Month: February 2024

Desecularization: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Desecularization: Etymology/Term

The term “desecularization” is formed through the addition of the prefix “de-” (meaning reversal) to “secularization.” It signifies a process in which there is a resurgence of religious influence or a departure from secular values and institutions within a society.

Meanings and Concept

• Revival of Religion: Desecularization emphasizes the return of religion to prominence in public life, social structures, and political arenas.
• Challenging Secularization Theory: It confronts the long-held thesis that modernity inevitably leads to the decline of religion’s influence over societies.
• Varied Expressions: Desecularization manifests in diverse ways, including the growth of religious fundamentalist movements, the increased political and social impact of faith-based organizations, and a greater visibility of religious practices and symbolism.
• Subject of Contention: The scope, driving forces, consequences, and global significance of desecularization remain topics of academic debate and research.

Desecularization: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Desecularization refers to the process through which societies, individuals, or institutions shift away from secularism and towards a more religious or spiritual orientation. It encompasses a resurgence of religious beliefs, practices, and influence in public life, often challenging the perceived decline of religion in modern societies. Desecularization can manifest in various forms, such as increased religious participation, the reintegration of religious norms into public discourse, and the revitalization of religious institutions.

Desecularization: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists

• Peter L. Berger: An influential sociologist who initially supported secularization theory. In his later work, most notably The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics, he famously revised his stance. Berger argued that modernization does not inherently lead to the decline of religion, highlighting the continued vitality of religious belief in the contemporary world.
• José Casanova: A sociologist known for his work Public Religions in the Modern World. Casanova contends that religion remains a powerful force in the public sphere, challenging the notion of a strict separation between religion and politics in modern societies.
• Rodney Stark: Sociologist who, along with Roger Finke, applied a market-based approach to the study of religion. Their work, including Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion, emphasized that religious pluralism can lead to revitalization rather than decline.

Arguments

• The Failure of Secularization Theory: Desecularization proponents argue that the predicted decline of religion in the face of modernization has not come to pass. They point to the persistence of religious belief and practice globally as evidence of secularization’s limitations.
• Religion as a Social Force: These theorists emphasize the continued relevance of religion in providing meaning, community, and moral frameworks for individuals and societies. They argue it fills a void left by the decline of traditional institutions.
• Globalization and Religious Revival: Some theorists associate desecularization with the ways in which globalization fuels religious movements, both as a reaction to homogenizing forces and as a way to reaffirm identity and cultural heritage.
• Critiques of Desecularization: Critics argue that the concept of desecularization overstates the resurgence of religion globally and that emphasizing specific examples ignores the ongoing secular trends in many parts of the world.

Desecularization: Major Characteristics

1. Religious Revival:
   • Desecularization is marked by a resurgence of religious beliefs and practices. This resurgence can be seen in the renewed interest in religious rituals, ceremonies, and spiritual experiences within a society. A literary example of this can be found in The Sparrow by Mary Doria Russell, where a group of Jesuit priests embark on a mission to make first contact with an extraterrestrial civilization, leading to profound spiritual and existential reflections among the characters.
2. Challenges to Secular Norms:
   • Desecularization often involves a challenge to the dominance of secular norms and values in public life. This can manifest as debates over the role of religion in education, politics, and social policies. In The Shadow of the Wind by Carlos Ruiz Zafón, the narrative explores the tension between secularism and religious traditions within the context of a mysterious and atmospheric story set in post-war Barcelona.
3. Reconciliation of Faith and Modernity:
   • Desecularization may entail efforts to reconcile religious beliefs with modernity and technological advancements. This reconciliation can lead to innovative interpretations of religious doctrines and the adoption of new religious practices. In American Gods by Neil Gaiman, gods and mythological beings from various cultures struggle to adapt to the modern world, reflecting the complexities of maintaining faith in a secular, technologically-driven society.
4. Increased Religious Influence:
   • Desecularization often results in an increased influence of religious institutions and leaders in shaping public discourse and societal norms. This influence may extend to moral, ethical, and cultural domains. In The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood, a totalitarian regime based on religious fundamentalism exerts control over society, illustrating the potential consequences of unchecked religious influence in a desecularizing context.

Desecularization: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	How Desecularization is Relevant	Example
Postcolonial Theory	Investigates how desecularization can occur in former colonies as a response to or rejection of secular values imposed during the colonial era. May explore the resurgence of indigenous religions or alternative spiritualities.	Analysis of religious themes and the use of traditional mythology in works by postcolonial authors like Chinua Achebe or Salman Rushdie.
New Historicism	Examines historical contexts where seemingly secular literature may be embedded within religious debates or evolving attitudes toward religion. Considers how desecularization impacts the reinterpretation of older texts and their significance.	Analyzing how a Renaissance text, previously read as secular, might reveal religious undercurrents when considered through the lens of desecularization.
Religious Studies Approaches	Explores literature as both a reflection and a contributor to desecularization trends. Analyzes how religious motifs, narratives, and characters are utilized within literary works to challenge or reinforce prevailing religious norms.	Examining how contemporary novels engage with religious pluralism, the rise of spirituality, or the blurring of boundaries between the sacred and secular.
Cultural Studies	Investigates how popular culture, including literature, both reflects and contributes to desecularization trends. Focuses on the representation of religion in novels, films, and other media.	Studying how supernatural or fantasy elements in popular fiction might reflect changing attitudes towards religion and spirituality.

Desecularization: Application in Critiques

1. The Crucible by Arthur Miller

• Desecularization Elements: The play dramatizes the Salem witch trials, where religious fervor and paranoia lead to a complete breakdown of secular reason and justice.
• Critique: A desecularization critique would examine how religious frenzy takes on the role of law and subverts established social order. It might analyze how the blurring of religious and legal authority creates an oppressive environment.

2. Paradise Lost by John Milton

• Desecularization Elements: This epic poem is steeped in Biblical narratives and explores themes of heaven, hell, and the fall of humankind. It could be viewed as a literary project that reinforces and disseminates a particular religious worldview.
• Critique: A desecularization critique could grapple with how Milton’s theological arguments contribute to the dominance of Christian thought during its historical period. It might analyze how the poem shapes perceptions of good, evil, and human nature.

3. Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys

• Desecularization Elements: This novel reimagines the story of Bertha Mason from Jane Eyre, exploring her Caribbean background and experiences of Creole culture. It juxtaposes different spiritual beliefs, including Obeah practices, with dominant forms of Christianity.
• Critique: A desecularization lens could examine how Rhys challenges colonial and religious impositions. It could analyze how Bertha’s character is shaped by clashing spiritualities and used as a symbol of resistance.

4. The Chronicles of Narnia by C.S. Lewis

• Desecularization Elements: Lewis’s children’s fantasy series is filled with Christian themes and allegories. It could be interpreted as a work that promotes and popularizes Christian values for a young audience.
• Critique: A desecularization critique could investigate the mechanisms by which the novels construct a distinctly Christian worldview. It might analyze the use of symbolism, the portrayal of good and evil, and the ways in which they might shape readers’ moral framework.

Desecularization: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Desecularization	The process by which societies see a resurgence or increased prominence of religion in the public sphere.
Secularization	The process of societies becoming less influenced by religion, often separating religious institutions from political and social structures.
Theocracy	A system of government where the state and its laws are based on religious doctrine.
Religious Revivalism	A renewal of religious fervor and commitment within a society or religious community.
Religious Fundamentalism	A strict and often rigid adherence to a literal interpretation of religious texts and doctrines.
Pluralism	The coexistence of multiple religions or belief systems within a society.
Religious Identity Politics	The use of religious affiliation to mobilize political action or shape political discourse.
Modernity	A broad term encompassing the social, political, and economic changes associated with the rise of industrialization and urbanization, often seen as linked to secularization.
Postmodernity	A historical period characterized by a skepticism towards grand narratives (including those of secularization) and an emphasis on individual experience and diverse perspectives.
Globalization	The increasing interconnectedness of the world through economic, cultural, and technological exchange. Can be a driving force behind both secularization and desecularization trends.

