applying Homi Bhabha’s idea of the “third space,” this critique examines the novel’s exploration of cultural hybridity. It analyzes how the characters navigate their identities in the post-colonial context, negotiating between tradition and modernity. The exploration of the “third space” adds depth to the understanding of identity formation, highlighting the complexities of cultural intersections and the challenges of existing in between established binaries.
*Wide Sargasso Sea* by Jean Rhys	Critiquing through Frantz Fanon’s lens of psychological impact, this analysis delves into the profound psychological effects of colonialism on Antoinette, the protagonist. It explores her resistance against the colonial structures that shape her identity, unraveling the layers of psychological struggle and resilience within the context of colonial oppression. The critique provides insights into the internal turmoil and resistance against the psychological colonization of individuals.

Terms in Decolonial Theory

Coloniality of Power: Refers to the enduring power structures and hierarchies established during the colonial period that persist beyond formal colonization, influencing social, economic, and political relations.
Third Space: Coined by Homi Bhabha, it represents a space of cultural hybridity where different cultures meet and interact, challenging fixed notions of identity and offering possibilities for new, hybrid forms of expression.

Language Decolonization: Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o emphasizes the need to reclaim indigenous languages as a form of resistance against colonial legacies. Language is seen as a key aspect of cultural identity and decolonization.
Epistemicide: The deliberate destruction or marginalization of indigenous knowledge systems and ways of knowing, often perpetrated by colonial powers, leading to the erasure of alternative worldviews.
Subaltern: A concept from post-colonial theory, popularized by Gayatri Spivak, referring to marginalized and oppressed groups whose voices are often unheard and ignored within dominant discourses.

Decolonizing the Mind: A concept by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o, it advocates for freeing one’s mind from the mental colonization imposed by colonial languages and ideologies, encouraging a return to indigenous ways of thinking.
Hybridity: The blending of different cultural elements to create new, complex identities. In decolonial theory, it challenges essentialist views of culture and identity, emphasizing the fluid and dynamic nature of cultural formations.
Fanonism: Derived from the work of Frantz Fanon, it explores the psychological impact of colonization on individuals and societies, emphasizing the need for psychological liberation alongside political and economic independence.

Critical Indigenous Studies: An interdisciplinary field that examines the experiences, histories, and cultures of indigenous peoples from a critical perspective, often challenging Eurocentric narratives and promoting indigenous voices.
Global South/Global North: Terms used to describe the socio-economic and geopolitical divisions between more economically developed nations (Global North) and less developed nations (Global South), highlighting the legacies of colonial exploitation and power imbalances in the contemporary world.

Decolonial Theory: Suggested Readings

Mignolo, Walter D. Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality, Subaltern Knowledges, and Border Thinking. Princeton UP, 2000.

Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. Aunt Lute Books, 1987.
Quijano, Aníbal. “Coloniality of Power, Eurocentrism, and Latin America.” Nepantla: Views from South, vol. 1, no. 3, 2000, pp. 533-580.
Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.

Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard UP, 1999.
Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963.
Lugones, María. “Playfulness, ‘World’-Travelling, and Loving Perception.” Hypatia, vol. 2, no. 2, 1987, pp. 3-19.

Santos, Boaventura de Sousa. Epistemologies of the South: Justice against Epistemicide. Routledge, 2014.
Smith, Linda Tuhiwai. Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples. Zed Books, 1999.
Ndlovu-Gatsheni, Sabelo J. Epistemic Freedom in Africa: Deprovincialization and Decolonization. Routledge, 2018.

Eye Rhyme: A Literary Device

Eye rhyme refers to a poetic device in which words appear to rhyme based on their spelling, yet do not share a corresponding phonetic similarity in their sounds.

Definition of Eye Rhyme

Eye Rhyme Etymology: The term “eye rhyme” originated from the Middle English word “rym” or “ryme,” which signifies a similarity in sound. The prefix “eye” in “eye rhyme” is derived from the visual perception of words that appear to rhyme based on their spelling, rather than their actual phonetic similarity. The concept gained prominence in the realm of poetry and literary analysis, particularly during the Renaissance and later periods.

