Day: April 29, 2024

Introduction: “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

“The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt first appeared in print in 1899 and later it appeared in Chesnutt’s collection, The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color Line. Employing satire and humor as its narrative tools, the story confronts the harsh realities of American slavery and the ingrained prejudices of the antebellum South. It delves into complex themes such as the struggle for identity, the yearning for freedom, and the unexpected ways in which power dynamics can be challenged within the master-slave relationship.

Main Events in “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Literary Devices in “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Literary Device	Example from Story	Explanation
Allusion	Reference to Scott’s novels	Chesnutt alludes to the works of Sir Walter Scott to create a sense of familiarity and literary depth.
Characterization	Description of Dick Owens as reckless	Chesnutt characterizes Dick Owens by highlighting his reckless behavior, which drives the plot forward.
Conflict	The tension between Dick and Grandison	Conflict arises between Dick and Grandison due to their opposing desires and actions.
Foreshadowing	Grandison’s reluctance to leave Dick	Grandison’s reluctance foreshadows his eventual decision to stay loyal to Dick despite opportunities.
Hyperbole	“You could have knocked me down with a feather.”	Chesnutt uses exaggeration for emphasis, indicating the colonel’s surprise at encountering Grandison.
Imagery	Description of Niagara Falls	Chesnutt uses vivid imagery to evoke the grandeur and power of Niagara Falls, enhancing the setting.
Irony	Dick’s failed attempts to free Grandison	The irony lies in Dick’s efforts to free Grandison, which ultimately result in reinforcing his loyalty.
Metaphor	“Faithfulness was like a rock on which he leaned.”	Chesnutt compares Grandison’s faithfulness to a rock, emphasizing its stability and reliability.
Motif	The pursuit of freedom	The motif of freedom recurs throughout the story, driving the actions of both Grandison and Dick.
Personification	“The desperation of those fanatics knew no bounds.”	Chesnutt personifies desperation, attributing human qualities to an abstract concept.
Plot Twist	Grandison’s return after being kidnapped	The unexpected return of Grandison adds a twist to the plot, shifting the narrative in a new direction.
Repetition	Grandison’s repeated loyalty to Dick	Chesnutt employs repetition to emphasize Grandison’s unwavering loyalty to Dick throughout the story.
Satire	Depiction of abolitionists’ actions	Chesnutt satirizes abolitionists by portraying their actions as misguided and hypocritical.
Setting	New York, Boston, and Niagara Falls	The settings provide context and atmosphere, influencing the characters’ actions and interactions.
Simile	“His fame spread throughout the county, like wildfire.”	Chesnutt uses a simile to illustrate the rapid spread of Grandison’s fame among the local community.
Symbolism	Grandison’s escape to Canada symbolizing freedom	Grandison’s escape to Canada symbolizes freedom from slavery and the pursuit of liberty.
Theme	Loyalty and betrayal	The story explores themes of loyalty and betrayal through the relationships between characters.
Tone	Satirical and ironic	Chesnutt’s tone is satirical and ironic, conveying a critical perspective on social issues and norms.
Understatement	“The colonel shook his fist impotently.”	Chesnutt uses understatement to downplay the colonel’s frustration and powerlessness in the situation.
Verbal Irony	“It’s as good as one of Scott’s novels!”	The statement is verbally ironic, as the colonel compares Grandison’s story to a literary

Characterization in “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

I. Major Characters

Dick Owens

• Description: Young, intelligent, handsome, and amiable, but extremely indolent. He is the heir presumptive to a large estate and lacks ambition.
• Actions: Attends the trial of a slave-stealer, where he becomes inspired to do something heroic to win the affection of Charity Lomax.
• Example: Initiates a plan to run off one of his father’s slaves to Canada to prove his worth to Charity.

Charity Lomax

• Description: Strong-willed, compassionate, and principled. She is a driving force behind Dick’s actions, challenging him to prove his worth through heroic deeds.
• Actions: Encourages Dick to do something significant to demonstrate his qualities as a man.
• Example: Expresses admiration for the slave-stealer’s attempted act of heroism and challenges Dick to do something similar.

Colonel Owens

• Description: Wealthy, paternalistic, and deeply entrenched in Southern values. He values his social status and possessions, including his slaves, above all else.
• Actions: Asserts control over his son’s actions and dictates the course of events regarding the slaves on his plantation.
• Example: Decides to send Grandison with Dick on his trip North, viewing it as an opportunity to strengthen the bond between master and servant.

II. Minor Characters

Tom

• Description: Dick’s personal attendant, a bright young mulatto with aspirations of freedom.
• Actions: Initially hesitant to express his desire for freedom but shows interest when presented with the opportunity to travel North.
• Example: Agrees to accompany Dick on his trip under the guise of loyalty, but secretly harbors thoughts of escape.

Grandison

• Description: A loyal and devoted servant on Colonel Owens’ plantation, seemingly content with his position as a slave.
• Actions: Follows his master’s orders dutifully, demonstrating loyalty and obedience.
• Example: Accompanies Dick on his trip North, despite being targeted by abolitionists, and remains faithful to his master’s wishes, even when given the chance for freedom.