Desecularization: Suggested Readings

1. Berger, Peter L., ed. The Desecularization of the World: Resurgent Religion and World Politics. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co, 1999.
2. Casanova, José. Public Religions in the Modern World. University of Chicago Press, 1994.
3. Habermas, Jürgen. An Awareness of What is Missing: Faith and Reason in a Post-Secular Age. Polity Press, 2010.
4. Jenkins, Philip. The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity. 3rd ed., Oxford University Press, 2011.
5. Kepel, Gilles. The Revenge of God: The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World. Polity Press, 1994.
6. McLeod, Hugh. Religion and the People of Western Europe 1789-1989. Oxford University Press, 1997.
7. Riesebrodt, Martin. The Promise of Salvation: A Theory of Religion. University of Chicago Press, 2010.
8. Stark, Rodney, and Roger Finke. Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion. University of California Press, 2000.
9. Warner, R. Stephen. “Work in Progress toward a New Paradigm for the Sociological Study of Religion in the United States.” American Journal of Sociology, vol. 98, no. 5, 1993, pp. 1044–1093.

Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs): Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology: The term “Repressive State Apparatuses” was introduced by French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser in his essay “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses” (1970). It’s derived from the notion of “state apparatuses,” which refers to the various institutions and mechanisms through which the state exercises its power and maintains social order.

Meanings and Concept:

• State Power and Control: RSAs represent the institutions and mechanisms of the state that primarily function through coercion and repression to maintain social order and uphold the interests of the ruling class. These apparatuses include institutions like the police, military, judiciary, and prison system, which enforce laws and regulations through force or threat of punishment.
• Exercise of Hegemony: RSAs operate alongside Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) to establish and reinforce the dominant ideology of the ruling class. While ISAs, such as schools, media, and religious institutions, shape individuals’ beliefs and values, RSAs serve as a backup to ensure compliance through coercion and repression when ideological persuasion fails.
• Maintenance of Social Control: RSAs exert control over society by repressing dissent, suppressing opposition, and disciplining those who challenge the status quo. They use tactics like surveillance, censorship, violence, and imprisonment to quash resistance and maintain the stability of the existing social order.
• Critique of Capitalist Society: Althusser’s concept of RSAs emerged from a Marxist critique of capitalist society, highlighting the role of the state in protecting the interests of the ruling class and perpetuating class inequality. RSAs are seen as integral to the functioning of capitalist societies, where the state serves as a tool for preserving the dominance of the bourgeoisie over the proletariat.

Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs): Definition of a Theoretical Term

Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs) refer to the institutional and organizational structures within a society that exert control through coercion, force, and repression to maintain social order and uphold the interests of the ruling class. These apparatuses, which include institutions like the police, military, judiciary, and prison system, operate through mechanisms of surveillance, punishment, and violence to suppress dissent and enforce compliance with existing power structures. RSAs function alongside Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) to establish and reinforce the dominant ideology, ensuring the stability and continuity of the prevailing social hierarchy.

Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs): Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist

• Louis Althusser (French Marxist philosopher): Althusser’s theorization of RSAs remains a cornerstone in understanding the mechanisms that states employ to maintain social and political control.

Seminal Work

• “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes Towards an Investigation)” (1970): This essay provides the foundational framework for both RSAs and their counterpart, Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs).

Core Arguments

• The Dual Nature of State Power: Althusser posits that states exert power through two distinct but interconnected modalities:
  • Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs): Rely on force (or its potential) to secure order, including institutions like the military, police, judiciary, and the prison system.
  • Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs): Wield influence through the dissemination of ideas, values, and beliefs, encompassing domains such as education, religion, and media.
• Systemic Function of RSAs: RSAs operate in a coordinated manner to uphold the prevailing power structure and the interests of the dominant class or group.
• The Spectrum of Coercion: While overtly violent action is a tool of RSAs, their effectiveness often hinges on subtle coercion or fostering an environment where the threat of force induces compliance.

Further Theoretical Contributions

• Antonio Gramsci (Italian Marxist): Gramsci’s exploration of hegemony, the process by which power gains legitimacy through a combination of coercion and consent, bears significant relevance to the analysis of RSAs.
• Michel Foucault (French philosopher): Foucault’s analysis of power, discipline, and surveillance reveals the complex ways in which modern RSAs extend their reach and control beyond overt acts of force.
• Nicos Poulantzas (Greek Marxist): Poulantzas’s work examines the specificities of RSAs within the framework of capitalist states, delving into their structural characteristics and operations.

Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs): Major Characteristics

Major Characteristics of RSAs

• Function by Force: RSAs primarily operate through the use of physical force or the threat of it. This distinguishes them from ISAs, which work through ideas and ideology.
• Hierarchically Organized: RSAs are not a random collection of entities. They form an integrated system with a chain of command and coordination of goals.
• Serve the Ruling Class: RSAs ultimately protect and uphold the interests of the dominant class or power structure within the state.
• Psychological Dimension: RSAs create an atmosphere of fear and looming repression, even when overt violence isn’t being used. This fosters compliance and stifles dissent.
• Opaque and Unaccountable: RSAs often operate with limited transparency or mechanisms for accountability, adding to their power and potential for abuse.

Literary References

• 1984 (George Orwell): Orwell’s dystopian masterpiece paints a chilling picture of total state control. The Thought Police, telescreens, and the constant threat of Room 101 embody all aspects of RSAs.
• Animal Farm (George Orwell): While focusing on ideological control, the novel’s allegorical ending with Napoleon’s dogs represents the raw power of an RSA, enforcing a new order with brute force.
• V for Vendetta (Graphic Novel – Alan Moore): The Norsefire regime employs secret police, surveillance, and concentration camps – a classic image of the repressive state apparatus.
• The Handmaid’s Tale (Margaret Atwood): Gilead’s power rests on the “Eyes,” a secret police force, public executions, and the ever-present threat of violence, clearly illustrating the role of RSAs in religious authoritarianism.
• Hunger Games Trilogy (Suzanne Collins): The Peacekeepers ruthlessly enforce the Capitol’s power in the Districts, showcasing how RSAs maintain internal order within a rigidly hierarchical society.

Note: It’s important to remember that RSAs can exist in varied forms, across political systems. These literary examples mostly represent extreme cases.

Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs): Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance to RSAs
Marxism	Central to understanding how states maintain power structures. Analysis focuses on RSAs as tools of the ruling class to suppress dissent and protect economic interests.
Postcolonialism	Examines how RSAs were used in colonial domination and their enduring legacy. Explores how RSAs enforce cultural hegemony and perpetuate power imbalances in postcolonial societies.
Feminism	Highlights the ways RSAs can be used to uphold patriarchal systems. Studies how RSAs reinforce gender roles, police women’s bodies, and perpetuate gender-based violence.
Critical Race Theory	Examines RSAs as tools of systemic racism and oppression. Focuses on how RSAs disproportionately target marginalized racial groups and maintain structures of white supremacy.
Foucauldian Theory	Analyzes RSAs as part of broader systems of discipline and surveillance. Explores the psychological effects of RSAs and how they produce docile, obedient citizens.
Structuralism	Views RSAs as elements within a larger system of social control. Examines the underlying structures and ideologies that give RSAs power and legitimacy.

Example of How the Concept Might be Used

Let’s consider a Marxist analysis of a dystopian novel with a strong RSA presence:

• Novel: The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood
• RSA Focus: The Eyes (secret police), the Wall (public executions), the Colonies (forced labor camps)
• Marxist Analysis: These RSAs would be seen as upholding the Gilead regime, which benefits an elite class of men. The novel could be analyzed in terms of how these RSAs brutally enforce class divisions and prevent any challenge to the ruling power.

Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs): Application in Critiques

1. Nineteen Eighty-Four (George Orwell)

• RSA Examples: The Thought Police, telescreens, the Ministry of Truth, Room 101
• Critique: Orwell’s classic is a stark depiction of a state where RSAs penetrate EVERY aspect of life. Consider these points:
  • How does the constant threat of violence create psychological control?
  • Examine how language itself is manipulated by the state as an RSA.
  • Explore the destruction of private life and its connection to total state control.

2. The Handmaid’s Tale (Margaret Atwood)

• RSA Examples: The Eyes, The Wall (public executions), the Aunts, the Colonies.
• Critique: Gilead’s power rests on extreme RSAs focused on social control and brutal punishment. Analyze:
  • The gendered nature of RSAs and how they uphold patriarchy.
  • The use of religious indoctrination alongside overt force (ISAs and RSAs together).
  • Moments of resistance and how even a totalitarian state can’t fully eliminate defiance.

