Day: April 4, 2024

Introduction: “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r” by e. e. cummings

“r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r” by e. e. cummings was first published in 1931, as part of his collection of poems titled “No Thanks”. This poem is a striking example of Cummings’ experimental style and his rejection of traditional poetic conventions. The poem visually depicts the movements of a grasshopper in its fragmented title and structure of the words themselves. Its playful use of typography, spacing, and the disarrangement of the word “grasshopper” emphasizes the disjointed perception of movement, replicating the agile leaps and sudden pauses that characterize the creature. This visual and linguistic playfulness reflects the poem’s focus on the fleeting and fragmented nature of experience.

Text: “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r” by e. e. cummings

Annotations: “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r” by e. e. cummings

Line	Annotation
r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r	The title: Fragmented representation of the word “grasshopper” visually conveys the insect’s erratic movement.
who	Introduces a sense of observation, as if something surprising is about to happen.
a)s w(e loo)k	“as we look” – Emphasizes the act of observation. The parentheses within “look” might suggest a momentary distraction or a shift in focus.
upnowgath	A quick, upward motion (“up now”) followed by “gather,” suggesting a coming together of parts.
PPEGORHRASS	A further scrambling of “grasshopper,” implying its fragmented appearance in mid-leap.
eringint(o-	“gathering into” – Suggests a coalescing of the grasshopper’s form. Parentheses around ‘o’ may hint at the circular shape of its body.
aThe):l	“a The” – Unexpected syntax and capitalization, possibly mimicking the surprising nature of a grasshopper’s sudden appearance.
eA	Elongated “leaf” – Evokes the natural environment and perhaps the arc of the grasshopper’s leap.
!p:	Exclamation and colon – Emphasize a sense of suddenness and pause, like the insect landing.
S	Might represent the ‘S’ in “grasshopper,” now isolated, or symbolize the grasshopper’s stillness.
(r	Begins to restructure the word “grasshopper.” Could also refer to “rising”.
rIvInG	“arriving” is split, creating suspense; suggests continuing movement.
.gRrEaPsPhOs)	A jumbled mix of letters from “grasshopper,” conveying chaotic energy. The capital ‘R’ and ‘P’ may highlight the force of its leap.
to	Signals directionality; the grasshopper has a destination.
rea(be)rran(com)gi(e)ngly	A fragmented and rearranged version of “rearranging comingly.” This playful reconstruction evokes a sense of playful, unexpected motion.
,grasshopper;	Directly names the subject, confirming the previous jumbled letters were the grasshopper all along. The semicolon brings a measured pause, perhaps marking the end of the grasshopper’s motion.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r” by e. e. cummings

Device	Explanation	Example from the Poem
Avant-garde Typography	Unconventional use of spacing, punctuation, and letter arrangement to create visual and aural effects.	The entire poem is an example, especially the fragmented title and jumbled words.
Concrete Poetry	The poem’s visual arrangement contributes to its meaning.	The grasshopper’s leaping movement is visually depicted in the poem’s structure.
Enjambment	Lines run on without grammatical pauses, creating unexpected breaks and connections between words.	“…gatheringint(o- / aThe)…”
Experimental Syntax	Unusual word order and sentence structures.	“a The):l / eA !p:”
Imagery	Vivid language that evokes sensory experiences.	“PPEGORHRASS”, “.gRrEaPsPhOs” (visual imagery of a grasshopper’s form)
Parentheses	Used to disrupt the flow of words, create visual effects, and suggest possible multiple meanings.	“as w(e loo)k”, “eringint(o-“

Themes: “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r” by e. e. cummings

1. The Dynamism and Surprise of Nature: Cummings captures the grasshopper’s sudden, unpredictable leaps. The fragmented letters (“PPEGORHRASS”) and disjointed lines mimic its erratic movement. This highlights the spontaneity and ever-changing nature of the natural world, and the unexpected joy these small moments can offer.
2. The Power of Observation: The poem begins with “who / a)s w(e loo)k”, highlighting the act of looking itself. It encourages close attention to the world around us, suggesting that beauty and wonder can be found in the most unexpected places – even in a little grasshopper.
3. Fragmentation and Reassembly: The grasshopper’s name is fragmented, then rearranged as “rea(be)rran(com)gi(e)ngly”. This reflects a world in constant flux, where things break apart and come together in new ways. The poem forces the reader to piece together meaning, mirroring the process of perception.
4. Playfulness and Experimentation: The poem’s playful distortion of language disrupts expectations. This experimentation with syntax and form reflects a childlike sense of wonder and possibility, inviting the reader to engage with the world in a fresh, creative way.

Literary Theories and “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r” by e. e. cummings

Literary Theory	Explanation	Application to “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r”
Formalism	Focuses on the text itself – its form, structure, and literary devices – without emphasis on the author’s intent or historical context.	Analyzing the poem’s experimental typography, unconventional syntax, and how they create visual and auditory effects.
Reader-Response Theory	Emphasizes the reader’s role in creating meaning from the text. Each reader brings their unique experiences and interpretations.	The fragmented nature of the poem forces the reader to actively co-construct the grasshopper’s image and its movement, leading to varied interpretations.
Deconstruction	Challenges traditional hierarchies and binaries, uncovering hidden tensions and contradictions within the text.	The poem destabilizes expected language patterns (e.g., fragmentation of “grasshopper”), questioning fixed meanings and interpretations.
Postmodernism	Embraces fragmentation, experimentation, playfulness, and rejects grand narratives.	The poem’s focus on the grasshopper as a small, momentary event and its use of non-linear structure reflect a postmodern sensibility.

Critical Questions about “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r” by e. e. cummings

1. How does the poem’s visual form enhance its representation of the grasshopper’s movement? Answer: The poem’s fragmented letters, unusual spacing, and scattered lines visually mirror the grasshopper’s swift, erratic leaps and pauses. This creates a sense of kinetic energy, forcing the reader to slow down and visually piece together the insect’s form and movement.
2. Does the poem’s experimental style ultimately create a clearer image of the grasshopper, or does it intentionally obscure it? Answer: This is open to interpretation. The distortion might be seen as clarifying the grasshopper’s essence by replicating how we see it in a fleeting moment. Alternatively, it could suggest the limitations of language to fully capture the dynamism of nature.
3. How does the poem invite the reader to become an active participant in its meaning-making? Answer: The poem doesn’t offer a ready-made image. The reader must actively decipher the letters and word fragments, mirroring the process of observing the grasshopper itself. This makes the reader complicit in the poem’s act of creation.
4. In what ways does the poem reflect broader modernist concerns with fragmentation, subjectivity, and perception? Answer: The poem aligns with modernist tendencies to break with traditional forms, focus on the individual’s experience, and question the stability of meaning. It highlights the fragmented nature of perception and how meaning is constructed rather than inherent.