Abolitionists

• Description: Long-haired, sharp-featured individuals dedicated to the cause of freeing slaves.
• Actions: Attempt to persuade Grandison to run away and join the abolitionist movement.
• Example: Engage Grandison in conversation and try to convince him to escape from his master’s control.

Clergyman

• Description: A young white man in clerical garb who interacts with Grandison.
• Actions: Possibly sympathetic to the abolitionist cause, engages in conversation with Grandison.
• Example: Grandison seeks refuge with his master when approached by the clergyman, indicating discomfort with discussions about freedom.

Major Themes in “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

• Complexities of Race and Identity: Chesnutt’s story delves into the intricacies of racial identity, particularly through the character of Grandison. Grandison strategically navigates between the roles of a subservient slave and a cunning individual seeking freedom. For instance, he maintains the facade of loyalty to his master while secretly plotting his escape to freedom, showcasing the complexity of racial identity and the different masks individuals may wear in society.
• Pursuit of Freedom: A central theme in the story is the relentless pursuit of freedom, as Grandison courageously seeks to break free from the shackles of slavery. Despite the risks and challenges he faces, Grandison remains determined to secure his liberty. His eventual success in outsmarting his master and escaping to freedom highlights the resilience and perseverance of those seeking liberation from oppression.
• Manipulation of Power Dynamics: Chesnutt explores the manipulation of power dynamics, particularly through the character of Dick Owens. As a slave owner, Dick attempts to exert control over Grandison for his own benefit. However, it is ultimately Grandison who holds the power to determine his own fate. Through Grandison’s clever tactics and strategic maneuvering, he subverts the power dynamics imposed upon him by his master, showcasing the inherent instability of hierarchical power structures.
• Moral Ambiguity of Human Nature: The story also delves into the moral ambiguity inherent in human nature, as characters grapple with conflicting motivations and values. Dick Owens’ duplicitous actions exemplify this theme, as he presents himself as both a benefactor of freedom and a manipulative oppressor. Despite his outward facade of benevolence, Dick’s true intentions are driven by self-interest and a desire to maintain control. This moral complexity underscores the inherent tension between individual ambition and ethical responsibility in a society characterized by systemic oppression and inequality.

Writing Style in “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

1. Narration Style

• Objective Narration: The story is narrated from an objective standpoint, providing a straightforward account of events without delving into characters’ internal thoughts or emotions.
  • Example: The narrator describes characters’ actions and dialogues without offering subjective interpretations, allowing readers to draw their own conclusions about the characters’ motivations.

2. Language and Dialogue

• Southern Dialect: Chesnutt incorporates Southern dialect and colloquialisms to authentically portray the characters and setting.
  • Example: “Yas, marster,” “Y-a-s, marster,” and “I ‘s seen some of ’em” reflect the dialect spoken by characters like Grandison.
• Formal and Informal Dialogue: The dialogue varies between formal exchanges, particularly between characters of higher social status, and informal conversations that reveal the characters’ personalities.
  • Example: The conversation between Dick and his father is formal and respectful, while Dick’s interactions with Charity Lomax are more casual and playful.

3. Use of Irony

• Situational Irony: Chesnutt employs situational irony to highlight the contrasts between characters’ expectations and outcomes.
  • Example: Despite Dick’s attempts to encourage Grandison to seek freedom, Grandison remains loyal to his master, frustrating Dick’s efforts to prove his worth to Charity Lomax.

4. Themes and Social Commentary

• Exploration of Slavery and Freedom: Chesnutt uses the story to explore themes of slavery and freedom, offering commentary on the complexities of power dynamics and social hierarchies.
  • Example: The interactions between Dick, Grandison, and the abolitionists raise questions about agency, loyalty, and the pursuit of freedom in a society built on slavery.

5. Narrative Structure

• Linear Narrative: The story follows a linear narrative structure, progressing chronologically from the initial setup to the resolution of the central conflict.
  • Example: The story begins with Dick’s desire to prove himself to Charity Lomax and unfolds as he devises a plan involving Grandison’s role in his quest for validation.