3. The Hunger Games (Suzanne Collins)

• RSA Examples: Peacekeepers, public executions, the Games themselves as a spectacle of state power.
• Critique: Focus on how RSAs maintain not just order but inequality.
  • Consider how the Games are a tool of psychological and physical oppression of the Districts.
  • Analyze the Capitol’s use of spectacle and how this intersects with RSA force.
  • Think about rebellion and how the cracks in the RSA system are exploited.

4. Kafka’s The Trial

• RSA Examples: The anonymous court system, elusive authority figures, Josef K’s arrest and bewilderment.
• Critique: Kafka presents a more insidious RSA. Examine:
  • The psychological impact of a bureaucratic, unaccountable system of ‘justice.’
  • How the lack of clear charges and the opaque RSA create a sense of powerlessness.
  • Explore how societal norms and self-doubt can become tools of the RSA in this case.

Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs): Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Ideology	A system of beliefs, values, and ideas that justify and support the interests of a particular group or class.
Hegemony	Dominance or leadership exercised by one group over others, often achieved through ideological means.
Discourse	Language, communication, and practices that shape and construct social realities and power relations.
Power Relations	The dynamics and interactions through which power is exercised, negotiated, and contested in society.
Biopower	Mechanisms through which modern states regulate and control populations, often through technologies of surveillance and normalization.
Governmentality	The techniques and strategies used by governments to govern and control populations, often through self-regulation and discipline.
Panopticon	A theoretical model of disciplinary power, in which individuals are subjected to constant surveillance and control, even when not visible to authorities.
Interpellation	The process by which individuals are hailed or called upon by ideological structures to assume specific subject positions.
Repression	The use of force, coercion, or other forms of control to suppress dissent, opposition, or resistance.
Counter-Hegemony	Resistance or opposition to dominant ideologies and power structures, aimed at creating alternative forms of social organization and discourse.

Repressive State Apparatuses (RSAs): Suggested Readings

1. Althusser, Louis. “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes Towards an Investigation).” Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays. Monthly Review Press, 2001, pp. 85-126.
2. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Translated by Alan Sheridan. Vintage Books, 1995.
3. Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited and translated by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell-Smith. International Publishers, 1971.
4. Nield, Keith. The Secret State: British Internal Security in the Twentieth Century. I.B. Taurus, 2009.
5. Orwell, George. Nineteen Eighty-Four. Secker & Warburg, 1949.
6. Parenti, Christian. Lockdown America: Police and Prisons in the Age of Crisis. Verso, 2000.
7. Poulantzas, Nicos. State, Power, Socialism. Translated by Patrick Camiller. Verso Books, 2000.
8. Rancière, Jacques. Disagreement: Politics and Philosophy. Translated by Julie Rose. University of Minnesota Press, 1999.
9. Scott, James C. Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts. Yale University Press, 1990.
10. Žižek, Slavoj. Violence: Six Sideways Reflections. Picador, 2008.

Repression: Etymology, Meanings, and Concept

Etymology and Term: The word “repression” stems from the Latin reprimere meaning “to press back” or “hold back.” In psychology, it gained prominence through Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, denoting the unconscious process of keeping unacceptable thoughts, desires, or impulses out of conscious awareness.

Meanings and Concepts:

• Psychological Defense Mechanism: In psychoanalytic theory, repression is a primary defense mechanism used to shield the ego from anxiety-provoking material.
• Unconscious Process: Repression operates largely unconsciously – the person is often unaware of what is being kept from their awareness.
• Potential Return of the Repressed: Repressed material can re-emerge in disguised forms, such as through dreams, slips of the tongue, or neurotic symptoms.
• Societal Repression: The concept extends beyond individual psychology to describe suppression of groups or ideas within a society by those in power.

Repression: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Repression is a theoretical term in psychology that describes a defense mechanism by which distressing thoughts, memories, or impulses are unconsciously pushed out of conscious awareness. It involves the exclusion of these troubling mental contents from immediate consciousness in an attempt to avoid or reduce psychological discomfort. Repression operates to keep unacceptable desires or experiences out of conscious awareness, often leading to their manifestation through alternative behaviors or symptoms.

Repression: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Works	Arguments
Sigmund Freud	Studies on Hysteria (with Josef Breuer), The Interpretation of Dreams, The Psychopathology of Everyday Life, Civilization and Its Discontents	* Repression is a key defense mechanism protecting the ego from anxiety caused by unacceptable impulses (often rooted in sexuality or aggression). * Repressed content, while unconscious, doesn’t disappear. It impacts our behavior indirectly (dreams, slips, symptoms). * Repression is necessary for civilization, but comes at a psychological cost.
Anna Freud	The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense	* Systematized and expanded upon her father’s work on defense mechanisms, outlining repression in more detail. * Emphasized that repression is a normal part of development.
Carl Jung	Psychology of the Unconscious, Symbols of Transformation	* Agreed with the existence of an unconscious but disagreed with its solely sexual nature. * Saw repression as a broader process, including suppression of creativity, spirituality, and aspects of the self deemed unacceptable by society.
Political and Social Theorists (e.g., Marxist, Feminist, Critical Race)	Various (see works by Foucault, Marcuse, hooks, etc.)	* Argue that repression operates on a societal level, with power structures suppressing certain groups, knowledge, or expressions to maintain control. * Emphasize that what is deemed “acceptable” is determined by those in power, and this repression can lead to social injustice.

Repression: Major Characteristics

• Unconscious Defense Mechanism: Repression involves the unconscious exclusion of distressing thoughts, memories, or impulses from conscious awareness, serving as a defense mechanism against psychological discomfort. (Literary Reference: In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the character Hamlet represses his feelings of anger and desire for revenge, leading to psychological turmoil.)
• Manifestation of Alternative Behaviors or Symptoms: Repressed thoughts or emotions may manifest indirectly through alternative behaviors, emotions, or physical symptoms, often without the individual’s awareness of their true origin. (Literary Reference: In Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper, the narrator’s repressed desires and emotions manifest as hallucinations and obsessive behavior.)
• Impact on Mental Health and Functioning: Repression can have significant implications for mental health and functioning, potentially leading to unresolved conflicts, emotional distress, and maladaptive coping strategies. (Literary Reference: In Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment, the protagonist Raskolnikov’s repression of guilt and moral conflict contributes to his psychological deterioration.)
• Potential for Psychological Resilience or Dysfunction: While repression may offer temporary relief from distressing thoughts or emotions, it can also contribute to long-term psychological dysfunction if unresolved issues continue to influence behavior and mental well-being. (Literary Reference: In Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar, the protagonist’s repression of her inner turmoil ultimately leads to a breakdown and struggles with mental illness.)
• Therapeutic Exploration and Resolution: Addressing repression often involves therapeutic exploration of unconscious conflicts and emotions, aiming to bring repressed material into conscious awareness for processing and resolution. (Literary Reference: In Sigmund Freud’s case studies, such as Dora and The Rat Man, psychoanalytic therapy is employed to uncover and resolve repressed memories and conflicts.)

Repression: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	How Repression is Used
Psychoanalytic Criticism	* Analyzes texts for signs of unconscious desires and conflicts of characters, authors, and even implied readers. * Explores how symbolism, dreams, and narrative patterns might reveal repressed elements. * Focuses on how repression shapes plot, character development, and the overall meaning of the work.
Feminist Criticism	* Examines how patriarchal societies repress female voices, experiences, and perspectives within literary texts. * Analyzes how women characters might internalize societal repression, impacting their actions and self-expression. . * Seeks to uncover how repressed female desires can manifest symbolically in literature.
Marxist Criticism	* Explores how dominant ideologies repress class consciousness and awareness of economic exploitation within texts. * Investigates how literature can both reinforce and challenge the repression of working-class perspectives. * Analyzes how characters may internalize the repressive attitudes of the ruling class.
Postcolonial Criticism	* Focuses on the repression of colonized voices, experiences, and histories in literature. Examines how texts may perpetuate harmful stereotypes and erase the realities of the colonized. * Explores how literature may subvert colonial repression through symbolism and alternative narratives.
New Historicism	* Examines how power structures and social norms in a particular historical period led to repression within literary works. * Explores how texts reflect and reinforce the social and political anxieties of their time. * Highlights how literature can both challenge and participate in the repression of certain ideas or groups.