Literary Works Similar to “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r” by e. e. cummings

• Other works by e. e. cummings: Cummings’ signature style of experimentation with form permeates much of his poetry. Consider:
• ·  “[anyone lived in a pretty how town]” – Its abandonment of traditional grammar and punctuation conventions heightens its exploration of cyclical time and conformity.
• “[l(a]” – The typographical representation of a falling leaf underscores themes of loneliness and transience.
• Concrete Poetry: This genre emphasizes the visual arrangement of words as a significant component of meaning. A notable example:
• “Swan and Shadow” by John Hollander – The poem’s form creates the visual image of a swan, mirroring the duality and reflection explored within the text.
• Futurist Poetry: This Italian literary movement celebrated technological advancement and formal disruption. Key examples include:
• “Zang Tumb Tumb” by F.T. Marinetti – The poem’s use of onomatopoeia and fragmented syntax aims to replicate the chaotic soundscape and disjointed nature of warfare.
• Dadaist Poetry: Characterized by a rejection of logic and traditional aesthetics, Dada poems were often playful and deliberately nonsensical.

Suggested Readings: “r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r” by e. e. cummings

Books:

• Friedman, Norman. E. E. Cummings: The Growth of a Writer. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1964. (Provides insights into the development of Cummings’ experimental style throughout his career.)
• Kennedy, Richard S. Dreams in the Mirror: A Biography of E. E. Cummings. New York: Liveright, 1980. (Offers a comprehensive biographical study, contextualizing Cummings’ work within his life and influences.)
• Molesworth, Charles. E. E. Cummings: Beyond the Dialectic. Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1988. (Offers a critical analysis exploring tensions within Cummings’ poetry and its relation to broader literary movements.)

Articles:

• Li, Xin, and Mengchen Shi. “A Stylistic Study on the Linguistic Deviations in EE Cummings’ Poetry.” Journal of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics 19.2 (2015): 23-54. (Provides an in-depth examination of how Cummings’ typographical experimentation contributes to meaning.)
• Miller, J. Hillis. “E. E. Cummings’ ‘r-p-o-p-h-e-s-s-a-g-r’.” Poets of Reality: Six Twentieth-Century Writers. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965, pp. 254-283. (Offers a specific analysis of the poem within the context of Cummings’ broader exploration of perception and reality.)

Websites:

• The Academy of American Poets: [invalid URL removed] (Provides a curated selection of Cummings’ poems, a biographical overview, and links to critical articles.)
• Modern American Poetry (University of Illinois) (Offers extensive resources on American modernist poetry, including biographical information, poems, and critical essays related to Cummings’ work.)

Written after seeing Millet’s World-Famous Painting

Introduction: “The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham

“The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham was first published in 1899, causing a national sensation with its stark depiction of a broken laborer. Inspired by the painting of the same name by Jean-François Millet, Markham’s poem gives voice to the voiceless, challenging the systems that perpetuate social and economic injustice. Its rhetorical questions and vivid imagery ignite a sense of moral outrage, while the focus on the laborer’s dehumanization evokes deep empathy. These qualities elevate the poem beyond simple protest; it’s a timeless call for compassion and a demand for justice.”The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham was first published in 1899, causing a national sensation with its stark depiction of a broken laborer. Inspired by the painting of the same name by Jean-François Millet, Markham’s poem gives voice to the voiceless, challenging the systems that perpetuate social and economic injustice. Its rhetorical questions and vivid imagery ignite a sense of moral outrage, while the focus on the laborer’s dehumanization evokes deep empathy. These qualities elevate the poem beyond simple protest; it’s a timeless call for compassion and a demand for justice.

Text: “The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham

Annotations: “The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham

Line	Annotation
God made man in His own image, in the image of God made He him. —Genesis.	Biblical Reference: Sets up the core contrast – God’s creation vs. the man’s current state.
Bowed by the weight of centuries he leans	Broken Posture: Emphasizes the crushing weight of time and labor.
Upon his hoe and gazes on the ground,	Downward Focus: Represents physical limitation and a lost connection with higher realms.
The emptiness of ages in his face,	Emotional Desolation: His face reflects a lifetime devoid of joy or meaning.
And on his back the burden of the world.	Oppression: Symbolizes systemic burdens, not just his personal labor.
Who made him dead to rapture and despair,	Loss of Humanity: Questions the forces that stole his capacity for feeling.
A thing that grieves not and that never hopes,	Reduced to the Apathy of an Animal: The man is now an empty shell.
Stolid and stunned, a brother to the ox?	Dehumanization: Compares him directly to a beast of burden.
Who loosened and let down this brutal jaw?	Physical Distortion: Emphasizes the effects of oppression even on his appearance.
Whose was the hand that slanted back this brow?	Loss of Intellect: Suggests deliberate suppression of his mind.
Whose breath blew out the light within this brain?	Loss of Spirit: The spark of his soul has been extinguished.
Is this the Thing the Lord God made and gave	Ironic Reversal: Contrasts the ideal of God’s creation with this man’s reality.
To have dominion over sea and land;	Lost Potential: Reminds of humanity’s intended power (linked to Biblical creation).
To trace the stars and search the heavens for power;	Lost Aspirations: Highlights the tragedy of suppressed intellectual yearning.
To feel the passion of Eternity?	Lost Connection to the Divine: Questions if this man can ever feel God’s presence again.
Is this the Dream He dreamed who shaped the suns	The Broken Divine Plan: Emphasizes the perversion of God’s intention for humankind.
And marked their ways upon the ancient deep?	Cosmic Contrast: Juxtaposes cosmic grandeur with the man’s small, bleak existence.
Down all the stretch of Hell to its last gulf	A Greater Horror: Even Hell is less awful than his state of living death.
There is no shape more terrible than this—	Social Indictment: His condition symbolizes the horrors of society’s failures.
More tongued with censure of the world’s blind greed—	Embodies Critique: The laborer himself speaks out against societal greed.
More filled with signs and portents for the soul—	Holds Ominous Power: Warns this broken man is a harbinger of unrest.
More fraught with danger to the universe.	Potential for Upheaval: Holds the seeds of destructive social change within him.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham

Themes: “The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham

• Theme 1: Dehumanization and the Loss of Potential Markham depicts a laborer whose backbreaking, ceaseless toil has robbed him of his essential humanity. The poem emphasizes the contrast between the man’s current condition and the divine potential with which God imbued humankind. He has been reduced to an animalistic state, devoid of higher thought or feeling. This theme is encapsulated in lines like: “Who made him dead to rapture and despair, / A thing that grieves not and that never hopes, / Stolid and stunned, a brother to the ox?” and “Is this the Thing the Lord God made and gave / To have dominion over sea and land; / To trace the stars and search the heavens for power; / To feel the passion of Eternity?”
• Theme 2: Social Critique and Oppression The laborer is not simply downtrodden by fate; Markham strongly implies that the man’s condition is a result of systemic oppression. The poem indicts the greed and indifference of those in power, who have benefited from the suffering of the working class. This theme is emphasized by the direct address to the powerful: “O masters, lords and rulers in all lands, / is this the handiwork you give to God, / This monstrous thing distorted and soul-quenched?”
• Theme 3: The Seeds of Revolution While the poem focuses on the tragic plight of the laborer, it also carries undertones of uprising and imminent social change. Markham suggests that this broken man isn’t merely a passive victim but a figure filled with the potential for rebellion. This is made clear in the lines: “Down all the stretch of Hell to its last gulf / There is no shape more terrible than this— / More tongued with censure of the world’s blind greed— / More filled with signs and portents for the soul— / More fraught with danger to the universe.”
• Theme 4: Accountability and the Reckoning to Come The poem concludes with a series of urgent questions and warnings aimed at those in power. Markham stresses that there will be a future reckoning, where the downtrodden masses will hold their oppressors accountable. The final stanza powerfully embodies this theme: “O masters, lords and rulers in all lands, / How will the Future reckon with this Man? / How answer his brute question in that hour / When whirlwinds of rebellion shake the world? / How will it be with kingdoms and with kings— / With those who shaped him to the thing he is— / When this dumb Terror shall reply to God / After the silence of the centuries?”

Literary Theories and “The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham

Literary Theory	Application to “The Man with the Hoe”
Marxist Criticism	* Focus: Examines literature through the lens of class struggle and economic disparity. * Analysis:* The poem is a direct critique of capitalism and its dehumanizing effects on the working class. The laborer becomes a symbol of exploited workers, while those in power are held accountable.
Historical/New Historicism	* Focus: Views literature in the context of its historical moment and cultural influences. * Analysis:* The poem draws power from its timing – written in 1899, it reflects rising tensions of labor movements and progressive thought against the backdrop of the Industrial Revolution and Gilded Age inequality.
Formalism/New Criticism	* Focus: Close examination of literary devices and how they shape overall meaning. * Analysis*: Examines the poem’s use of imagery, symbolism, juxtaposition, repetition, and rhetorical questions to create a sense of anguish, condemnation, and impending change.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	* Focus: Explores the psychological motivations within a text, both of author and characters. * Analysis:* Could consider the poet’s own socialist beliefs and how they translate into the fierce empathy for the laborer. It could also examine the ‘loss of soul’ in the laborer as a psychological trauma due to oppression.
Reader-Response Criticism	* Focus: Emphasizes the reader’s active role in creating meaning within a text. * Analysis:* This poem could elicit diverse responses. Some readers might focus on its social commentary, others its spiritual crisis, or its call to action. Markham’s intended message may not align with every reader’s takeaway.

Critical Questions about “The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham

Literary Works Similar to “The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham

Key Similarities

Suggested Readings: “The Man with The Hoe” by Edwin Markham

• Scholarly Monograph:
• LeMaster, J.R. Edwin Markham: A Poet for the People. University of South Carolina Press, 2021.
  • Provides a comprehensive biography of Markham and situates his most famous poem within the context of his life and other works.
• Peer-Reviewed Journal Article:
• Blake, Casey Nelson. “Reaping What You Sow: Agrarianism, Labor, and the American Earth in ‘The Man with the Hoe.'” American Literature, vol. 71, no. 4., 1999, pp.859-887. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2902870.
  • Examines the poem’s complex engagement with themes of nature, labor, and social reform within the historical American context.
• Academic Website:
• Modern American Poetry: Edwin Markham:
  • Provides access to the full text of the poem, primary source materials related to Markham, and potentially critical essays or timelines.

Introduction: “A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London” by Dylan Thomas

“A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London” by Dylan Thomas was first published in 1939, a turbulent period marked by the looming shadow of World War II. This powerful poem, however, defies expectations. Rather than indulging in conventional mourning for a child lost to a London fire, Thomas embarks on a philosophical exploration of death and the afterlife. The poem utilizes rich imagery, complex metaphors, and a distinct rhythmic structure to grapple with mortality and offer a glimmer of hope for the child’s transcendence.

Text: “A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London” by Dylan Thomas

Never until the mankind making
Bird beast and flower
Fathering and all humbling darkness
Tells with silence the last light breaking
And the still hour
Is come of the sea tumbling in harness

And I must enter again the round
Zion of the water bead
And the synagogue of the ear of corn
Shall I let pray the shadow of a sound
Or sow my salt seed
In the least valley of sackcloth to mourn

The majesty and burning of the child’s death.
I shall not murder
The mankind of her going with a grave truth
Nor blaspheme down the stations of the breath
With any further
Elegy of innocence and youth.

Deep with the first dead lies London’s daughter,
Robed in the long friends,
The grains beyond age, the dark veins of her mother,
Secret by the unmourning water
Of the riding Thames.
After the first death, there is no other.

Annotations: “A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London” by Dylan Thomas

Line	Annotation
Never until the mankind making	Begins with a negation, establishing the poem’s stance. The speaker refuses to mourn until a greater cosmic shift occurs.
Bird beast and flower	Evocative symbol of the natural world, alluding to life’s cyclical nature.
Fathering and all humbling darkness	Suggests a divine force orchestrating creation and even death.
Tells with silence the last light breaking	A paradox: silence announces the finality of death (‘light breaking’ could also mean dawn.)
And the still hour	A moment of stasis, potentially the moment of death.
Is come of the sea tumbling in harness	Water imagery, hinting at the vastness of nature; ‘harness’ implies control within this chaos.
And I must enter again the round	The speaker acknowledges the inevitability of the cycle of life and death.
Zion of the water bead	‘Zion’ evokes a sacred place; ‘water bead’ suggests the smallness of existence, yet with a sense of wholeness.
And the synagogue of the ear of corn	Unusual religious imagery. ‘Synagogue’ implies community, while ‘ear of corn’ again evokes the natural world.
Shall I let pray the shadow of a sound	Questions the validity of traditional mourning rituals; sound is ephemeral, lacking substance.
Or sow my salt seed	‘Salt’ is linked to tears, suggesting an act of mourning.
In the least valley of sackcloth to mourn	‘Sackcloth’ symbolizes grief. The speaker rejects showy displays of sadness.
The majesty and burning of the child’s death.	Acknowledges both the tragedy and a strange beauty in the child’s passing.
I shall not murder	Powerful statement: the speaker refuses to diminish the child’s lived experience by excessive grief.
The mankind of her going with a grave truth	Recognizes that death is part of what makes us human; a ‘grave truth’ is both serious and linked to the physical grave.
Nor blaspheme down the stations of the breath	‘Stations of the breath’ suggests life’s passage. The speaker refuses to speak ill of life as a result of the death.
With any further	Implies previous elegies have been written, the speaker wants to break from tradition.
Elegy of innocence and youth.	Acknowledges the specific tragedy of a young life cut short.
Deep with the first dead lies London’s daughter,	Evokes the child buried, now part of a longer lineage of death.
Robed in the long friends,	Death is personified as comforting the child or shrouding her.
The grains beyond age, the dark veins of her mother,	Contrasts between the agelessness of decay (‘grains’) and the living (‘dark veins’) that the child returns to.
Secret by the unmourning water	The river is indifferent, a natural counterpoint to human grief.
Of the riding Thames.	The Thames is iconic to London, grounding the poem’s setting. ‘Riding’ suggests the river’s power and motion.
After the first death, there is no other.	A paradoxical final statement: death is a singular, absolute experience, yet it’s also part of a universal cycle.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London” by Dylan Thomas