Eye Rhyme Definition: Eye rhyme refers to a poetic device in which words appear to rhyme based on their spelling, yet do not share a corresponding phonetic similarity in their sounds. Unlike traditional rhymes that rely on identical or similar sounds, eye rhymes rely on the visual resemblance of words. This device often involves the use of words with identical or similar endings that may have undergone changes in pronunciation over time.

Poets frequently employ it for its visual impact, creating a sense of symmetry and pattern within a poem, while challenging traditional auditory expectations associated with rhyme schemes.

Type of Eye Rhyme

Type	Explanation	Examples from Literature
Historical Eye Rhyme	Words that were once pronounced similarly but have undergone changes in pronunciation over time. For example, “love” and “move” may have rhymed in the past but no longer do.	In Chaucer’s works, words like “food” and “good” were historically pronounced similarly but are no longer rhymed in modern English.
Homographic Eye Rhyme	Words that share the same spelling but have different pronunciations and meanings. An example is the pair “bass” (low-frequency sound) and “bass” (a type of fish).	John Donne’s poem “The Flea” plays with homographic eye rhymes, using words like “prove” and “love” to visually rhyme despite distinct pronunciations.
Double Eye Rhyme	A combination of two words with the same spelling, such as “love” and “prove,” where both the endings and beginnings of the words visually rhyme.	Emily Dickinson’s poem “Because I could not stop for Death” features double eye rhymes like “ground” and “around,” contributing to the poem’s visual harmony.
Single Eye Rhyme	Words with similar spellings that rhyme only in part, usually at the end. An example is “watch” and “match.”	In Shakespeare’s sonnets, single eye rhymes like “love” and “prove” offer a visual connection while challenging auditory expectations.
Punctuation or Syllable Eye Rhyme	Words that share a similar number of syllables or end with the same punctuation mark, creating a visual rhyme. An example is “bough” and “though.”	E.E. Cummings’ poetry often utilizes punctuation eye rhyme, as seen in the visual resemblance of words like “why?” and “try!” within his unconventional style.

Common Examples of Eye Rhymes

Tough and Cough:
- These words have the same ending but are pronounced differently.
Lead (pronounced “led”) and Lead (pronounced “leed”):
- The noun “lead” (referring to the metal) and the verb “lead” (meaning to guide) share the same spelling but have different pronunciations.
Read (present tense) and Read (past tense):
- The words “read” (present tense) and “read” (past tense) are spelled the same but pronounced differently.

Bow (to bend forward) and Bow (a decorative knot):
- These words, though spelled the same, have different pronunciations and meanings.
Wind (air in motion) and Wind (to twist or turn):
- The noun “wind” and the verb “wind” are spelled the same but pronounced differently.

While these examples may not be as prevalent in everyday spoken language, they demonstrate instances where the visual resemblance of words might suggest a rhyme, despite differences in pronunciation.

Shakespearean Eye Rhymes

Love and Move (Sonnet 25):
- “Love” and “move” might have visually rhymed during Shakespeare’s time, contributing to the sonnet’s overall rhyme scheme and structure.
Prove and Love (Sonnet 116):
- In Sonnet 116, Shakespeare uses “prove” and “love” as an eye rhyme, emphasizing the enduring nature of true love.

Leave and Remove (Sonnet 61):
- In Sonnet 61, the words “leave” and “remove” may have visually rhymed in Elizabethan pronunciation, enhancing the sonnet’s poetic symmetry.
Minds and Finds (Sonnet 59):
- Shakespeare employs eye rhyme in Sonnet 59 with words like “minds” and “finds,” contributing to the sonnet’s rhythmic and visual appeal.
Heretics and Critics (Sonnet 112):
- In Sonnet 112, Shakespeare uses the eye rhyme of “heretics” and “critics,” playing with the visual similarity of the words.