Repression: Application in Critiques

1. “Dubliners” by James Joyce”: In Joyce’s collection of short stories, it is a pervasive theme as characters grapple with the constraints of social expectations and cultural norms in early 20th-century Dublin. Stories like “The Dead” and “Eveline” illustrate how characters repress their desires, aspirations, and true selves due to familial duties, religious influences, and societal pressures. Joyce critiques the stifling atmosphere of Dublin society and the consequences of repressing individual identity and autonomy.
2. “The Picture of Dorian Gray” by Oscar Wilde”: Wilde’s novel explores it through the titular character, Dorian Gray, who represses his immoral actions and their consequences by transferring them onto his portrait. Dorian’s pursuit of hedonistic pleasures and his refusal to acknowledge the moral consequences of his actions represent a form of psychological repression. Wilde critiques Victorian society’s obsession with appearances and its repression of individual desires and impulses.
3. “The Plough and the Stars” by Sean O’Casey”: O’Casey’s play delves into such themes amidst the backdrop of the Easter Rising in Dublin. Characters such as Nora Clitheroe and Jack Clitheroe experience repression in various forms, including economic oppression, political suppression, and societal constraints. O’Casey critiques the forces that oppress the working class and the consequences of repressing revolutionary fervor and dissent.
4. “The Country Girls Trilogy” by Edna O’Brien”: O’Brien’s trilogy explores it in the lives of its protagonists, Caithleen Brady and Baba Brennan, as they navigate the repressive Catholic society of mid-20th-century Ireland. The characters grapple with societal expectations of female purity, obedience, and submission, leading to internalized guilt, shame, and self-repression. O’Brien critiques the patriarchal structures that repress women’s autonomy and agency, highlighting the struggles of women to break free from societal constraints.

Repression: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Defense Mechanism	An unconscious psychological strategy used to manage anxiety or internal conflict.
Unconscious	The part of the mind holding thoughts, feelings, and memories outside of conscious awareness.
Suppression	The conscious, intentional pushing down of unwanted thoughts or feelings.
Dissociation	A mental process disconnecting thoughts, memories, feelings, sense of identity, or perception of surroundings to cope with trauma or stress.
Sublimation	Channeling unacceptable impulses or desires into socially acceptable activities or behaviors.
Catharsis	The release of strong or repressed emotions, often leading to relief.
Trauma	A deeply distressing experience that can overwhelm an individual’s coping mechanisms.
Censorship	The suppression of information or ideas deemed objectionable by those in power.
Propaganda	Information, often biased or misleading, spread to promote a particular political cause or ideology.
Social Control	Mechanisms society employs to maintain order and conformity, potentially involving the repression of certain behaviors or perspectives.

Repression: Suggested Readings

1. Breuer, Josef, and Sigmund Freud. Studies on Hysteria. Beacon Press, 1957.
2. Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction. Vintage, 1990.
3. Freud, Anna. The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense. Karnac Books, 1992.
4. Herman, Judith Lewis. Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence. Basic Books, 1997.
5. Loftus, Elizabeth, and Katherine Ketcham. The Myth of Repressed Memory. St. Martin’s Griffin, 1996.

Representationalism: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Representationalism has its roots in the Latin word “repraesentare,” meaning “to make present again.” In the context of philosophy, representationalism is the theory that our minds do not directly access the external world. Instead, our perceptions, thoughts, and experiences are based on internal mental representations of that world.

• Key Concepts
  • Veil of Perception: Our senses don’t give us unfiltered reality; they create internal representations which we interpret as the world.
  • Problem of Skepticism: Since we only interact with representations, how can we be certain that they accurately reflect true reality?
  • Intentionality: Mental states (beliefs, desires, etc.) have the capacity to be about something other than themselves.
  • Mind-Body Problem: This theory raises the question of how non-physical mental representations can arise from, or interact with, the physical world.

Representationalism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Representationalism is a philosophical theory that suggests our perceptions and mental experiences are not direct interactions with the external world. Instead, our minds operate on internal representations or copies of that external reality. This concept implies that our understanding of the world is fundamentally indirect, raising questions about the true nature of reality and the limits of our knowledge.

Representationalism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Key Theorists

• John Locke: One of the earliest proponents of representationalism. He distinguished between primary qualities (inherent in objects, like shape and size) and secondary qualities (produced in our minds, like color and taste).
• Immanuel Kant: Developed the concept of transcendental idealism. He believed the mind actively constructs our experience of the world, using categories like space and time, rather than simply mirroring reality.
• John McDowell: A contemporary representationalist who emphasizes the role of our conceptual understanding in shaping our experience of the world.

Important Works

• John Locke: “An Essay Concerning Human Understanding” – introduces the distinction between primary and secondary qualities.
• Immanuel Kant: “Critique of Pure Reason” – outlines transcendental idealism and the mind’s role in constructing reality.
• John McDowell: “Mind and World” – a modern defense of representationalism with an emphasis on our conceptual capacities.

Central Arguments

• Argument from Illusion: Illusions and hallucinations demonstrate that our perceptions don’t always match external reality, suggesting they are mediated by mental representations.
• Argument from Science: Our scientific understanding of perception (e.g., how the brain processes sensory input) supports the idea that our experiences are built from neural representations, not direct contact with the world.
• Causal Argument: If mental representations were merely caused by the external world with no resemblance, it’s unclear how we could ever know about that world. Representation must involve some level of similarity, even if imperfect.

Representationalism: Major Characteristics

1. Mediated Perception: Perception of external reality is believed to be mediated by mental representations or internal states, acting as intermediaries between the mind and the external world. (Literary Reference: “The Matrix” by the Wachowskis, where reality is perceived through simulated representations.)
2. Internal Representation: Emphasizes the presence of mental states or representations that stand for objects, events, or ideas in the external world, playing a pivotal role in cognition and knowledge acquisition. (Literary Reference: George Orwell’s “1984”, where the protagonist’s thoughts are controlled by internal representations manipulated by the authoritarian regime.)
3. Dependence on Mental States: Knowledge and understanding rely on the content and structure of mental representations, with their accuracy and fidelity determining the quality of perception and cognition. (Literary Reference: Jorge Luis Borges’ “The Library of Babel”, where knowledge is constrained by the representations contained within an infinite library.)
4. Epistemological Significance: Asserts that knowledge is grounded in mental representations of reality, highlighting the importance of comprehending how the mind constructs and interprets representations to shape our understanding of the world. (Literary Reference: Umberto Eco’s “The Name of the Rose”, where knowledge is pursued through deciphering symbols and representations in a medieval monastery.)
5. Philosophy of Mind Perspective: Within philosophy of mind, mental states like beliefs, desires, and perceptions are viewed as representations of external or internal states of affairs, informing theories of consciousness, intentionality, and mental content. (Literary Reference: Daniel Dennett’s “Consciousness Explained”, which explores how consciousness arises from representational processes in the brain.)
6. Artistic Expression: Extends to art, where artists create representations symbolizing aspects of reality, delving into how meaning is conveyed and interpreted across various mediums. (Literary Reference: Vincent van Gogh’s “Starry Night”, which represents the artist’s perception of the night sky in a symbolic and expressive manner.)
7. Debates and Critiques: Engages in ongoing debates and critiques within philosophy, particularly concerning the nature of mental representation, the relationship between representation and reality, and the role of representation in cognitive processes. (Literary Reference: Thomas Nagel’s “What Is It Like to Be a Bat?”, which challenges representationalist accounts of consciousness by exploring the subjective nature of experience.)

Representationalism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Representationalism
Formalism / New Criticism	Challenges the direct correspondence of language to reality. Emphasizes the constructed nature of literary texts and how they create their own internal realities.
Structuralism	Aligns with the idea that signs (words) only have meaning within a system of relationships, not by directly referencing real-world objects. Focuses on how literature creates its own representational system.
Post-Structuralism	Emphasizes the instability of meaning and challenges the possibility of any fixed representation of reality. Texts are seen as constantly generating new meanings, undermining the idea of a single, authoritative representation.
Reader-Response Criticism	Stresses the role of the reader in constructing meaning from the text. The act of reading becomes an interaction between the text’s representations and the reader’s own experiences and interpretations.
Cognitive Literary Studies	Explores how the mind constructs literary worlds and narratives using schemas, mental models, and other cognitive processes. Representationalism provides a philosophical foundation for understanding the mental mechanisms involved in reading literature.