6. Characterization Through Action

• Character Development Through Actions: Chesnutt develops characters primarily through their actions and interactions with others, allowing readers to infer their motivations and personalities.
  • Example: Dick’s laziness is evident through his reluctance to exert effort in his pursuits, while Grandison’s loyalty to his master is demonstrated through his unwavering obedience and refusal to pursue freedom.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Literary Theory	Interpretation of “The Passing of Grandison”	Example and Reference
Marxist Criticism	The story can be interpreted through the lens of Marxist criticism, which focuses on social class, power dynamics, and economic systems. “The Passing of Grandison” highlights the exploitation of labor and the oppressive structures of slavery. It explores the relationship between the wealthy plantation owner (Colonel Owens) and his enslaved workers, illustrating how the economic interests of the ruling class perpetuate systems of inequality and control.	Dick Owens, as the heir to a large estate, represents the bourgeoisie, while Grandison and other slaves represent the proletariat. The exploitation of Grandison’s labor for the benefit of the Owens family reflects the unequal power dynamics inherent in the capitalist system.
Feminist Criticism	Through a feminist lens, the story can be analyzed in terms of gender roles, power dynamics, and agency. Charity Lomax’s character challenges traditional gender norms by expressing strong opinions and agency, contrasting with the passive nature of Dick Owens. The story also highlights the limited agency of enslaved women, such as Betty, who are subject to the whims of their masters.	Charity Lomax’s refusal to accept Dick’s courtship until he proves himself demonstrates her agency and refusal to conform to traditional gender roles. Betty’s desire to marry Grandison reflects her limited agency within the confines of slavery, as she relies on her master’s permission.
Postcolonial Criticism	Postcolonial theory offers insights into the power dynamics and cultural imperialism depicted in the story. “The Passing of Grandison” explores the legacy of colonialism and its impact on race relations in the American South. The abolitionist movement is portrayed as a challenge to colonial ideologies of superiority and domination, as it seeks to dismantle systems of oppression and assert the humanity and rights of enslaved individuals.	The interaction between Dick and Grandison can be seen as a microcosm of colonial power dynamics, with Dick representing the colonizer and Grandison the colonized. Grandison’s resistance to Dick’s attempts to manipulate him reflects a subversion of colonial authority, challenging the notion of white supremacy.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Topic	Questions	Thesis Statements
Power Dynamics in Slave Ownership	– How does Chesnutt depict the power dynamics between slave owners and enslaved individuals in “The Passing of Grandison”? – What role does economic power play in shaping relationships between the Owens family and their enslaved workers?	In “The Passing of Grandison,” Chesnutt explores the power dynamics inherent in slave ownership, revealing how economic privilege and social status empower the Owens family while perpetuating oppression and exploitation among their enslaved workers.
Agency and Resistance	– How do characters like Grandison and Charity Lomax demonstrate agency and resistance within the constraints of their societal roles? – What forms of resistance are depicted in the story, and how effective are they in challenging the status quo of slavery?	Through acts of agency and resistance, characters like Grandison and Charity Lomax challenge the oppressive structures of slavery in “The Passing of Grandison,” demonstrating the resilience and resourcefulness of individuals striving for autonomy and freedom within a system of institutionalized oppression.
Irony and Satire	– How does Chesnutt employ irony and satire to critique societal attitudes toward slavery and freedom? – What instances of irony can be found in the story, and how do they contribute to its overall message?	Through the use of irony and satire, Chesnutt critiques societal norms and perceptions surrounding slavery and freedom in “The Passing of Grandison,” exposing the hypocrisy and absurdity inherent in systems of oppression while highlighting the resilience and agency of marginalized individuals striving for liberation.
Race, Class, and Social Hierarchy	– How are race, class, and social hierarchy depicted in “The Passing of Grandison,” and how do they intersect to shape characters’ experiences and interactions? – What commentary does Chesnutt offer on the intersections of race, class, and power dynamics in the antebellum South?	Chesnutt explores the intersections of race, class, and social hierarchy in “The Passing of Grandison,” revealing how these intersecting systems of oppression perpetuate inequality and exploitation while highlighting the complexities of identity and agency among individuals navigating the fraught landscape of the antebellum South.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

1. How does Dick Owens attempt to prove himself to Charity Lomax? Dick Owens endeavors to impress Charity Lomax by proposing a daring act: running off one of his father’s slaves to Canada. He sees this as a way to demonstrate his courage and heroism, hoping it will earn him Charity’s admiration. However, Charity dismisses the idea as absurd, highlighting Dick’s privileged position and his lack of understanding of the gravity of such an action. This exchange illustrates Dick’s misguided attempts to gain validation through superficial displays of bravery.
2. What role does Grandison play in the narrative, and how does he demonstrate loyalty to his master? Grandison serves as Dick Owens’s loyal servant and is entrusted by Colonel Owens to accompany Dick on his trip North. Despite opportunities to seek freedom, Grandison remains steadfastly loyal to his master and the Owens family. For example, when Dick attempts to manipulate Grandison into running away, Grandison resists, expressing his contentment with his current situation and his commitment to serving his master faithfully. His unwavering loyalty underscores the complexities of the master-slave relationship and challenges conventional narratives of resistance.
3. How does Charles W. Chesnutt critique the institution of slavery in “The Passing of Grandison”? Chesnutt critiques the institution of slavery by highlighting its dehumanizing effects on both the enslaved individuals and the slave owners. Through characters like Dick Owens and Colonel Owens, Chesnutt exposes the moral bankruptcy of a system that commodifies human beings for economic gain. For instance, Dick’s cavalier attitude toward running off a slave to prove his worth reflects the callous disregard for human life that slavery engenders. Similarly, Colonel Owens’s paternalistic justifications for slavery reveal the delusion of benevolence that often accompanied the brutal reality of owning human beings.
4. What themes of irony are present in “The Passing of Grandison”? Irony pervades the narrative of “The Passing of Grandison,” particularly in the juxtaposition between characters’ intentions and outcomes. One notable instance of irony is Dick’s failed attempts to manipulate Grandison into seeking freedom. Despite Dick’s belief that Grandison will readily seize the opportunity to escape, Grandison remains loyal to his master, thwarting Dick’s plans and ultimately reinforcing the status quo of slavery. This irony underscores the complexity of power dynamics and the resilience of individuals within oppressive systems.