It’s essential to note that the pronunciation of words in Shakespeare’s time was different from contemporary English, allowing for more flexibility. While some of these examples might not be perfect rhymes in modern pronunciation, they showcase Shakespeare’s skill in using visual and phonetic elements to create a rich poetic tapestry.

Literary Examples of Eye Rhyme

“Cove” and “Love” in “Modern Romance” by Lang Leav:
- Lang Leav uses eye rhyme with words like “cove” and “love” in her modern poem “Modern Romance,” adding a visual layer to the theme of love and longing.

“Dream” and “Stream” in “Dreams” by Nikki Giovanni:
- Nikki Giovanni employs eye rhyme with words like “dream” and “stream” in her poem “Dreams,” creating a visual and rhythmic connection between the concepts.
“Bright” and “Night” in “A Dream Within A Dream” by Edgar Allan Poe:
- In a classic by Edgar Allan Poe, the eye rhyme of “bright” and “night” is used in “A Dream Within A Dream,” contributing to the dreamlike and introspective atmosphere.
“Wave” and “Brave” in “Seashell” by W.S. Merwin:
- W.S. Merwin utilizes eye rhyme with words like “wave” and “brave” in his poem “Seashell,” adding a visual element to the exploration of courage.

“Rust” and “Trust” in “Colors Passing Through Us” by Marge Piercy:
- Marge Piercy uses eye rhyme with words like “rust” and “trust” in her poem “Colors Passing Through Us,” emphasizing the transient nature of relationships.
“Soul” and “Toll” in “Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou:
- Maya Angelou incorporates eye rhyme with words like “soul” and “toll” in her empowering poem “Still I Rise,” enhancing the resilience expressed in the verses.
“Cry” and “Sky” in “The Sun and Her Flowers” by Rupi Kaur:
- Rupi Kaur uses eye rhyme with words like “cry” and “sky” in her collection “The Sun and Her Flowers,” contributing to the emotional and visual impact of her poetry.

These examples demonstrate how contemporary poets continue to use eye rhyme to create visual and rhythmic effects in their works.

Benefits of Using Eye Rhyme

Visual Harmony:
- Eye rhyme enhances the visual appeal of a poem by creating patterns and symmetry on the page. The alignment of visually similar words contributes to the overall aesthetics of the written work.

Aesthetic Impact:
- The visual resemblance of words provides a unique aesthetic impact, engaging the reader’s sense of sight alongside the auditory experience. This adds depth and complexity to the overall reading experience.
Structural Coherence:
- Eye rhymes can contribute to the structural coherence of a poem, helping to organize stanzas and lines. It provides a visual link between words, creating a sense of order and intentional design within the composition.
Rhythmic Variation:
- Incorporating eye rhymes allows poets to introduce rhythmic variation within their verses. The visual similarity of words can create a subtle cadence, enhancing the musicality and flow of the poem.

Expressive Freedom:
- Eye rhymes provide poets with expressive freedom, allowing them to experiment with language and challenge conventional auditory expectations. This flexibility encourages creative exploration in crafting verses.
Emphasis on Language:
- The use of eye rhyme draws attention to the language itself. It invites readers to appreciate the words not only for their meanings but also for their visual and structural qualities, fostering a deeper engagement with the text.
Symbolic Resonance:
- Eye rhyme can carry symbolic resonance within a poem. Words that visually appear to rhyme but do not phonetically align may reflect thematic contrasts or complexities, adding layers of meaning to the literary work.

Artistic Nuance:
- Poets use eye rhyme as a tool for artistic nuance. It allows them to convey emotions, themes, or ideas in a more nuanced and subtle manner, inviting readers to explore the interplay between form and content.