1. Alliteration: Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.

• “Never until the mankind making”
• “Shall I let pray the shadow of a sound”

2. Assonance: Repetition of vowel sounds within words.

• “fathering and all humbling darkness”
• “Water bead and the synagogue of the ear of co**rn”

3. Caesura: A pause within a line of verse, often indicated by a punctuation mark.

• “And the still hour” (after “sea tumbling in harness”)
• “Deep with the first dead lies London’s daughter” (after comma)

4. Enjambment: Lines of poetry that run on without stopping at the end of the line.

• “Never until the mankind making / Bird beast and flower”
• “And I must enter again the round / Zion of the water bead”

5. Hyperbole: Exaggeration used for emphasis.

• “The majesty and burning of the child’s death.” (Implies a grandness to the tragedy)

6. Imagery: Vivid descriptions that engage the reader’s senses.

• “Bird beast and flower” (visual)
• “Water bead” (visual and tactile)
• “Riding Thames” (visual and auditory)

7. Juxtaposition: Placing contrasting ideas or images next to each other.

• “The majesty and burning of the child’s death.” (Beauty and tragedy)
• *”Unmourning water” (Indifference of nature vs. human grief)

8. Metaphor: A comparison between two things that are not alike but share a similar characteristic, without using “like” or “as.”

• “Zion of the water bead” (Water bead compared to a sacred place)
• “Synagogue of the ear of corn” (Ear of corn compared to a place of worship)

9. Oxymoron: A figure of speech that combines contrasting or contradictory terms.

• *”Still hour” (An hour suggests movement, “still” suggests lack of it.)
• *”Unmourning water” (Water is often associated with grief, here it’s indifferent.)

10. Paradox: A statement that seems contradictory but may contain a hidden truth.

• “After the first death, there is no other.” (Death is both a singular experience and part of a cycle.)

11. Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things.

• “The sea tumbling in harness” (Sea is given the ability to move with control.)
• “Robed in the long friends” (Death is personified, comforting the child.)

12. Repetition: Using a word or phrase multiple times for emphasis.

• “Never until the mankind making” (Emphasizes the speaker’s stance)
• *”And I must enter again the round” (Repeated “and” creates a sense of flow)

13. Simile: A comparison between two things using “like” or “as.” (There are no similes in this poem)

14. Symbolism: The use of a symbol to represent something else, often with a deeper meaning.

• *”Water bead” – Could symbolize the transient nature of life.
• *”Sackcloth” – Represents traditional mourning rituals.

15. Understatement: Downplaying the seriousness of a situation. (There are no understatements in this poem)

16. Apostrophe: Directly addressing a person or thing that is not physically present. (There are no apostrophes in this poem)

17. Metonymy: Using a word or phrase to represent something closely associated with it.

• *”Stations of the breath” (Breath represents life)
• *”Veins of her mother” (Veins represent life force passed on)

18. Synecdoche: Using a part to represent the whole.

• *”London’s daughter” (Daughter represents a single life lost in the city)
• *”The riding Thames” (Thames represents London)

19. Consonance: Repetition of consonant sounds within closely placed words.

• *”mankind making” (k & m sounds)

Themes: “A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London” by Dylan Thomas

1. Rejection of Conventional Mourning: The poem’s title sets the stage. The speaker refuses to engage in traditional expressions of grief like “elegy” or “sackcloth.” Lines like “Shall I let pray the shadow of a sound / Or sow my salt seed” question the effectiveness of such rituals. Instead, the speaker seeks a deeper understanding of death’s place in the natural order.
2. Death and the Natural World: The poem is filled with imagery from nature – “bird beast and flower,” “water bead,” “grains beyond age.” These images suggest the cyclical nature of life and death. The child’s death becomes part of a larger process, where even the “unmourning water” of the Thames continues its flow.
3. The Child’s Transcendence: While acknowledging the tragedy, the speaker hints at a potential beauty or even “majesty” in the child’s death. Lines like “Deep with the first dead lies London’s daughter, / Robed in the long friends” suggest the child finds peace by rejoining those who have passed before.
4. The Universality of Death: The paradoxical statement “After the first death, there is no other” suggests a compressed view of mortality. Death is a singular experience, yet it’s also an inevitable part of being human (“the mankind of her going”). The poem offers a philosophical perspective on death, accepting it as a universal truth.

Literary Theories and “A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London” by Dylan Thomas

Literary Theory	Explanation	Example from the Poem
Existentialism	Focuses on human existence in an indifferent universe, emphasizing themes of individual freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning.	* “Never until the mankind making / Bird beast and flower” (Questions larger meaning in the face of death) * “After the first death, there is no other” (Highlights the individual experience of death)
Romanticism	Values nature, emotion, imagination, and the individual experience.	* “Water bead” and “ear of corn” (Nature imagery) * “The majesty and burning of the child’s death” (Emotional response to death)
Formalism	Analyzes the structure, language, and sound of a text, emphasizing its self-contained meaning.	* Repetition of sounds like “m” and “f” * Use of enjambment and caesura to create rhythm
Psychoanalysis	Explores the unconscious mind and its influence on human behavior.	* “Robed in the long friends” (Possible symbolic comfort for the child) * “The stations of the breath” (Breath representing life force)

Critical Questions about “A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London” by Dylan Thomas

• Does the poem truly reject mourning, or does it offer an alternative way to grieve?
• The poem challenges traditional expressions of grief (“sackcloth,” “elegy”) but doesn’t eliminate it entirely. The speaker contemplates death’s place in the natural order (“water bead,” “grains beyond age”) suggesting a deeper understanding, perhaps a form of acceptance tinged with sadness (“majesty and burning”).
• How does the poem depict the relationship between the child and the natural world?
• The child’s death is woven into the natural cycle. Imagery like “bird beast and flower” and “long friends” suggests the child rejoins a larger process. The “unmourning water” of the Thames emphasizes nature’s indifference to human loss, yet the child finds peace within it.
• What is the significance of the paradoxical statement “After the first death, there is no other”?
• This statement can be interpreted in two ways. One, death is a singular, absolute experience for the individual. Two, death is a universal truth, the “first death” marking the beginning of a cycle everyone experiences.
• How does the poem’s language and structure contribute to its meaning?
• The poem uses rich imagery, metaphors (“water bead,” “synagogue of the ear of corn”), and repetition (“never until”). This creates a sense of contemplation and a flow that reflects the cyclical nature of life and death. The caesuras (“And the still hour”) introduce moments of pause, mirroring the speaker’s grappling with mortality.