Literary Works Similar to “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

1. “Desiree’s Baby” by Kate Chopin: This short story explores themes of race, identity, and social class in the antebellum South. Similar to “The Passing of Grandison,” it delves into the complexities of racial passing and the consequences of societal expectations and prejudices.
2. “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright: This story examines the quest for individual identity and agency in the face of systemic oppression. Like Chesnutt’s work, it portrays the struggles of African American characters within the context of racism and power dynamics in the American South.
3. “The Wife of His Youth” by Charles W. Chesnutt: Another story by Chesnutt, this narrative explores themes of racial identity, passing, and social mobility. It shares similarities with “The Passing of Grandison” in its exploration of the complexities of racial identity and the challenges faced by individuals navigating societal expectations.
4. “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin: While focusing more on gender roles and societal expectations, this short story resonates with Chesnutt’s exploration of freedom, agency, and liberation. It delves into the inner thoughts and desires of the protagonist, Mrs. Mallard, highlighting the constraints of marriage and societal norms.
5. “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston: This story addresses themes of power, control, and resistance within the context of an abusive marriage. While not directly related to slavery, it shares thematic resonance with “The Passing of Grandison” in its portrayal of individuals asserting agency and seeking liberation in oppressive circumstances.

Suggested Readings about/on “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Books:

• Chesnutt, Charles W. “The Passing of Grandison.” The wife of his youth and other stories of the color line (1899): 1968-168.
• Andrews, William L., editor. Critical Essays on Charles W. Chesnutt. G. K. Hall & Co., 1999.
• Andrews, William L. The Literary Career of Charles W. Chesnutt. LSU Press, 1999.
• Wilson, Matthew. Whiteness in the Novels of Charles W. Chesnutt. Univ. Press of Mississippi, 2004.

Articles:

• Duncan, Charles. “The Absent Man: The Narrative Craft of Charles W. Chesnutt.” (1998).
• Ames, Russell. “Social Realism in Charles W. Chesnutt.” Phylon (1940-1956) 14.2 (1953): 199-206.

Weblinks:

• “Charles W. Chesnutt – ‘The Passing of Grandison’ Analysis.” Gradesaver, www.gradesaver.com/the-passing-of-grandison/study-guide/summary.
• https://americanliterature.com/author/charles-w-chesnutt/short-story/the-passing-of-grandison

Representative Quotations from “The Passing of Grandison” by Charles W. Chesnutt

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“When it is said that it was done to please a woman, there ought perhaps to be enough said to explain anything…”	The story begins by introducing the main character, Dick Owens, who seeks to prove himself to Charity Lomax, a woman he desires.	This quotation sets the stage for the protagonist’s motivation, highlighting the theme of societal expectations and gender dynamics.
“I ‘ve always hated old Sam Briggs,” she said emphatically… “Personally I wish that all Sam Briggs’s negroes would run away.”	Charity expresses her disdain for cruelty towards slaves and her support for abolitionism, aligning with her Quaker heritage.	This quotation illustrates the moral compass of Charity and her sympathy towards the plight of slaves, foreshadowing later events.
“I don’t know, Grandison,” replied the colonel, lighting a fresh cigar… “But if you stick close to your young master…”	The colonel lectures Grandison on the dangers of abolitionists, emphasizing loyalty to the family and the consequences of disloyalty.	This quotation showcases the paternalistic attitude of slaveholders and the manipulation used to maintain control over enslaved individuals.
“I don’t know, Grandison,” replied the colonel, lighting a fresh cigar… “But if you stick close to your young master…”	The colonel lectures Grandison on the dangers of abolitionists, emphasizing loyalty to the family and the consequences of disloyalty.	This quotation showcases the paternalistic attitude of slaveholders and the manipulation used to maintain control over enslaved individuals.
“When he came back a couple of days later and found the faithful Grandison at his post, and the hundred dollars intact…”	Despite being given the opportunity for freedom and financial reward, Grandison remains loyal to Dick, his young master.	This quotation highlights the complexity of loyalty and the internal conflict experienced by enslaved individuals in oppressive systems.

Introduction: “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

“The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte, first published in 1869 in the collection The Luck of Roaring Camp and Other Sketches, features a group of outcasts who are forced to leave a small Californian town called Poker Flat, and embark on a perilous journey to a nearby settlement. The story is set during the California Gold Rush era and explores themes of morality, redemption, and the American frontier spirit. The collection “The Luck of Roaring Camp and Other Sketches” is considered a classic of American literature and offers a glimpse into the lives of individuals living on the margins of society during the Gold Rush era.