Eye Rhyme in Literary Theory

Theory	Critique
Formalism/Structuralism	Formalists would focus on the structure of the poem and the recurring patterns created by eye rhymes. They might analyze how these visual resemblances contribute to the overall form, emphasizing the poem’s internal coherence.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Psychoanalytic theorists might delve into the subconscious implications of the words chosen for eye rhymes. They could explore how the visual connections evoke deeper psychological meanings, potentially revealing hidden desires or conflicts.
Marxist Criticism	Marxist critics may analyze the socio-economic implications of eye rhymes. They could explore how the visual patterns reflect power dynamics, class structures, or societal norms, uncovering potential social critiques embedded in the use of eye rhyme.
Feminist Criticism	Feminist theorists might examine how eye rhymes reinforce or challenge gender roles. They could analyze whether the visual resemblances between certain words contribute to or subvert traditional gender expectations in the text.
Deconstruction	Deconstructionists would focus on the inherent instability of meaning in eye rhymes. They might argue that the visual similarities between words destabilize traditional notions of fixed meanings, inviting multiple interpretations.
Reader-Response Criticism	Reader-response theorists would emphasize how readers engage with and interpret the visual aspects of eye rhymes. The emphasis would be on the subjective experiences of readers and how the visual elements contribute to their understanding of the text.
Cultural Criticism	Cultural critics might analyze how eye rhymes reflect or challenge cultural norms and values. They could explore whether the visual connections between words contribute to or resist broader cultural expectations.
Postcolonial Criticism	Postcolonial theorists could examine how eye rhyme operates in the context of language and colonial history. They might explore how visual patterns in words reflect or resist linguistic colonialism and cultural hegemony.

External Conflict in Literature & Theory

External conflict in literature acts as a narrative catalyst, injecting stories with tension, complexity, and thematic depth.

Introduction: External Conflict in Literature

External conflict in literature acts as a narrative catalyst, injecting stories with tension, complexity, and thematic depth. This dynamic emerges when protagonists grapple with forces beyond themselves, whether through interpersonal clashes, societal pressures, or encounters with nature. This literary device propels plot dynamics, compelling characters to navigate challenges that extend beyond their internal struggles.

External conflict provides a lens through which authors examine universal themes, including the human condition, morality, and societal structures. By scrutinizing characters’ responses to external adversities, literature unveils profound insights into resilience, ethical dilemmas, and the intricate interplay between individuals and their environments.

Thus, external conflict isn’t merely a plot device; it serves as a nuanced tool for exploring the intricacies of human experience within the broader context of narrative storytelling.

Shakespearean External Conflict in Literature

Romeo and Juliet (Person vs. Person):
- The feud between the Montagues and Capulets creates a pervasive external conflict that drives the tragedy. The love between Romeo and Juliet is hindered by the longstanding enmity between their families, leading to a series of confrontations and ultimately tragic consequences.
Hamlet (Person vs. Supernatural):
- Hamlet’s encounter with the ghost of his father introduces a supernatural external conflict. The ghost’s revelation about the murder instigates Hamlet’s quest for vengeance, creating tension and driving the play’s central conflict.
Macbeth (Person vs. Ambition):
- The external conflict in “Macbeth” revolves around the protagonist‘s ambitious nature and his susceptibility to external influences. Macbeth’s desire for power, coupled with the manipulation of the witches and Lady Macbeth, results in a tragic external conflict between his ambition and moral conscience.

Othello (Person vs. Manipulation):
- Iago’s manipulation of Othello creates a person vs. person conflict in “Othello.” Othello’s trust in Iago and his manipulation by false evidence lead to a destructive external conflict, as Othello’s jealousy and suspicion drive the tragic events of the play.
King Lear (Person vs. Family):
- The conflict between Lear and his daughters, particularly Regan and Goneril, exemplifies a person vs. family external conflict. Lear’s misjudgment of his daughters’ loyalty and the subsequent betrayal contribute to the tragedy and familial discord at the heart of the play.
The Tempest (Person vs. Nature):
- “The Tempest” introduces an external conflict between the characters and the natural elements of the island. Prospero’s magical control over the island’s spirits, as well as the tempest itself, creates a person vs. nature conflict that shapes the events and relationships in the play.