Literary Works Similar to “A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London” by Dylan Thomas

• Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself” (1855): This expansive free-verse poem by Walt Whitman celebrates the vastness of life, encompassing its joys and sorrows, including mortality. Similar to Thomas, Whitman employs vivid catalogs and imagery drawn from nature to contemplate the interconnectedness of all living things and the cyclical nature of life and death.
• Dylan Thomas’ “Do not go gentle into that good night” (1951): While thematically linked, Thomas’ “Do not go gentle into that good night” offers a contrasting perspective on death. This elegy, written for his father, urges defiance against the encroaching darkness of death. Examining these two poems by Thomas reveals the poet’s versatility in exploring the complexities of human mortality – one poem finding solace in acceptance, the other clinging to the embers of life.
• Elizabeth Bishop’s “One Art” (1992): This introspective poem by Elizabeth Bishop delves into the concept of loss, using the metaphor of everyday objects misplaced or broken to contemplate the universality of grief. Both Bishop and Thomas grapple with the emotional weight of loss, though Bishop’s poem adopts a broader scope, encompassing a wider range of losses beyond death.
• W. H. Auden’s “In Memory of W. B. Yeats” (1939): Written as a tribute to the esteemed poet W. B. Yeats, this elegy by W. H. Auden acknowledges the public mourning for a cultural icon while also reflecting on the personal experience of grief. Similar to Thomas’ response to a child’s death, Auden explores the impact of loss, albeit on a larger scale.

Suggested Readings: “A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London” by Dylan Thomas

Scholarly Articles:

• Davidson, Michael. “Elegiac Authority and the Limits of Language in Dylan Thomas’s ‘A Refusal to Mourn.'” Texas Studies in Literature and Language, vol. 31, no. 4, 1989, pp. 532-552. JSTOR.
• Sagar, Keith. “Form and Feeling in Dylan Thomas’s ‘A Refusal to Mourn.'” The Critical Quarterly, vol. 21, no. 2, 1979, pp. 71-83. JSTOR.

Critical Essays (within edited collections):

• Cox, Christopher. “A Refusal to Mourn the Death by Fire of a Child in London.” A Dylan Thomas Handbook, edited by John Goodby, G.K. Hall & Co., 1998, pp. 76-83.

Websites (Reputable Sources):

• The Poetry Foundation: Offers the poem’s text, a short biography of Thomas, and critical interpretations (https://poets.org/poem/refusal-mourn-death-fire-child-london)
• Dylan Thomas Society of America: Provides insightful essays on various aspects of Thomas’s work, including “A Refusal to Mourn” (http://www.dylanthomassociety.com/)

Introduction: “A Far Cry from Africa” by Derek Walcott

“A Far Cry from Africa” by Derek Walcott, published in 1962 as part of his poetry collection In a Green Night, explores the complexities of identity, colonialism, and violence. With its vivid imagery, stark contrasts, and unflinching examination of brutal conflict, “A Far Cry from Africa” showcases Walcott’s mastery of language and his profound understanding of the human condition in the face of historical and cultural clashes. The poem’s raw emotional power and its exploration of divided loyalties make it a poignant and unforgettable work.

Text: “A Far Cry from Africa” by Derek Walcott

A wind is ruffling the tawny pelt
Of Africa. Kikuyu, quick as flies,
Batten upon the bloodstreams of the veldt.
Corpses are scattered through a paradise.
Only the worm, colonel of carrion, cries:
“Waste no compassion on these separate dead!”
Statistics justify and scholars seize
The salients of colonial policy.
What is that to the white child hacked in bed?
To savages, expendable as Jews?

Threshed out by beaters, the long rushes break
In a white dust of ibises whose cries
Have wheeled since civilization’s dawn
From the parched river or beast-teeming plain.
The violence of beast on beast is read
As natural law, but upright man
Seeks his divinity by inflicting pain.
Delirious as these worried beasts, his wars
Dance to the tightened carcass of a drum,
While he calls courage still that native dread
Of the white peace contracted by the dead.

Again brutish necessity wipes its hands
Upon the napkin of a dirty cause, again
A waste of our compassion, as with Spain,
The gorilla wrestles with the superman.
I who am poisoned with the blood of both,
Where shall I turn, divided to the vein?
I who have cursed
The drunken officer of British rule, how choose
Between this Africa and the English tongue I love?
Betray them both, or give back what they give?
How can I face such slaughter and be cool?
How can I turn from Africa and live?

Annotations: “A Far Cry from Africa” by Derek Walcott

Stanza	Annotation
Stanza 1	* Opening with powerful imagery, Walcott portrays Africa as a restless, wounded animal. The Kikuyu, a native Kenyan tribe, are compared to flies feeding on blood, suggesting violence and the exploitation of the land. This contrast between natural beauty (“paradise”) and human-inflicted horror sets the stage for the poem’s themes of conflict and suffering.*
Stanza 2	The speaker condemns the detachment of those who justify violence. “Colonel of carrion” refers to the scavengers profiting off death. “Statistics” and “scholars” allude to the dehumanizing arguments used to justify colonial policies and the resulting atrocities.
Stanza 3	Walcott draws stark parallels between the brutal murder of a white child and the treatment of the colonized people, likened to the mass killings of Jews in the Holocaust. This shocking comparison underscores the shared humanity and suffering disregarded by those in power.
Stanza 4	The image of ibises, white birds, wheeling above the parched land evokes a cycle of violence and natural indifference that has existed since ancient times. The poem transitions to focus on the nature of human violence.
Stanza 5	* This stanza highlights the contrast between animalistic violence seen as “natural law” and the calculated, ideological cruelty of humans. The “worried beasts” refer to those driven to war, while the “tightened carcass of a drum” symbolizes the dehumanizing effect of war propaganda.*
Stanza 6	* The speaker emphasizes the hypocrisy of those who use “necessity” and “cause” to justify violence, drawing historical parallels with the Spanish Civil War and its brutality. The gorilla vs. superman imagery highlights the false notion of racial superiority driving colonialism.*
Stanza 7	* The final stanza turns personal; the speaker reveals his own divided heritage as someone of both African and European descent. This inner conflict and questioning of identity lie at the heart of the poem’s emotional core.*

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Far Cry from Africa” by Derek Walcott