Main Events in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

1. Expulsion from Poker Flat: Mr. Oakhurst, the Duchess, Mother Shipton, and Uncle Billy are expelled from the town of Poker Flat due to their perceived immorality and undesirable behavior, despite some objections.
2. Journey into the Mountains: The group, accompanied by armed men, embarks on a journey towards Sandy Bar but finds themselves stranded in the Sierras due to harsh weather conditions.
3. Struggle for Survival: As the group’s provisions dwindle, they rely on alcohol for sustenance, which leads to further complications in their already dire situation.
4. Encounter with Tom Simson and Piney Woods: Tom Simson, also known as “The Innocent,” and his companion Piney Woods stumble upon the group and offer assistance, revealing their own reasons for fleeing Poker Flat.
5. Formation of a Makeshift Community: Despite the odds, the group forms a bond and attempts to make the best of their situation, with Tom and Piney contributing their resources to the collective survival effort.
6. Betrayal and Loss: Uncle Billy’s betrayal, stealing the group’s mules and provisions, highlights the fragility of their circumstances and leads to further hardship.
7. Camaraderie and Resilience: Despite the betrayal, the group remains resilient, finding solace in each other’s company and seeking diversion through storytelling and music.
8. Enduring the Harsh Winter: As the snowfall intensifies, the group becomes increasingly isolated, relying on dwindling resources and each other for support.
9. Sacrifice and Compassion: Mother Shipton sacrifices her own rations for the sake of Piney, demonstrating an act of compassion amidst their dire circumstances.
10. Decline and Death: Mother Shipton’s health deteriorates, symbolizing the group’s gradual decline, and she passes away quietly, urging Mr. Oakhurst to keep her sacrifice a secret.
11. Isolation and Despair: The relentless snowfall and dwindling provisions heighten the group’s sense of isolation and despair, emphasizing their dire predicament.
12. Resignation to Fate: Mr. Oakhurst accepts the inevitability of their situation, maintaining his stoic demeanor even as their chances of survival diminish.
13. Lasting Bonds: Despite their ultimate fate, the group’s bond and solidarity endure, providing some comfort in their final moments.
14. Reflection on Luck and Fate: Mr. Oakhurst reflects on the unpredictability of luck and fate, recognizing the transient nature of both and the inevitability of change.
15. Closure: The story closes with the group’s fate uncertain, leaving readers to ponder the harsh realities of life and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity.

Literary Devices in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Allusion	“Tom Simson, otherwise known as the ‘Innocent’ of Sandy Bar.”	Reference to a previous event or character (Tom Simson) known to the narrator or characters.
Foreshadowing	“Mr. Oakhurst alone remained silent.”	Hints at future events, suggesting that Mr. Oakhurst may have a significant role to play.
Imagery	“A wooded amphitheater, surrounded on three sides by precipitous cliffs of naked granite.”	Vivid description using sensory details to create a mental image of the setting.
Irony	“It was certain that, in Mother Shipton’s words, he ‘didn’t say cards once’ during that evening.”	The irony lies in the fact that Mr. Oakhurst, known for his gambling, refrains from playing cards, despite the opportunity.
Metaphor	“Through the marvelously clear air the smoke of the pastoral village of Poker Flat rose miles away.”	A comparison between the smoke and the village using “like” or “as” is implied but not stated explicitly.
Personification	“The wind lulled as if it feared to waken them.”	Giving human characteristics to non-human entities (the wind), enhancing the atmosphere of quiet and peace.
Repetition	“‘I’m proud to live in the service of the Lord, And I’m bound to die in His army.'”	Repeated phrase used to emphasize a particular theme or idea, in this case, the characters’ resolve and faith.
Simile	“Feathery drifts of snow, shaken from the long pine boughs, flew like white-winged birds.”	A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as,” enhancing the imagery of snow drifting gently in the wind.
Symbolism	“And so reclining, the younger and purer pillowing the head of her soiled sister upon her virgin breast.”	The actions symbolize forgiveness, acceptance, and compassion between the two characters, transcending social judgment.
Flashback	“Some months before he had chanced upon a stray copy of Mr. Pope’s ingenious translation of the ILIAD.”	A narrative device where the story temporarily moves backward in time, recalling events that happened earlier.
Hyperbole	“There’s one chance in a hundred to save her yet.”	Deliberate exaggeration used to emphasize the slim possibility of saving Piney, adding tension to the situation.
Mood	“The wind lulled as if it feared to waken them.”	The atmosphere or emotional tone established by the narrative, here conveying a sense of peace and tranquility despite the harsh conditions.
Parallelism	“He did not waken the sleepers. The Innocent slumbered peacefully.”	The repetition of similar grammatical structures (subject-verb-object) for rhetorical effect, highlighting Mr. Oakhurst’s actions.
Suspense	“The wind lulled as if it feared to waken them.”	A feeling of anticipation or tension created by the uncertain outcome of the characters’ situation, leaving readers eager to know what happens next.
Tone	“He returned to his pocket the handkerchief with which he had been whipping away the red dust of Poker Flat from his neat boots.”	The author’s attitude or perspective toward the subject matter, here conveying Mr. Oakhurst’s fastidiousness and detachment from his surroundings.
Juxtaposition	“As the embers slowly blackened, the Duchess crept closer to Piney.”	Placing two contrasting elements or ideas side by side, here highlighting the intimacy and closeness between the characters amidst the fading fire.
Foil	“The Duchess, more cheerful than she had been, assumed the care of Piney.”	A character who contrasts with another character, often highlighting certain traits or qualities through comparison, as the Duchess contrasts with Mother Shipton.
Paradox	“All human stain, all trace of earthly travail, was hidden beneath the spotless mantle mercifully flung from above.”	A statement that seems self-contradictory or absurd but may reveal a deeper truth, here suggesting that death has brought purity and peace to the characters.
Anaphora	“Neither spoke; but Piney, accepting the position of the stronger, drew near and placed her arm around the Duchess’s waist.”	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses, here emphasizing the silence followed by Piney’s action.
Climax	“And pulseless and cold, with a Derringer by his side and a bullet in his heart, though still calm as in life, beneath the snow lay he who was at once the strongest and yet the weakest of the outcasts of Poker Flat.”	The turning point or most intense moment in the narrative, where the fate of a character is revealed in a significant and dramatic manner.