Representationalism: Application in Critiques

• Hamlet (William Shakespeare):
  • The Veil of Perception: Hamlet’s struggle with the veracity of the ghost and the unreliability of outward appearances underscore representationalism’s concern with the fallibility of perception. The play-within-a-play further emphasizes the layered nature of reality and representation.
  • Intentionality and Interpretation: The ambiguity surrounding characters’ motivations and the play’s polysemous nature highlight the lack of a singular, definitive meaning. This invites the audience to engage in their own representational processes, drawing individual interpretations.
• Ulysses (James Joyce):
  • Subversion of Representational Norms: The novel’s fragmented form and stream-of-consciousness technique challenge traditional linear narratives. It demands active reader participation in the construction of meaning, emphasizing the subjective and constructed nature of experience in line with representationalism.
  • Limits of Language: Joyce’s experimentation with language exposes the inherent limitations of words in their ability to fully encapsulate the multifaceted nature of reality.
• The Handmaid’s Tale (Margaret Atwood):
  • Representational Power Structures: Gilead’s manipulation of language, imagery, and historical narratives demonstrates how controlling representations equates to controlling reality. This critiques systems of power that construct worldviews to enforce dominance.
  • Subjectivity and Constructed Realities: Offred’s first-person account underscores how personal experiences, particularly those influenced by oppression, are inherently mediated through internal representations. This emphasizes the individual’s role in filtering and understanding their world.
• Invisible Man (Ralph Ellison):
  • Representational Injustice: The novel explores how imposed social constructs and stereotypes deny the protagonist’s complex individuality. This highlights the harmful effects of misrepresentation and the failure of external perceptions to capture the depth of lived experience.
  • Existential Invisibility: The protagonist’s metaphorical invisibility critiques the disconnect between societal representations of race and the multifaceted realities of Black identity, underscoring the dehumanizing consequences of denying an individual’s right to self-definition.

Representationalism: Relevant Terms

Representationalism: Relevant Terms

1. Mental Representation: Internal cognitive structures that stand for objects, events, or ideas in the external world, playing a crucial role in cognition and perception.

2. Intentionality: The property of mental states being about something; the directedness or “aboutness” of mental content towards objects or states of affairs.

3. Phenomenal Consciousness: The subjective experience of consciousness, including sensory perceptions, emotions, and thoughts, which are represented in the mind.

4. Computational Theory of Mind: The view that mental states and processes can be understood as computational processes, involving the manipulation of symbols or representations.

5. Language of Thought Hypothesis: The theory proposing that thought processes are structured and mediated by an internal language or symbolic system of mental representations.

6. Dualism: The philosophical stance that posits a fundamental distinction between mind and matter, often contrasting mental representations with physical reality.

7. Idealism: The philosophical perspective asserting that reality is fundamentally mental or constructed by the mind, with external objects existing only as mental representations.

8. Perception: The process of acquiring, interpreting, and organizing sensory information from the external world, often mediated by mental representations.

9. Epistemology: The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge, exploring how knowledge is acquired and justified through mental representations.

10. Realism: The philosophical position affirming the existence of an objective reality independent of human perception or representation, contrasting with idealism.

Representationalism: Suggested Readings

1. Dennett, Daniel C. Consciousness Explained. Little, Brown and Company, 1991.
2. Descartes, René. Meditations on First Philosophy. Translated by John Cottingham, Cambridge University Press, 1996.
3. Dretske, Fred I. Knowledge and the Flow of Information. MIT Press, 1981.
4. Fodor, Jerry A. The Language of Thought. Harvard University Press, 1975.
5. Kant, Immanuel. Critique of Pure Reason. Translated by Paul Guyer and Allen W. Wood, Cambridge University Press, 1998.
6. Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Edited by Peter H. Nidditch, Oxford University Press, 1979.
7. Putnam, Hilary. Representation and Reality. MIT Press, 1988.
8. Russell, Bertrand. The Problems of Philosophy. Oxford University Press, 1912.
9. Sellars, Wilfrid. Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind. Harvard University Press, 1997.
10. Tye, Michael. Ten Problems of Consciousness: A Representational Theory of the Phenomenal Mind. MIT Press, 1995.

Remediation: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology

The term “remediation” derives from the Latin remediare, meaning “to cure” or “to heal”. This etymology underscores the fundamental concept of corrective action or restoration.

Meanings

• Environmental Remediation: The process of addressing contamination in various environmental media (e.g., soil, groundwater, surface water, air). This involves the removal or mitigation of pollutants and hazardous substances to protect human health and ecological systems.
• Educational Remediation: Interventions designed to provide targeted support for learners experiencing academic difficulties. Remediation strategies may include individualized instruction, differentiated learning activities, and specialized skill development programs.
• Cognitive Remediation: Therapeutic approaches aimed at improving cognitive functions such as attention, memory, executive function, and problem-solving. Cognitive remediation is often utilized in the treatment of brain injuries, neurological disorders, and mental health conditions.

Key Concepts

• Problem Identification: The initial step in remediation, involving the precise diagnosis of a pollution scenario, a specific learning challenge, or a cognitive deficit.
• Comprehensive Assessment: Detailed evaluation to establish the nature and scope of the problem, informing the development of an effective remediation strategy.
• Tailored Intervention: The implementation of a customized remediation plan based on the assessment findings. Interventions may range from environmental cleanup technologies to specialized instructional techniques or therapeutic exercises.
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Continuous tracking of progress and outcomes to guide potential adjustments to the remediation plan, ensuring its ongoing effectiveness.

Remediation: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Remediation refers to the process of correcting or improving something that is deficient or problematic. It involves identifying the root cause of the issue and implementing strategies to address it effectively. Whether in education, environmental restoration, or technology, remediation aims to restore functionality, integrity, or quality to a system or situation.

Remediation: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Field	Theorists	Works	Arguments
Media Studies/New Media	Jay David Bolter & Richard Grusin	Remediation: Understanding New Media	New media always refashion and incorporate older forms, creating a complex interplay between old and new. This process is not one of replacement but of ongoing transformation.
Environmental Science	(Numerous – field driven by technology and regulation)	Technical Papers, Regulatory Guidance Documents	Remediation focuses on risk reduction, balancing technological feasibility, cost, and the protection of human health and the environment.
Educational Psychology	Robert Gagné	The Conditions of Learning	Systematic analysis of learning needs drives the design of instructional remediation. Remediation should target specific gaps in a learner’s knowledge or skill hierarchy.
Cognitive Rehabilitation	Tilo Strobach	Cognitive Remediation Therapy (CRT)	Targeted exercises can improve cognitive function in individuals with brain injuries or mental health conditions. Remediation focuses on both restoring lost function and developing compensatory strategies.

Important Notes:

• Interdisciplinary Concept: Remediation is a concept found in various fields; therefore, no single set of theorists fully defines it.
• Evolving Field: Each discipline continues to develop and refine remediation theories and practices.
• Field-Specific: It is critical to research theorists and arguments specific to a particular area of remediation that you’re interested in.

Remediation: Major Characteristics

• Transformation: Remediation involves change, aiming to improve an undesirable condition.
  • Literary References:
    • The transformation of monstrous beings into sympathetic characters (e.g., Frankenstein’s monster in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein or the Beast in Beauty and the Beast)
    • Personal narratives of redemption (e.g., Jean Valjean in Victor Hugo’s Les Miserables)
• Restoration: Remediation often strives to return something to a previous or more ideal state.
  • Literary References:
    • Efforts to rebuild ravaged societies or restore lost honor (e.g., Epic poems like Beowulf or The Iliad)
    • Quests to reclaim a lost paradise or a sense of innocence (e.g., John Milton’s Paradise Lost)
• Adaptation: Remediation involves finding new uses for existing things or adapting to a changed situation.
  • Literary References:
    • Characters repurposing objects or skills to overcome obstacles (e.g., Robinson Crusoe in Daniel Defoe’s novel)
    • The retelling and reinterpretation of classic stories or myths in modern contexts.
• Compensation: Remediation might involve strategies to make up for a deficiency or loss.
  • Literary References:
    • Characters developing special abilities or seeking external resources to counter a weakness (e.g., mythic heroes receiving gifts from the gods)
    • Themes of overcoming adversity through resilience, community, or spiritual strength.
• Concealment: Sometimes remediation is focused on hiding or masking a problem rather than its fundamental resolution.
  • Literary References:
    • Characters with deceptive appearances or hidden motives.
    • Narratives that expose social hypocrisy or the flawed systems behind a seemingly perfect façade (e.g., satire or dystopian fiction).