These examples showcase Shakespeare’s adeptness in weaving external conflicts into the fabric of his plays, contributing to the timeless appeal and thematic richness of his works.

Examples of External Conflict in Literature

Work	Conflict	Detail
The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins	Person vs. Society	Protagonist Katniss Everdeen navigates the external conflict of challenging the oppressive Capitol and its social norms as she participates in the deadly Hunger Games, a televised event that pits children against each other in a fight for survival.
Lord of the Flies by William Golding	Person vs. Person	Stranded on an uninhabited island, a group of boys experiences escalating conflicts among themselves, illustrating the person vs. person external conflict as power struggles, fear, and competing ideologies emerge.
To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	Person vs. Prejudice	In the racially charged setting of Maycomb, Atticus Finch confronts the external conflict of societal prejudice and racism as he defends Tom Robinson, a Black man, in court, highlighting the pervasive person vs. prejudice dynamic.
Moby-Dick by Herman Melville	Person vs. Nature	Captain Ahab’s relentless pursuit of revenge against the elusive white whale, Moby-Dick, represents a person vs. nature external conflict as the characters grapple not only with the whale but also with the harsh elements of the vast, unforgiving sea.
The Road by Cormac McCarthy	Person vs. Post-Apocalyptic Environment	In a desolate, post-apocalyptic world, a father and son face the external conflict of survival, contending with threats from other survivors, scarcity of resources, and the bleak environmental conditions.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Person vs. Society	Jay Gatsby’s ambitious pursuit of wealth and love is hindered by societal expectations, the rigid class structure of the 1920s, and the external conflict of trying to fit into a world that constantly eludes him.
The Outsiders by S.E. Hinton	Person vs. Person	The rivalry between the Greasers and the Socs unfolds as a person vs. person external conflict, exploring the tensions and conflicts between two social groups with different backgrounds and expectations.

How to Create External Conflict in Literature

Establish Clear Opposing Forces:
- Clearly define the conflicting elements, whether they are opposing characters, societal norms, environmental challenges, or external circumstances that create tension within the narrative.

Develop Compelling Characters:
- Create well-rounded characters with distinct motivations, desires, and values. Introduce elements that inherently clash with one another, setting the stage for external conflict rooted in the characters’ differences.
Utilize Divergent Goals and Objectives:
- Introduce conflicting goals or objectives for the characters, forcing them to make choices that lead to external clashes. These conflicting aims can drive the plot forward and create dynamic interactions between characters.
Employ Vivid Descriptions and Settings:
- Use descriptive language to evoke the external environment and settings, enhancing the conflict. Whether it’s a hostile natural landscape or a rigid societal structure, a vivid backdrop can amplify the challenges faced by the characters.

Introduce Moral and Ethical Dilemmas:
- Infuse the narrative with moral quandaries and ethical dilemmas that challenge the characters’ beliefs and values. This introduces a layer of complexity to the external conflict in literature, prompting characters to grapple not only with external forces but also with their internal convictions.

External Conflict in Literature and Literary Theory

Structuralism:
- Structuralist theorists, such as Roland Barthes and Claude Lévi-Strauss, focus on identifying recurring patterns and structures within literature. In external conflict, they might analyze how conflicts are structured and repeated across different works, emphasizing universal elements that contribute to the narrative’s overall meaning.
Psychoanalytic Criticism:
- Psychoanalytic theorists, like Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan, delve into characters’ unconscious desires and motivations. In external conflict, they might explore how characters project their internal conflicts onto external elements, revealing deeper psychological tensions and unresolved issues.