Characterization in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Major Characters:

• Mr. Oakhurst: A professional gambler known for his coolness and composure under pressure. ([Impassiveness and presence of mind] described by the narrator). Despite his profession, which is often looked down upon in the Old West, he possesses a strong moral compass. This is evident in his initial refusal to join the hanging and his later sacrifice for Piney. He exhibits surprising compassion throughout the ordeal, ([Refuses to drink as it hinders his calmness] hinting at a sense of responsibility), especially towards Piney, ([Kisses the Duchess goodbye, leaving her stunned]). However, he remains somewhat of an enigma. The reasons for his stoicism and his past are left unexplored. Mr. Oakhurst’s complex personality challenges the stereotypical image of a gambler in the Wild West.
• The Innocent (Tom Simson): A young and trusting prospector, easily manipulated by others due to his naivete. ([Remembers returning money he won from Tom], showing a surprising honesty in his profession). He represents innocence and unwavering optimism in the face of adversity. ([Cheerful gaiety infects the others]) His genuine affection for Piney and his willingness to help Mr. Oakhurst highlight his inherent goodness. Tom’s character serves as a foil to the more jaded characters like Uncle Billy and Mother Shipton.
• Piney Woods: A young woman with a sweet and simple nature. She is vulnerable and dependent on others due to her age and inexperience ([The frail Duchess and the malevolent Mother Shipton were probably too stunned to remark upon this last evidence of simplicity]). However, she also possesses inner strength ([Piney, a stout, comely damsel of fifteen]) and compassion, as seen in her willingness to help the Duchess. Piney’s presence emphasizes the harsh realities of the frontier, where women often have limited options.
• The Duchess: A former dance hall performer with a hardened exterior, likely due to the profession and the judgmental society she lives in ([Thet used to wait on the table at the Temperance House]). Despite her past, she shows moments of tenderness and maternal instinct, especially towards Piney ([The Duchess turned away sharply to conceal something that reddened her cheeks through its professional tint, and Mother Shipton requested Piney not to “chatter”]). The story hints at a hidden vulnerability beneath her facade ([Her cheeks flushed through its professional tint]). The Duchess challenges societal stereotypes about women in the West.
• Mother Shipton: A cynical and bitter woman, initially portrayed as the strongest of the outcasts due to her world-weariness. ([Mother Shipton eyed the possessor of “Five Spot” with malevolence]). However, she eventually succumbs to the harsh conditions, both physically and emotionally ([Seemed to sicken and fade]). Her final act of selflessness in giving her rations to Piney suggests a flicker of humanity beneath her gruff exterior. Mother Shipton represents the toll that a harsh life can take on even the strongest individuals.

Minor Characters:

• Uncle Billy: A drunken gambler and thief who exemplifies the ruthlessness of the frontier. ([Suspected sluice-robber and confirmed drunkard]). His actions, like stealing the mules and provisions, highlight the desperation and moral ambiguity that can exist in such an unforgiving environment. Uncle Billy serves as a negative contrast to Mr. Oakhurst, another gambler who displays a surprising moral compass.
• The Committee of Poker Flat: A group of vigilantes who take justice into their own hands, banishing those they deem unfit from their town ([A secret committee had determined to rid the town of all improper persons]). Their actions raise questions about mob justice, prejudice, and the nature of true law.

Characterization and Theme:

The development of the characters is intricately woven into the story’s themes. As the outcasts face hardship and isolation, their true colors emerge. Mr. Oakhurst, initially perceived as an outsider and morally suspect, shows surprising humanity. The Duchess, hardened by experience, reveals a maternal side. The story questions the concept of “good” and “bad” in a morally ambiguous setting. Even the outcasts of Poker Flat, deemed unfit by society, possess unexpected depths of compassion and resilience.