Remediation: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Remediation
Postmodernism	It is central in postmodern literary theory, where texts often reference or borrow from other texts, engaging in a constant process of reinterpretation and recontextualization.
New Historicism	It intersects with New Historicism by examining how texts remediate historical events, ideologies, or cultural norms, shedding light on power dynamics and historical consciousness.
Reader-Response Theory	In Reader-Response theory, it highlights how readers’ interpretations and responses to a text are influenced by their engagement with other media forms, such as film adaptations or online discussions.
Feminist Theory	Remediation within feminist theory explores how texts remediate gender roles, stereotypes, and narratives, and how such remediations either reinforce or subvert patriarchal structures.
Postcolonialism	Within postcolonial literary theory, it is examined in the context of how texts remediate colonial histories, languages, and cultural identities, shedding light on issues of representation and agency.
Eco-criticism	Remediation in eco-criticism involves examining how literature remediates environmental concerns, shaping perceptions of nature and humanity’s relationship with the natural world.
Queer Theory	In Queer Theory, it explores how texts remediate notions of gender and sexuality, challenging heteronormative narratives and offering alternative perspectives on identity and desire.

Remediation: Application in Critiques

1. Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen: Remediation in the critique of Pride and Prejudice could explore how the novel does it societal norms and gender roles of the Regency era, offering a satirical commentary on class, marriage, and social expectations. Furthermore, one might analyze how adaptations of Pride and Prejudice in film, television, and digital media platforms reinterpret Austen’s themes of love, social status, and personal growth within contemporary contexts.
2. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez: In analyzing One Hundred Years of Solitude, it could involve examining how the novel remediates Latin American history, politics, and magical realism, offering a multi-generational saga that blurs the lines between reality and myth. Additionally, critiques might explore how adaptations and translations of One Hundred Years of Solitude in various languages and media formats capture the novel’s richness and complexity while reflecting diverse cultural perspectives.
3. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: Regarding The Great Gatsby, a critique through the lens of it could focus on how the novel remediates the American Dream and the Jazz Age, offering a critique of wealth, privilege, and moral decay in 1920s America. Furthermore, one could analyze how adaptations of The Great Gatsby in film, theater, and contemporary literature explore themes of love, illusion, and the pursuit of happiness in different cultural and historical contexts.
4. The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood: When critiquing The Handmaid’s Tale, it could involve examining how the novel remediates feminist literature and dystopian fiction, offering a chilling portrayal of patriarchal oppression and reproductive control. Furthermore, analyses might explore how adaptations of The Handmaid’s Tale in television series, graphic novels, and political discourse engage with contemporary issues of gender, power, and authoritarianism in society.

Remediation: Relevant Terms

Term	Description
Intermediality	The interaction and blending of different media forms within a single work or across multiple works.
Hypermediacy	The heightened awareness of mediation in a text, often achieved through the juxtaposition of multiple media elements.
Transmediation	The process of adapting a story or concept across different media platforms, each offering unique experiences and perspectives.
Intertextuality	The referencing or incorporation of other texts within a literary work, creating layers of meaning and connections between texts.
Remix Culture	The cultural phenomenon where existing texts, images, or media are recombined or repurposed to create new works with different meanings or interpretations.
Palimpsest	A metaphorical term referring to texts or works that bear traces of previous versions or influences, embodying layers of meaning and history.
Adaptation	The transformation of a literary work into another medium, such as film, theater, or digital media, often involving changes to suit the new format.
Appropriation	The borrowing or recontextualization of elements from one text or culture into another, often with critical or creative intent.
Remediation	The process of representing or reinterpreting one medium through another, highlighting the influence and interaction between different media forms.
Paratext	Supplementary material surrounding a text, such as titles, prefaces, or footnotes, which shapes the reader’s interpretation and understanding.

Remediation: Suggested Readings

Core Theoretical Works

• Bolter, Jay David, and Richard Grusin. Remediation: Understanding New Media. MIT Press, 2000. The foundational text for understanding how new media transforms and incorporates elements of older media.
• Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Adaptation. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2013. Analyzes the complex processes of how narratives and other creative works are adapted across different mediums.

Applications

• Literary/Cultural: Rajewsky, Irina O. “Intermediality, Intertextuality, and Remediation: A Literary Perspective on Intermediality.” Intermédialités, no. 6, Fall 2005, pp. 43–64.
• Environmental: National Research Council. Alternatives for Ground Water Cleanup. National Academies Press, 1994.
• Educational: Fuchs, Douglas, and Lynn S. Fuchs. “The Promise of Strategic Instruction in Remedial Reading.” Focus on Exceptional Children, vol. 38, no. 7, March 2006, pp. 1-16.
• Cognitive: Medalia, Alice, and Nadine Revheim. Cognitive Remediation Therapy for Schizophrenia. Routledge, 2008.

Colorism: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Colorism: Etymology/Term

The term “colorism” is believed to have been coined by the Pulitzer Prize-winning author Alice Walker in 1982. It originates from the word “color” and describes discrimination or prejudice against individuals with darker skin tones, typically among people of the same ethnic or racial group.

Meanings and Concept

• Prejudice or Discrimination Based on Skin Tone: Colorism operates by favoring lighter skin tones over darker skin tones, granting privileges to those with lighter skin and creating disadvantages for those with darker skin.
• Intertwined with Racism: Colorism often functions alongside and within systems of racism, where biases based on skin tone play a role in how individuals are treated and the opportunities they are offered.
• Global Phenomenon: Colorism exists in many societies worldwide, impacting various ethnic and racial groups. It is particularly prevalent in countries with histories of colonization and slavery.
• Impact on Self-Esteem: Colorism can have a significant negative impact on the self-esteem and mental health of individuals who experience discrimination due to their skin tone.
• Internalized Colorism: Colorism can be internalized by individuals, leading them to hold biases against both themselves and others with darker skin tones.

Colorism: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Colorism refers to discrimination or prejudice based on skin color, typically within the same racial or ethnic group. It manifests as favoritism toward individuals with lighter skin tones and the marginalization or devaluation of those with darker skin tones. Colorism can have pervasive effects on various aspects of life, including employment opportunities, social status, and perceptions of beauty.

Colorism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

1. Frantz Fanon:
   • Works: Black Skin, White Masks, The Wretched of the Earth
   • Arguments: Fanon explored the psychological impacts of colonialism on both colonized and colonizer, highlighting how internalized racism and colorism perpetuate oppressive systems.
2. Audre Lorde:
   • Works: The Uses of Anger: Women Responding to Racism, Sister Outsider
   • Arguments: Lorde addressed the intersections of race, gender, and sexuality, emphasizing how colorism within feminist and anti-racist movements marginalizes women of color.
3. Toni Morrison:
   • Works: The Bluest Eye, Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination
   • Arguments: Morrison’s fiction and criticism delve into the complexities of racial identity and beauty standards, illustrating how colorism perpetuates self-hatred and internalized oppression.
4. bell hooks:
   • Works: Black Looks: Race and Representation, Killing Rage: Ending Racism
   • Arguments: hooks critiques the commodification of beauty and the media’s role in perpetuating Eurocentric beauty standards, contributing to colorism and the erasure of Blackness.
5. Eduardo Bonilla-Silva:
   • Works: Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States
   • Arguments: Bonilla-Silva’s research examines the subtleties of contemporary racism, including colorism, within a supposedly “color-blind” society, highlighting how racial hierarchies persist despite surface-level claims of equality.