Marxist Criticism:
- Marxist theorists, including Karl Marx and Fredric Jameson, scrutinize literature for social and economic implications. In external conflict, they might assess how conflicts between characters or groups represent broader societal struggles, reflecting class divisions, power dynamics, and economic disparities.
Feminist Criticism:
- Feminist theorists, such as Simone de Beauvoir and Judith Butler, analyze literature through the lens of gender and power dynamics. In external conflict, they might critique how gender roles contribute to conflicts, exploring how societal expectations and power imbalances affect characters’ experiences and interactions.
Deconstruction:
- Deconstructionists like Jacques Derrida question fixed meanings and challenge binary oppositions in literature. In external conflict, they might focus on destabilizing traditional notions of opposing forces, complicating the distinctions between protagonist and antagonist or problematizing the resolution of conflicts.

Reader-Response Criticism:
- Reader-response theorists, including Wolfgang Iser and Stanley Fish, emphasize the reader’s role in interpreting a text. In external conflict, they might explore how readers engage with and interpret conflicts, acknowledging that readers’ backgrounds and perspectives influence their understanding of characters and their struggles.
Cultural Criticism:
- Cultural critics, influenced by theorists like Raymond Williams and Stuart Hall, examine literature within its cultural context. In external conflict in literature, they might analyze how conflicts reflect or challenge cultural norms, values, and societal expectations, providing insights into the cultural landscape of the time.
Postcolonial Criticism:
- Postcolonial theorists, including Edward Said and Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, scrutinize literature from the perspective of colonized or marginalized voices. In external conflict in literature, they might assess how conflicts portray colonial encounters, power struggles, and the impact of imperialism on characters and communities.

External Conflict: A Literary Device

External conflict, as a literary device, encompasses the tension arising from a protagonist’s struggle against external forces such as societal expectations, environmental challenges, or opposing characters.

Etymology of External Conflict

The term “external conflict” traces its etymological origins to the Latin language, where “externus” means “outward” or “external,” and “conflictus” denotes “collision” or “struggle.” The amalgamation of these roots encapsulates the fundamental concept of conflict arising from sources outside an individual or entity.

In its academic usage, “external conflict” typically refers to the narrative or thematic tension generated by a protagonist’s struggle against external forces such as societal norms, environmental challenges, or antagonistic characters.

Meanings of External Conflict

Aspect	Meaning
Etymological Roots	Derived from Latin “externus” (meaning “external” or “outward”) and “conflictus” (indicating “struggle”).
Source of Tension	Narrative tension from external factors like societal norms, environmental challenges, or antagonists.
Literary and Dramatic Analysis	Significance in analyzing literature and drama, offering a framework for understanding character dynamics.
Narrative Structure	Key concept in examining narrative structures, revealing character development complexities in conflicts.

Definition of External Conflict

It serves as a crucial narrative element, driving plot development and character evolution by introducing obstacles and challenges originating from outside the central character.

Through the depiction of these external clashes, the device enriches storytelling by adding complexity and depth to characters and their journeys.

Common Examples of External Conflict

Interpersonal Disagreements: Arguments or conflicts with friends, family members, or colleagues can be considered external conflicts in everyday life, arising from differences in opinions, values, or priorities.

Workplace Challenges: Struggles with colleagues, supervisors, or workplace policies represent external conflicts, impacting an individual’s professional life and requiring resolution for a harmonious work environment.
Financial Struggles: Facing economic challenges, such as debt, job loss, or financial constraints, serves as an external conflict that individuals must navigate in their daily lives.
Health Issues: Dealing with health problems or navigating medical concerns constitutes an external conflict that individuals grapple with, affecting various aspects of their daily routines and overall well-being.

Community Disputes: Conflicts within communities, neighborhoods, or local groups can arise from differing perspectives on issues like development, resource allocation, or community goals.
Legal Matters: Involvement in legal disputes, whether personal or professional, presents external conflicts that individuals may encounter, requiring resolution through legal processes.
Cultural Differences: Interactions and conflicts stemming from diverse cultural backgrounds, traditions, or beliefs represent external conflicts in multicultural societies.