Major Themes in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

1. Societal Judgment and Exclusion: Bret Harte’s “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” delves into the consequences of societal condemnation and exclusion, as characters deemed morally questionable face expulsion from the town. For instance, Mr. Oakhurst is banished due to his gambling habits, reflecting the town’s rigid moral standards. This societal judgment ultimately leads to tragic outcomes for the outcasts, highlighting the destructive nature of prejudice and collective punishment.
2. Complexities of Morality: The narrative explores the intricate nature of morality, as characters grapple with ethical dilemmas and confront their own flaws and virtues. Despite being labeled as “improper” by Poker Flat, characters like Mr. Oakhurst display acts of kindness and sacrifice that challenge conventional notions of virtue.
3. Resilience of the Human Spirit: Amidst adversity, the characters demonstrate remarkable resilience and dignity, defying societal expectations. Piney and the Duchess, despite their dire circumstances, find solace in their companionship and exhibit compassion towards each other, showcasing the strength of human connection even in the bleakest of situations.
4. Redemptive Power of Compassion: “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” underscores the transformative potential of compassion, as acts of kindness and empathy offer redemption and hope amidst judgment and exile. Piney and the Duchess’s bond serves as a testament to the enduring strength of human connection, suggesting that compassion has the power to heal even the most marginalized individuals.

Writing Style in “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

• Sardonic Humor:
• Harte employs a dry, ironic wit that permeates the narrative. He uses it to highlight the absurdity of the situation and the characters’ flaws. Here are some examples:
• Description of the committee: “A spasm of virtuous reaction, quite as lawless and ungovernable as any of the acts that had provoked it.” This sentence uses humor to expose the hypocrisy of the vigilantes who banish the outcasts.
• Mr. Oakhurst’s response to his sentence: “He received his sentence with philosophic calmness, none the less coolly that he was aware of the hesitation of his judges.” This line highlights the gambler’s composure while simultaneously hinting at the underlying threat posed by the vigilantes.
• Naming the outcasts: The characters’ nicknames, like “The Duchess” and “Mother Shipton,” are humorous yet hold a touch of mockery towards their past professions.
• Vivid Imagery:
• Harte paints a clear picture of the harsh environment and the characters’ struggles through evocative descriptions.
• Setting the scene: “A wooded amphitheater, surrounded on three sides by precipitous cliffs of naked granite, sloped gently toward the crest of another precipice that overlooked the valley.” This description not only sets the stage but also foreshadows the characters’ entrapment.
• The snowstorm: “The storm abated, the rolling clouds parted, and the stars glittered keenly above the sleeping camp.” This creates a stark contrast between the harshness of the snow and the peaceful night sky.
• The final scene: “But all human stain, all trace of earthly travail, was hidden beneath the spotless mantle mercifully flung from above.” This poetic description uses the snowfall to symbolize a sense of peace and finality.
• Understated Sentiment:
• While humor and vivid imagery are prominent, Harte also uses subtlety to convey emotional depth.
• Mr. Oakhurst’s sacrifice: His decision to stay behind with the dwindling food supplies speaks volumes about his unexpected compassion, but it’s presented without excessive sentimentality.
• The bond between Piney and the Duchess: Their silent embrace after Mother Shipton’s death speaks volumes about their newfound connection, but it’s described simply.
• The ending: The discovery of the outcasts and the playing card pinned to the tree is a powerful image that evokes a sense of both tragedy and respect, but it’s presented with restraint.

Impact of the Style:

Harte’s unique blend of wit, imagery, and understated sentiment creates a compelling narrative that both entertains and makes us think. The humor allows him to explore serious themes like justice, prejudice, and human resilience in a way that is both engaging and thought-provoking. The vivid imagery transports us to the harsh realities of the Wild West, while the understated sentiment allows us to connect with the characters’ emotional journeys.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Example from the Story
Historical Context	The story reflects the social and political climate of the California Gold Rush era, exploring themes of morality, justice, and redemption in a lawless frontier town.	The characters’ backstories and motivations are shaped by their experiences during the Gold Rush.
Realism	The story portrays a gritty, unromanticized view of life in a frontier town, emphasizing the harsh realities and moral ambiguities of the characters’ situations.	The character of John Oakhurst, a gambler and outcast, is a symbol of the harsh realities of frontier life.
Symbolism	The story uses characters, settings, and objects as symbols to convey deeper meanings and themes, such as the contrast between nature and society.	The snowstorm that traps the characters represents the harsh, unforgiving nature of the frontier, while the cabin represents the fragile, impermanent nature of human society.
Psychoanalytic	The characters’ actions and motivations are driven by unconscious desires, repressed emotions, and psychological complexes, such as guilt, shame, and redemption.	The character of Mother Shipton’s past and her relationship with Oakhurst are shaped by unconscious desires and repressed emotions.
Feminist	The story critiques the patriarchal society of the frontier era, highlighting the limited options and agency of women, as well as the gender roles and power dynamics that restrict their lives.	The character of Piney Woods, a young woman who disguises herself as a boy, challenges traditional gender roles and highlights the limited options available to women.
Marxist	The story explores the economic and class struggles of the frontier era, highlighting the exploitation and oppression of the working class by the wealthy elite.	The character of John Oakhurst, a gambler and outcast, represents the marginalized and exploited working class.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Morality and Redemption	How does the story explore the theme of morality and redemption in the characters of John Oakhurst and Mother Shipton?	“Through the characters of John Oakhurst and Mother Shipton, Bret Harte’s ‘The Outcasts of Poker Flat’ explores the theme of morality and redemption, highlighting the possibility of personal transformation and forgiveness in a harsh and unforgiving frontier society.”
Gender Roles and Identity	How does the story challenge or reinforce traditional gender roles and expectations through the characters of Piney Woods and Mother Shipton?	“In ‘The Outcasts of Poker Flat’, Bret Harte subverts traditional gender roles and expectations through the characters of Piney Woods and Mother Shipton, highlighting the limitations and constraints placed on women in a patriarchal frontier society.”
Social Class and Exploitation	How does the story critique the social and economic structures of the frontier era, particularly in regards to the exploitation of the working class?	“Through the character of John Oakhurst and the setting of Poker Flat, Bret Harte’s story critiques the social and economic structures of the frontier era, exposing the exploitation and oppression of the working class by the wealthy elite.”
Nature and the Frontier	How does the story use the natural environment to reflect the characters’ emotional and psychological states, as well as the harsh realities of frontier life?	“In ‘The Outcasts of Poker Flat’, Bret Harte uses the natural environment to symbolize the characters’ emotional and psychological states, as well as the harsh realities of frontier life, highlighting the contrast between the beauty and brutality of nature.”