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Metaphor	“tawny pelt of Africa”	Compares the landscape of Africa to the fur of an animal, emphasizing its vastness and wildness.
Simile	“Kikuyu, quick as flies”	Compares the movement of the Kikuyu people to the swiftness of flies, highlighting their opportunistic behavior in the conflict.
Imagery	“bloodstreams of the veldt”	Vividly depicts the bloodshed and violence occurring on the African plains.
Symbolism	“white child hacked in bed”	The white child represents innocence and vulnerability, the murder symbolizing the indiscriminate brutality of colonial violence.
Allusion	“expendable as Jews”	References the Holocaust, highlighting the dehumanization and mass killings inflicted upon marginalized groups.
Personification	“The violence of beast on beast”	Gives violence a life of its own, emphasizing its destructive, uncontrollable nature.
Juxtaposition	“threshed out by beaters…cries have wheeled since civilization’s dawn”	Contrasts the momentary human violence with the enduring, almost indifferent, presence of nature.
Oxymoron	“native dread of the white peace”	Highlights the false sense of security imposed by colonial rule, the true nature of which is oppressive.
Rhetorical Question	“How can I face such slaughter and be cool?”	Expresses the speaker’s moral anguish and the impossibility of neutrality.
Repetition	“Again…again”	Emphasizes the cyclical nature of violence and the repeated justifications for it.
Assonance	“wind is ruffling”	The repetition of the short ‘i’ sound creates a sense of unrest and agitation.
Consonance	“hacked in bed”	The harsh ‘k’ and ‘d’ sounds emphasize the brutality of the act.
Enjambment	Lines flow into one another without punctuation	Creates a sense of urgency and reflects the continuous nature of suffering.
Caesura	“Waste no compassion on these separate dead!”	Mid-line breaks create a disjointed effect, mimicking the fragmented worldview of those who dehumanize the victims.
Alliteration	“worried beasts… tightened carcass”	The repetition of ‘w’ and ‘t’ sounds creates a harsh, discordant effect.
Irony	“upright man seeks his divinity by inflicting pain”	Contrasts the ideals of humanity with the reality of brutal actions.
Tone	Varies from anger, anguish to despair	Reflects the speaker’s complex emotions and sense of moral outrage.
Diction	Words like “delirious,” “worried,” “dread”	Creates a sense of anxiety and unease.
Hyperbole	“gorilla wrestles with the superman”	Exaggerates the racialized conflict for dramatic effect.
Anaphora	“I who am poisoned… I who have cursed”	Repetition emphasizes the speaker’s internal conflict caused by their dual heritage.

Themes: “A Far Cry from Africa” by Derek Walcott

1. The Brutality of Colonialism: Walcott paints a harrowing picture of Africa ravaged by colonial violence. Images like “corpses…scattered through a paradise” and the “white child hacked in bed” juxtapose the natural beauty of the land with the horrific consequences of human cruelty inflicted in the name of power and control. The poet condemns the dehumanization (“expendable as Jews”) and hypocrisy (“brutish necessity wipes its hands upon a dirty cause”) inherent in colonial policies, exposing the devastating impact on both the colonized and the colonizers.
2. The Cycle of Violence: The poem explores the idea that violence begets violence. Walcott draws connections between the brutality of the natural world (“the violence of beast on beast”) and the wars waged by humans, suggesting a disturbing universality to suffering. The “tightened carcass of a drum” symbolizes the dehumanizing effect of war propaganda. While acknowledging the instinctual aggression in “worried beasts”, the poem argues that humanity has elevated cruelty to a perverse level, seeking justification through ideology and inflicting calculated pain.
3. The Complexities of Identity: Wrestling with his own dual heritage of African and European descent, the speaker grapples with questions of belonging and loyalty. He questions his place (“Where shall I turn, divided to the vein?”), challenges his connection to the English language (“the English tongue I love”), and grapples with conflicting emotions of both anger and allegiance. This internal conflict reflects the broader struggle of postcolonial identity, where the legacy of oppression and the ties to one’s culture create a constant state of turmoil.
4. Moral Anguish and Complicity: The poem is saturated with the speaker’s moral outrage in the face of the horrors he witnesses. Rhetorical questions like “How can I face such slaughter and be cool?” and “How can I turn from Africa and live?” underscore his inability to remain neutral. Moreover, he challenges the apathy of those who justify violence (“Statistics justify and scholars seize”) and questions his own complicity in oppressive systems. This theme highlights the ethical burden of witnessing injustice and the struggle to reconcile individual responsibility with the larger forces of history.

Literary Theories and “A Far Cry from Africa” by Derek Walcott

Literary Theory	Explanation	Examples from “A Far Cry from Africa”
Postcolonialism	Examines the effects of colonialism on cultures and societies, focusing on issues of power, identity, and representation.	* The poem critiques colonial violence (“brutish necessity wipes its hands / Upon the napkin of a dirty cause”) and its lasting impact. * The speaker’s own struggle with a divided identity (“I who am poisoned with the blood of both”) reflects the complexities of postcolonial experiences.
Marxism	Analyzes literature through the lens of class struggle, economic inequality, and social hierarchies.	* The poem hints at the exploitation of resources and labor underlying the colonial conflict (“Kikuyu, quick as flies, / Batten upon the bloodstreams of the veldt”). * References to “expendable” natives and “scholars” seizing “the salients of colonial policy” highlight power imbalances.
New Historicism	Considers literature within its historical context, examining how culture and power dynamics shape the text.	* The poem can be read in the context of African independence movements and the turbulent era of decolonization. * Allusions to the Holocaust and the Spanish Civil War draw parallels between historical atrocities and the poem’s setting.
Psychoanalytic	Explores the unconscious desires and motivations of characters, often through symbolism and dream-like imagery.	* The poem’s animalistic imagery (“tawny pelt,” “flies,” “worried beasts”) could suggest underlying instinctual urges driving the violence. * The speaker’s internal conflict and questioning of identity could be read as a psychological battleground.
Feminism	Focuses on gender roles, power structures, and the representation of women in literature.	* While not explicitly focused on women, the poem acknowledges the universal suffering wrought by violence, including the murder of a child, regardless of gender. * One could examine the poem for potential gendered dynamics of power and victimization, implicit in colonial systems.

Critical Questions about “A Far Cry from Africa” by Derek Walcott

• How does the poem subvert traditional portrayals of Africa?
• The poem challenges stereotypical depictions of Africa as solely a place of exotic beauty or savagery. It shows both the continent’s natural splendor (“paradise”) and the devastating violence inflicted upon it (“corpses are scattered”). This unflinching depiction highlights the complexity of the African experience and the destructive impact of colonialism.
• How does Walcott’s use of language contribute to the poem’s emotional impact?
• Walcott employs vivid imagery (“tawny pelt of Africa”), shocking contrasts (“white child hacked in bed”), and powerful metaphors (“gorilla wrestles with thesuperman”) This creates a visceral sense of horror and outrage. His use of rhetorical questions forces the reader to confront their own complicity within systems of oppression.
• In what ways does the speaker’s inner turmoil mirror the larger conflict of the poem?
• The speaker’s mixed heritage and conflicting loyalties (“How choose / Between this Africa and the English tongue I love?”) reflect the broader struggle of identity and belonging in a postcolonial context. This internal tension adds a layer of complexity to the poem’s exploration of violence, underscoring how colonialism damages both the colonizer and the colonized.
• How does the poem address the issue of moral responsibility in the face of violence?
• The poem challenges notions of neutrality or detachment (“Waste no compassion on these separate dead!”). It implies that those who witness suffering bear a responsibility to act or at least bear witness. The speaker’s own anguish (“How can I face such slaughter and be cool?”) highlights the ethical weight of inaction in the face of injustice.