Natural Disasters: Coping with the aftermath of natural disasters, such as floods, earthquakes, or hurricanes, introduces external conflicts related to rebuilding, relocation, and recovery.
Traffic or Transportation Issues: Daily challenges like traffic congestion, public transportation delays, or vehicle breakdowns create external conflicts that impact individuals’ routines and schedules.
Educational Challenges: Students may face external conflicts in the form of academic pressures, conflicts with peers, or challenges related to educational systems and policies.

Types of External Conflict

Type	Explanation	Example in Literature
*Person vs. Person*	Conflict between two or more characters, often involving opposing goals, beliefs, or values. This type of conflict is common in interpersonal relationships and is a classic element in many stories.	In William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, the titular characters face conflict with each other’s families, the Montagues and Capulets, representing a classic person vs. person conflict.
*Person vs. Society*	The protagonist faces conflict with societal norms, cultural expectations, or institutional structures. This type of conflict explores the tension between an individual and the broader community or social order.	George Orwell’s 1984 depicts the protagonist, Winston Smith, in conflict with the oppressive societal structures and thought control imposed by the Party, illustrating a person vs. society conflict.
*Person vs. Nature*	External conflict arises from the protagonist’s struggle against natural elements or forces, such as weather, animals, or environmental disasters. Survival stories often feature this type of conflict.	In Jack London’s To Build a Fire, the protagonist contends with the harsh, freezing conditions of the Yukon wilderness, illustrating a person vs. nature conflict as he struggles for survival against the unforgiving environment.
*Person vs. Technology/Machine*	Conflict with advanced technology, artificial intelligence, or machinery. This type of conflict explores the potential risks and consequences associated with human interaction with technology.	Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein portrays the protagonist, Victor Frankenstein, in conflict with his own creation, an artificially constructed being, exemplifying a person vs. technology/machine conflict.
*Person vs. Supernatural*	Conflict with supernatural entities, forces, or elements beyond the natural world. This type of conflict is prevalent in fantasy, horror, and speculative fiction genres.	In Bram Stoker’s Dracula,the characters confront the supernatural threat posed by Count Dracula, showcasing a person vs. supernatural conflict in the realm of gothic horror.
*Person vs. Fate/Destiny*	The protagonist grapples with a predetermined course of events or an unavoidable destiny. This type of conflict delves into themes of free will and determinism.	Sophocles’ “Oedipus Rex” follows the tragic story of Oedipus, who unknowingly fulfills a prophesied destiny, exemplifying a person vs. fate/destiny conflict and exploring the boundaries of individual agency.
*Person vs. Time*	Conflict involving time constraints or the pressure of time as a crucial element. This can manifest in deadlines, countdowns, or the urgency of completing a task within a specified timeframe.	In H.G. Wells’s The Time Machine, the protagonist grapples with the temporal challenges of time travel, illustrating a person vs. time conflict as he navigates through different eras and confronts the consequences of time manipulation.
*Person vs. Space/Environment*	Conflict arising from challenges in outer space or unconventional environments. This may involve astronauts, explorers, or characters navigating unfamiliar and hostile territories.	Andy Weir’s The Martian features a person vs. space/environment conflict as the protagonist, Mark Watney, contends with the harsh conditions of Mars while stranded on the planet, showcasing the challenges of survival in an alien environment.
*Person vs. Ideology/Belief*	Conflict arises when a character challenges or opposes a prevailing ideology, belief system, or philosophical stance. This type of conflict often explores themes of individuality and nonconformity.	Ray Bradbury’s Fahrenheit 451 explores a person vs. ideology/belief conflict as the protagonist, Guy Montag, questions the oppressive censorship and conformity enforced by the society, highlighting the struggle against a rigid ideological system.
*Person vs. Economic Circumstances*	Conflict related to financial struggles, economic disparities, or societal issues tied to wealth and poverty. This type of conflict is prevalent in stories exploring socioeconomic challenges.	John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath depicts the Joad family’s struggle against economic hardships during the Great Depression, portraying a person vs. economic circumstances conflict in the context of societal and economic challenges.

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Day: November 11, 2023