Colorism: Major Characteristics

• Privilege and Favoritism for Lighter Skin:
  • Novel: “The Bluest Eye” by Toni Morrison: Pecola Breedlove, a young Black girl, yearns for blue eyes, believing they would grant her beauty and acceptance.
  • Short Story: “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston: Delia, a hardworking dark-skinned washerwoman, is abused by her lighter-skinned husband, highlighting the power dynamics within their relationship.
• Negative Stereotypes Associated with Darker Skin:
  • Play: Shakespeare’s “Othello”: The titular character, a Moor with dark skin, is often associated with negative stereotypes of violence and deceit.
  • Novel: “Invisible Man” by Ralph Ellison: The protagonist’s dark skin renders him invisible to white society, emphasizing the dehumanizing effects of colorist prejudice.
• Beauty Standards Centered on Lightness:
  • Fairy Tales: “Snow White” and “Cinderella” both feature fair-skinned heroines, perpetuating the idea that beauty is equated with lightness.
  • Novel: “Their Eyes Were Watching God” by Zora Neale Hurston: Janie’s grandmother emphasizes the desirability of lighter skin within their community.
• Intersectionality with Other Forms of Oppression:
  • Novel: “The Color Purple” by Alice Walker: Celie, a dark-skinned woman, experiences compounded oppression based on her race, gender, and class.
  • Memoir: “I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings” by Maya Angelou: Angelou explores how colorism within the Black community intersects with her experiences of sexism and trauma.
• Global Manifestation
  • Novel: “The God of Small Things” by Arundhati Roy: The novel set in India delves into societal hierarchies based on skin tone and their impact on the characters’ lives and relationships.
  • Novel: “Half of a Yellow Sun” by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: Set in Nigeria, the story highlights the dynamics of colorism both within the Igbo community and in the context of colonialism.

Important Note: It’s crucial to remember that colorism functions as a complex, insidious form of discrimination, often deeply ingrained in societal structures and cultural values.

Colorism: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	How Colorism is Examined	Example
Postcolonial Theory	Explores how colorism is a legacy of colonialism, where lighter skin was often associated with colonizers and positions of power. Challenges narratives that perpetuate the privileging of whiteness.	Examining how internalized colorism affects characters in novels set in former colonies, like Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s “Half of a Yellow Sun.”
Feminist Theory	Focuses on how colorism intersects with gender, creating double standards for women based on skin tone. Analyzes beauty standards and how they often uphold Eurocentric features, influencing self-perception and experiences.	Analyzing how lighter-skinned female characters are portrayed differently than darker-skinned characters in terms of desirability, morality, and agency.
Critical Race Theory	Views colorism as a manifestation of systemic racism within racial groups. Examines how colorism reinforces power hierarchies and contributes to unequal outcomes and opportunity within a racialized society.	Exploring the concept of “passing” in literature and the ways characters navigate racial boundaries based on their skin tone, like in Nella Larsen’s novel “Passing.”
Psychoanalytic Theory	Investigates the psychological impact of colorism: internalized biases, trauma, and the effect on self-esteem and identity formation.	Analyzing how characters in works like Toni Morrison’s “The Bluest Eye” manifest the internalization of colorist ideas.
Reader-Response Theory	Examines how readers’ own experiences with race and colorism shape their interpretations of literary texts. Considers how readers might identify with, challenge, or be blind to colorist themes in a work.	Analyzing varying reader responses to a novel that deals with colorism and how their backgrounds may influence their understanding of the issues presented.

Colorism: Application in Critiques

1. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

• Colorist Elements: The novel’s portrayal of wealth and privilege is intertwined with whiteness. Characters like Daisy Buchanan and Tom Buchanan embody idealized beauty standards associated with light skin and European features.
• Critique: A colorist critique could examine how Gatsby’s pursuit of Daisy is partly fueled by aspirations towards a social status linked with whiteness. It could also analyze how the marginalized character of Meyer Wolfsheim, coded as Jewish, contrasts with the ‘old money’ characters with their implied Anglo-Saxon heritage.

2. Sula by Toni Morrison:

• Colorist Elements: Morrison directly confronts colorism within the Black community. The two protagonists, Nel and Sula, have different skin tones. Nel embodies a more conventional beauty standard associated with lighter skin, while Sula challenges these norms.
• Critique: A colorist critique could explore how Sula’s defiance of colorist expectations leads to her ostracization. The novel could be analyzed for the way it deconstructs notions of beauty and desirability within the Black community.

3. Quicksand by Nella Larsen:

• Colorist Elements: Protagonist Helga Crane’s mixed-race heritage places her in a precarious position in terms of both racial and color-based hierarchies. The novel explores how her skin tone impacts her experiences of acceptance, opportunity, and love.
• Critique: A colorist critique might focus on Helga’s sense of alienation and her search for belonging, highlighting how colorism compounds the difficulties of navigating racial identity.

4. Frankenstein by Mary Shelley:

• Colorist Elements: The Creature’s monstrous appearance is often described in terms that could be interpreted as racialized. His “yellow skin” and grotesque features mark him as other and undesirable.
• Critique: A colorist critique could investigate how Shelley’s portrayal of the Creature taps into anxieties about racial difference and reinforces a hierarchy where whiteness equates to beauty and humanity.

Colorism: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Colorism	Discrimination or prejudice against individuals with darker skin tones, often occurring within the same racial or ethnic group.
Intra-racial Discrimination	Discrimination based on differences within a single racial group, such as variations in skin tone.
Pigmentocracy	A social hierarchy where lighter skin affords more privilege, power, and status.
Skin Tone Bias	Preference for and favoritism towards individuals with lighter skin tones.
Shadeism	A form of colorism where the focus is primarily on the shade of one’s skin rather than other racial features.
Beauty Standards	Societal ideals of beauty often influenced by colorism, favoring lighter skin tones and Eurocentric features.
Internalized Colorism	The acceptance and perpetuation of colorist beliefs by individuals within an affected community, leading to negative self-perceptions.
Intersectionality	The way colorism interacts with other forms of oppression like racism, sexism, and classism.
Paper Bag Test	A historical practice within some Black communities where a person’s skin tone was compared to a brown paper bag to determine social acceptability.
Global Phenomenon	The prevalence of colorism in various societies around the world, with a particular legacy in locations affected by colonialism and slavery.

Colorism: Suggested Readings

1. hooks, bell. Black Looks: Race and Representation. South End Press, 1992.
2. Lorde, Audre. Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches. Crossing Press, 1984.
3. Morrison, Toni. Playing in the Dark: Whiteness and the Literary Imagination. Vintage Books, 1993.
4. —. The Bluest Eye. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970.
5. Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin, White Masks. Grove Press, 2008.
6. —. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 2004.
7. Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2010.
8. Smith, Susan. “Colorism and Its Impact on African American Women: An Examination of the Literature.” Journal of African American Studies, vol. 14, no. 4, 2010, pp. 433-455.
9. Jones, Maxine Leeds. The Invisibility Faktor: Administrators and Faculty Perspectives on the Advancement of African American Women in Higher Education. Cambria Press, 2010.

Secularization: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymology and Term

The term “secularization” stems from the Latin word saeculum, meaning “world” or “age.” In its original context, it referred to the transfer of property or personnel from religious orders into the secular (worldly) realm. Today, secularization has a broader meaning relating to the shift away from religious centrality within a society.

Meanings and Concept

• Decline of Religious Influence: Secularization entails a decrease in the significance and authority of religion in social institutions, cultural practices, and individual lives.
• Separation of Church and State: Central to secularization is the distinction between religious and governmental spheres. Governance focuses on worldly concerns rather than the imposition of religious doctrine.
• Rationalization and Disenchantment: The process of secularization is often linked to the rise of scientific and rational explanations for phenomena, potentially diminishing the enchantment of traditional religious worldviews.
• Privatization of Religion: Religion often becomes a matter of personal belief and practice, rather than a dominating force shaping all aspects of society.
• Pluralism and Tolerance: Secularization can foster an environment where diverse religious and non-religious viewpoints are allowed to co-exist and are given greater acceptance.

Secularization: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Secularization refers to the process through which religious institutions, practices, and beliefs lose their social significance and influence within a society, often giving way to secular values and institutions. This phenomenon entails a shift from a predominantly religious worldview to one that is more centered around secular, rational, and scientific perspectives. It involves the diminishing authority of religious institutions in various spheres of public life, such as politics, education, and morality, as society becomes increasingly characterized by secular norms and institutions.

Secularization: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Here’s a breakdown of some key secularization theorists, their works, and their central arguments:

Classic Theorists

• Max Weber:
  • Work: “The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism”
  • Argument: The rise of Protestantism, with its emphasis on hard work, asceticism, and worldly success, played a role in the rationalization of society and the development of modern capitalism. This rationalization process can lead to the “disenchantment” of the world, reducing the influence of religious or magical explanations.
• Émile Durkheim:
  • Work: “The Elementary Forms of Religious Life”
  • Argument: Religion serves a vital social function by promoting cohesion and solidarity. However, as societies modernize, traditional sources of solidarity weaken, and religion may lose some of its social importance.
• Karl Marx:
  • Work: Various, including “Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right”
  • Argument: Saw religion as a tool of oppression (“opium of the people”) used by ruling classes to maintain power. Believed that true social change would require moving beyond religion.