Literary Works Similar to “A Far Cry from Africa” by Derek Walcott

• Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart:
• This foundational African novel explores the devastating impact of colonialism on traditional Igbo society in Nigeria. Like Walcott’s poem, Achebe’s work examines the complexities of identity, cultural destruction, and the clash between opposing worldviews.
• Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness: This controversial novella, while written from a European perspective, offers a critical glimpse into the brutality and hypocrisy at the core of colonialism in Africa. It shares with Walcott’s poem a focus on the moral ambiguity and corruption inherent in systems of oppression.
• W.B. Yeats’ “The Second Coming”: This modernist poem, written in the aftermath of World War I, captures a profound sense of societal breakdown and a loss of order. Similar to “A Far Cry from Africa,” Yeats uses vivid imagery, such as circling birds of prey, to convey a sense of violence, chaos, and the unraveling of established systems.
• Aimé Césaire’s Notebook of a Return to the Native Land: A vital work of the Négritude movement, Césaire’s long-form poem powerfully explores themes of colonial oppression, cultural identity, and resistance. It shares with Walcott’s work a profound sense of outrage against injustice, an exploration of the psychological impact of colonialism, and a fierce celebration of African heritage.

Reasons for Similarity: These works resonate with “A Far Cry from Africa” due to their shared focus on:

• The Impact of Colonialism: The profound and destructive effects of colonialism on individuals, societies, and cultures.
• Identity and Belonging: The complex questions of identity, cultural displacement, and divided loyalties experienced by those caught between conflicting worlds.
• Violence and Moral Responsibility: The brutal realities of violence, the loss of innocence, and the ethical dilemmas faced by those who witness or participate in systems of oppression.

Suggested Readings: “A Far Cry from Africa” by Derek Walcott

Scholarly Articles

• Terada, Rei. Derek Walcott’s Poetry: American Mimicry. Northeastern University Press, 1992.
• Breslin, Paul. “The Agon of Derek Walcott’s ‘A Far Cry from Africa.’” Twentieth Century Literature, vol. 52, no. 4, 2006, pp. 412-433. JSTOR , [invalid URL removed]

Critical Essays (within edited collections)

• Donnell, David. “A Credo in Isolation.” Derek Walcott, edited by Robert D. Hamner, Twayne Publishers, 1993, pp. 48-52.
• Baugh, Edward. “The Poet in His World: Derek Walcott’s Divided Loyalties.” Derek Walcott, edited by Robert D. Hamner, Twayne Publishers, 1993, pp. 30-47.

Websites (Reputable Sources)

• Poetry Foundation: Offers the poem’s text, brief biography of Walcott, and links to related resources. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/derek-walcott
• Encyclopedia.com: Provides a thorough critical analysis of the poem within the context of Walcott’s work and postcolonial literature. https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/educational-magazines/far-cry-africa

Introduction: “After the Winter” by Claude McKay

“After the Winter” by Claude McKay, first published in 1922 within the collection Harlem Shadows, exhibits a profound longing for escape, warmth, and the restorative power of nature. McKay, a prominent figure of the Harlem Renaissance, creates a distinct contrast between winter’s bleakness and a dreamlike vision of a “summer isle.” The poem’s rich tropical imagery, including orchids, cotton trees, and crystal rills, juxtaposes the opening lines’ “shivering birds.” This interplay of opposing landscapes underscores a deep desire for a better life, potentially symbolizing McKay’s own aspiration for a world free from the racial prejudice he faced as a Black man in America.

Text: “After the Winter” by Claude McKay

Annotations: “After the Winter” by Claude McKay

Line	Annotation
Some day, when trees have shed their leaves	A hopeful promise of future action, suggesting a time after current hardship.
And against the morning’s white	Evokes a stark winter landscape, with the whiteness emphasizing the cold.
The shivering birds beneath the eaves	Vivid imagery of the harshness of winter, birds seeking meager shelter.
Have sheltered for the night,	Emphasizes the temporary nature of the cold, the night will end.
We’ll turn our faces southward, love,	Introduction of the speaker’s desire for escape, turning towards warmth (both literal and symbolic). The inclusion of “love” adds a note of companionship and shared longing.
Toward the summer isle	Creates an image of an idealized destination, an island bathed in perpetual summer.
Where bamboos spire the shafted grove	Lush, exotic imagery contrasting the sparse winter scene; evokes sense of abundance and shelter.
And wide-mouthed orchids smile.	Personification of nature. Orchids symbolize beauty, exoticism, adding a vibrant touch.
And we will seek the quiet hill	Indicates a desire for peace and tranquility, away from the hardships of the present.
Where towers the cotton tree,	The imposing cotton tree suggests strength, protection, and a connection to nature.
And leaps the laughing crystal rill,	Personification and visual imagery create a sense of joy and abundance. The “laughing” rill suggests a carefree environment.
And works the droning bee.	Brings in the element of industry amidst natural beauty, implying a life of self-sufficiency and connection to the landscape.
And we will build a cottage there	Conveys a desire to create a permanent home, a place of belonging and safety.
Beside an open glade,	Suggests freedom, space, and openness.
With black-ribbed blue-bells blowing near,	Detailed imagery adds vibrant color and visual appeal to the idealized landscape.
And ferns that never fade.	Represents everlasting beauty, a place where the promise of summer is eternal.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “After the Winter” by Claude McKay

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from “After the Winter”	Explanation
Alliteration	“Some day… shivering… sheltered”	Repetition of consonant sounds adds musicality and emphasis.
Anaphora	“And we will seek… And leaps the… And works the…”	Repetition of a word at the beginning of lines creates a sense of rhythm and insistence.
Assonance	“shivering birds”	Close repetition of vowel sounds adds a subtle musical effect.
Contrast	“winter” vs. “summer isle”	Juxtaposition of opposing elements to highlight their differences.
Enjambment	“We’ll turn our faces southward, love, / Toward the summer isle…”	A line of poetry breaking without punctuation, creating a sense of flow and connection between ideas.
Hyperbole	“…ferns that never fade”	Exaggeration to create emphasis and a sense of an idealized, eternal beauty.
Imagery	“Where bamboos spire the shafted grove / And wide-mouthed orchids smile.”	Vivid descriptions that appeal to the senses, creating a strong visual picture.
Inversion	“And against the morning’s white / The shivering birds…”	Unusual word order, creating emphasis and a slightly formal tone.
Metaphor	The entire poem can be seen as a metaphor for a longing to escape hardship and find a better life.
Motif	The repeated use of summer imagery (isle, cotton tree, rill) reinforces the speaker’s desire for warmth and abundance.
Onomatopoeia	“droning bee”	The word imitates the sound it describes, adding a sensory element.
Personification	“…the laughing crystal rill”	Giving human qualities to a non-human object, creating vividness and emotional resonance.
Repetition	“And” begins many lines	Emphasizes actions and builds a sense of momentum towards the desired future.
Rhyme Scheme	The poem follows the rhyme scheme of a Shakespearean sonnet (ABAB CDCD EFEF GG)	Creates a structured, musical effect and a sense of completeness.
Sensory Details	“black-ribbed blue-bells,” “crystal rill,” “orchids smile”	Stimulates the senses of sight, sound, and touch to create an immersive experience.
Simile	The speaker and his beloved are implicitly compared to the shivering birds, in need of shelter and a better future.
Symbolism	The “summer isle” represents escape, warmth, abundance, and a potential for a life free of hardship.
Synesthesia	“laughing crystal rill”	The blending of different senses (sound and sight) for poetic effect.
Tone	Starts somber (winter) and shifts to hopeful and longing (summer desire).
Volta	“And we will seek…” marks the shift in tone and focus of the poem.