Modern and Contemporary Theorists

• Peter Berger:
  • Works: “The Sacred Canopy”, “A Rumor of Angels”
  • Argument: Early work supported classic secularization theory (decline of religion). Later, revised his view, arguing that while religion loses influence in the public sphere, it remains vital on an individual level. Also emphasized the idea of religious pluralism undermining religion’s absolute hold on societies.
• Bryan Wilson:
  • Work: “Religion in Secular Society”
  • Argument: Secularization leads to the marginalization of religion and its confinement to private life, rather than its disappearance altogether.
• Steve Bruce:
  • Work: “God is Dead: Secularization in the West”, “Secularization: In Defence of an Unfashionable Theory”
  • Argument: A strong proponent of secularization theory, arguing that modernization’s processes (rationalization, industrialization, urbanization) inevitably erode traditional religious influence.

Important Notes

• The Debate is Ongoing: There is no single, agreed-upon definition of secularization or consensus on its extent. Some theorists argue it’s a universal trend; others point to religious resurgence in certain parts of the world.
• Complexity: Secularization is a complex process with varying expressions across cultures. It’s rarely a straightforward, linear decline in religiosity.

Secularization: Major Characteristics

• Decline of Religious Authority: The influence of religious institutions and leaders on social norms, laws, and public policy wanes.
  • Literary Reference: In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, the Puritan theocracy holds immense power, dictating morality and harshly punishing transgressions. A contemporary novel might portray religious figures as advisors rather than absolute authorities.
• Rationalization and Scientific Explanations: Events once attributed to divine will or supernatural forces are increasingly explained through science and reason.
  • Literary Reference: Medieval literature often features miracles and interventions by gods. Modern works might replace these with technological solutions or character-driven outcomes focused on human agency.
• Focus on the Material World: Emphasis shifts towards worldly concerns like economic progress, individual achievement, and personal fulfillment, rather than spiritual salvation.
  • Literary Reference: Classic works like The Pilgrim’s Progress focus on the spiritual journey. Modern novels might emphasize career ambition, the pursuit of wealth, or exploring the complexities of human relationships.
• Individualization of Belief: Religion becomes a matter of personal choice. People create their own spiritual paths or opt out of organized religion entirely.
  • Literary Reference: Characters in older works might have unquestioned faith tied to their community. Modern characters could display doubt, spiritual eclecticism, or a personally constructed belief system.
• Religious Pluralism: Societies become more religiously diverse, challenging any single religion’s dominance and fostering greater tolerance (ideally).
  • Literary Reference: Literature in religiously homogenous societies may not address other faiths. Modern works are likely to feature characters of different religions interacting, potentially challenging stereotypes or promoting understanding.

Important Notes:

• Secularization is rarely a complete replacement of religion. It’s more of a shift in the balance between religious and secular influences.
• Literature reflects the society it’s written in. You can trace the progress of secularization through the themes and concerns explored across different eras.

Secularization: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Secularization
Marxist Criticism	Secularization aligns with Marxist views of historical materialism, where societal change is driven by economic factors rather than religious ideologies. Marxist critics often analyze literature in terms of class struggle, emphasizing secular power dynamics.
Feminist Criticism	Secularization can be relevant in feminist literary theory by examining how patriarchal religious structures have historically marginalized women. Feminist critics explore how secularization impacts gender roles and challenges traditional religious norms.
Postcolonial Criticism	In postcolonial theory, secularization intersects with the legacy of colonialism, where Western powers often imposed their religious beliefs on colonized societies. Postcolonial critics analyze how secularization affects cultural identity and resistance to colonial ideologies.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Secularization can be viewed through a psychoanalytic lens by exploring how the decline of religious authority impacts individual psychology and the collective unconscious. Psychoanalytic critics may examine literature to uncover subconscious anxieties related to secularization.
Formalist Criticism	While formalist criticism typically focuses on the internal structure and literary devices of a text, secularization may be relevant in examining how authors depict shifts in worldview and the representation of religious themes within literary works.

Secularization: Application in Critiques

Fiction

• The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood: Examine the rise of theocratic Gilead against the backdrop of a more secularized past. Consider how the novel portrays the limitations of secularism, critiques the co-opting of religious language for oppressive purposes, and explores potential threats to religious tolerance.
• The Chronicles of Narnia by C.S. Lewis: Analyze Lewis’s use of Christian themes and allegory. Is Narnia a purely religious realm, or is there a presence of secularization? Look at how Aslan’s authority is portrayed, the role of rationality in the narrative, and the handling of characters from different faith backgrounds (if any).
• Life of Pi by Yann Martel: Explore how the protagonist’s multiple religious affiliations challenge traditional notions of religious exclusivity. Investigate the role of rationality and doubt in Pi’s journey and how the work comments on the private, individualized nature of faith in a potentially secularized world.
• Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys: Set in the post-emancipation Caribbean, analyze how shifts in power dynamics and racial hierarchies affect religious practices. Consider the intersection of secularization, colonialism, and the lingering cultural impact of religious traditions.

Non-fiction

• A Brief History of Time by Stephen Hawking: Dissect Hawking’s scientific explanations of the universe. Examine the displacement of traditional religious narratives of creation, the philosophical implications of a potentially rational and mechanistic cosmos, and how it addresses questions of meaning typically belonging to the religious realm.
• Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind by Yuval Noah Harari: Investigate how the book frames religion as a social construct intertwined with human history and psychology. Consider Harari’s arguments about the function of religion in enabling large-scale cooperation and the potential role of secular narratives to fulfill a similar social purpose.
• Orientalism by Edward Said: Analyze how secularized European mindsets, shaped by the Enlightenment, influenced colonial narratives about the “Orient”. Explore Said’s critique of how secular modes of knowledge production can still perpetuate power imbalances and misrepresentations based on religious difference.
• Manufacturing Consent by Noam Chomsky and Edward S. Herman: Examine the book’s argument that the media functions as a secular institution influencing public opinion and consent. Consider parallels to how religious establishments might have shaped the social order in the past, and if the work suggests new forms of secular authority have emerged.

Remember:

• Historical Context Matters: Ground your analysis in an understanding of the time and place the work was produced.
• Complexity is Key: Secularization is a multifaceted process; delve into the nuances in how each work presents it.
• Theoretical Tools: Draw on works by theorists like Weber, Durkheim, Berger, and Bruce for deeper insights.

Secularization: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Secularism	The principle of separating religion from governmental, social, and educational institutions, promoting a secular public sphere.
Religious Pluralism	The coexistence of diverse religious beliefs and practices within a society, often resulting from secularization processes.
Rationalization	The process by which traditional modes of thought, including religious ones, are replaced by rational, scientific explanations.
Decline of Religion	The diminishing influence of religious beliefs, institutions, and practices in society, often associated with secularization.
Disenchantment	Coined by Max Weber, it refers to the loss of a magical or supernatural worldview and the rationalization of social life.
Secular Humanism	An ethical and philosophical worldview that emphasizes human reason, ethics, and justice without the need for religious belief.
Religious Fundamentalism	A reactionary movement that seeks to preserve traditional religious beliefs and practices in the face of secularization.
Desacralization	The process of removing sacred or divine qualities from objects, places, or concepts, often accompanying secularization.
Post-secularism	A theoretical perspective suggesting that secularization does not lead to the disappearance of religion but rather its transformation.
Laïcité	A French concept of secularism emphasizing the strict separation of religion and state, often associated with French secular policies.

Secularization: Suggested Readings

1. Berger, Peter L. The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1967.
2. Bruce, Steve. God is Dead: Secularization in the West. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2002.
3. Casanova, José. Public Religions in the Modern World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.
4. Gauchet, Marcel. The Disenchantment of the World: A Political History of Religion. Translated by Oscar Burge. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999.
5. Taylor, Charles. A Secular Age. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007.
6. Wilson, Bryan R. Religion in Secular Society: A Sociological Comment. London: C.A. Watts & Co. Ltd, 1966.