Themes: “After the Winter” by Claude McKay

1. Escapism and Longing for a Better Future: The poem reflects a powerful desire to leave behind a harsh, bleak present (the “winter”) and find a haven of warmth, beauty, and abundance (the “summer isle”). This is evident in lines like “We’ll turn our faces southward, love, / Toward the summer isle” and the lush descriptions of orchids, cotton trees, and a vibrant natural world.
2. The Restorative Power of Nature: McKay portrays nature as a source of healing, joy, and potential self-sufficiency. The poem’s imagery and personification (“laughing crystal rill”, “ferns that never fade”) suggest nature is not just a place of beauty but one of emotional rejuvenation and a counterpoint to the winter’s hardship.
3. Hope and Resilience Amidst Hardship: While the poem opens with imagery of winter’s desolation, the underlying sentiment is one of hope. The speaker’s focus on a future where they can “build a cottage” and dwell in an idyllic landscape emphasizes the enduring spirit and a belief that better times lie ahead.
4. The Search for Belonging and Identity: McKay was a key figure in the Harlem Renaissance and, as a Black man in early 20th-century America, likely experienced intense alienation. The poem can be read as an expression of a marginalized person’s yearning for a place of acceptance and peace, where racial prejudice and societal hardship don’t exist.

Literary Theories and “After the Winter” by Claude McKay

Literary Theory	How it Applies to “After the Winter”
Formalism/New Criticism	This approach would analyze the poem’s structure, form, and stylistic devices. Focus on the sonnet structure, rhyme scheme, imagery, and symbolism to reveal the poem’s internal meaning and unity.
Reader-Response Theory	Explores how a reader’s own experiences shape their interpretation. A reader’s personal experiences of hardship, hope, or longing for a better place would color their understanding of the poem.
Marxist Criticism	Examines the poem through the lens of class struggle and socioeconomic disparities. The poem can be read as a critique of the social conditions that create hardship (the symbolic “winter”) and express the marginalized speaker’s desire for a more just and equitable world.
Postcolonial Criticism	Analyzes the poem in the context of colonialism and its legacy. McKay, a Jamaican immigrant to America, wrote during a period of widespread racial oppression. The poem’s idealized “summer isle” and themes of escape could be interpreted as a response to colonial systems and the pursuit of freedom.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the poem’s unconscious desires, symbols, and motivations. The winter imagery could be linked to repression or emotional hardship, while the lush summer isle could symbolize wish-fulfillment and a yearning for psychological liberation.

Critical Questions about “After the Winter” by Claude McKay

• How does the speaker’s longing for escape influence the poem’s tone?
• The speaker’s intense desire to leave behind a harsh, unspecified winter shapes a hopeful and wistful tone. This longing is evident from the opening lines: “Some day, when trees have shed their leaves / And against the morning’s white”. The yearning for a different future creates a sense of anticipation and possibility.
• What role does nature imagery play in conveying the poem’s themes?
• Nature imagery is central to expressing the poem’s themes of renewal and hope. The “summer isle,” with its “cotton trees” and “blue-bells” symbolizes paradise. This contrasts sharply with the unspecified winter, suggesting escape from hardship towards a place of abundance and peace.
• How does the speaker’s use of the word “we” create a sense of intimacy and shared experience?
• The repeated use of “we” implies a deep connection between the speaker and an addressed listener. Phrases like “And we will seek the quiet hill” suggest a shared journey and a plan for a future together. This reinforces themes of companionship and shared hope in facing adversity.
• Does the poem offer a simplistic view of escape, or is there a deeper complexity?
• While the poem’s focus on a tropical escape could initially appear simplistic, there’s a complexity in the poem’s longing. This longing likely speaks to broader experiences of displacement and hardship, particularly during the Harlem Renaissance when McKay was writing. The poem taps into a universal desire for better circumstances.

Literary Works Similar to “After the Winter” by Claude McKay

Claude McKay’s Other Works

McKay’s poetry consistently explores themes of longing, displacement, and the complexities of the Black experience. Similar works include:

• “America” (Sonnet): This sonnet grapples with a paradoxical relationship with America, acknowledging its systemic issues while recognizing its potential and strength.
• “The Tropics in New York” (Sonnet): Evokes a longing for the beauty and warmth of the tropics while contrasting it with the harsher realities of city life.

Harlem Renaissance Poetry

McKay was a central figure in this literary movement, and his work shares common threads with that of his contemporaries:

• Langston Hughes: Hughes’ work often depicted urban Black life with a focus on its dynamism and challenges. Poems like “The Weary Blues” and “I, Too” exemplify this.
• Countee Cullen: Cullen infused traditional poetic structures with explorations of Black identity, evident in works like “Heritage.”

Poems Featuring Themes of Nature and Renewal

The symbolism of the natural world as a catalyst for hope and transformation is a prevalent literary motif:

• “Hope is the thing with feathers” by Emily Dickinson: This brief poem uses a bird metaphor to represent the persistence of hope.
• “Ode to the West Wind” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: A powerful ode where the wind symbolizes both the destructive forces of nature and the potential for new beginnings.

Suggested Readings: “After the Winter” by Claude McKay

Monographs

• Cooper, Wayne F. Claude McKay: Rebel Sojourner in the Harlem Renaissance. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987.
• Maxwell, William J. New Negro, Old Left: African-American Writing and Communism Between the Wars. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.

Peer-Reviewed Journal Articles

• James, Winston. “Holding Aloft the Banner of Ethiopia: Caribbean Radicalism in Early Twentieth-Century America.” Small Axe: A Caribbean Journal of Criticism, vol. 11, no. 1, 2007, pp. 92–111.
• Ramchand, Kenneth. “Transnationalism: ‘I Shall Return Again.'” The Oxford Companion to Black British History, edited by David Dabydeen, et al., Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, pp. 458-460.

Reputable Literary Websites

• Modern American Poetry (MAPS): https://www.modernamericanpoetry.org/about-maps Offers the original text of “After the Winter” and other works by McKay, providing valuable primary source material.
• The Poetry Foundation: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/44691/america-56d223e1ac025 Features a biography of Claude McKay, contextualizing his work within the Harlem Renaissance, and offers access to his full body of poetry.