Short Questions/Answers about/on “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

• Why is John Oakhurst banished from Poker Flat?
  John Oakhurst, a gambler, is banished from Poker Flat because the town is experiencing a “spasm of virtuous reaction” and is trying to rid itself of all “improper persons.” The secret committee that governs the town is after Oakhurst because he won money from some of its members, and they want to take their money back from him.
• What happens to the outcasts on their journey to Sandy Bar?
  The outcasts – John Oakhurst, Uncle Billy, the Duchess, and Mother Shipton – are forced to stop on their journey to Sandy Bar because the Duchess is tired. They meet Tom Simson and Piney Woods, who are traveling to Poker Flat, and decide to camp together for the night. However, Uncle Billy steals their provisions and horses, leaving them stranded in the snow.
• How do the outcasts die?
  The outcasts die due to the harsh conditions and lack of provisions. Mother Shipton starves herself to save food for Piney, while Oakhurst builds snowshoes for Tom to go for help. Oakhurst then shoots himself so that the others can survive. The Duchess and Piney are found frozen to death, with the Duchess’s head on Piney’s lap.
• What is the theme of the story?
  The theme of the story is that there is good in the worst of people, and that even the outcasts of society can show compassion, generosity, and honor. The story also highlights the harsh realities of life in the Old West and the dangers of vigilantism and mob mentality.

Literary Works Similar to “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

1. “The Luck of Roaring Camp” by Bret Harte: Another classic by Harte, this story explores the lives of outcasts in a California mining camp and delves into themes of redemption, compassion, and the resilience of the human spirit.
2. “To Build a Fire” by Jack London: This gripping tale follows a man’s struggle for survival in the harsh Yukon wilderness, highlighting themes of isolation, human folly, and the power of nature.
3. “The Open Boat” by Stephen Crane: Crane’s story follows four men adrift at sea in a small boat, grappling with the indifferent forces of nature and their own mortality. It explores themes of existentialism, camaraderie, and the human condition.
4. “An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge” by Ambrose Bierce: Bierce’s haunting tale revolves around a Confederate sympathizer facing execution during the Civil War. Through its exploration of time, perception, and the illusory nature of reality, the story offers a thought-provoking examination of the human psyche.
5. “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: This seminal work of feminist literature depicts a woman’s descent into madness as she grapples with confinement and patriarchal oppression. Through its exploration of gender roles, mental health, and autonomy, the story remains a powerful and relevant critique of societal norms.

Suggested Readings about/on “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Books:

• Bell, Michael Davitt. American Realism and the Frontier: Discourses in Form. Univ. of Chicago Press, 1980.
• Branch, Michael P. Before the West Was West: Critical Essays on Pre-1800 Literature of the American Frontiers. U of Nebraska Press, 2014.
• Harte, Bret. The Outcasts of Poker Flat. Vol. 40. Dramatic Publishing, 1902.

Articles:

• Kolb, Harold H. “The Outcast of Literary Flat: Bret Harte as Humorist.” American literary realism, 1870-1910 23.2 (1991): 52-63.
• Scharnhorst, Gary. “Bret Harte and the Literary Construction of the American West.” A Companion to the Regional Literatures of America (2003): 479-495.
• Glover, Donald E. “A Reconsideration of Bret Harte’s Later Work.” Western American Literature 8.3 (1973): 143-151.

Web Link:

• The American Studies Association. https://www.theasa.net/. Accessed 28 April 2024.

Representative Quotations from “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” by Bret Harte

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“As Mr. John Oakhurst, gambler, stepped into the main street of Poker Flat on the morning of the twenty-third of November, 1850, he was conscious of a change in its moral atmosphere since the preceding night.”	This opening line sets the tone for the story, introducing the protagonist, Mr. Oakhurst, and the setting of Poker Flat. It foreshadows the moral judgment and societal changes that will affect the characters throughout the narrative.	This quotation highlights the theme of societal morality and its impact on individual characters, as well as the contrast between appearance and reality in a community’s judgment of its members.
“Mr. Oakhurst was right in supposing that he was included in this category. A few of the committee had urged hanging him as a possible example, and a sure method of reimbursing themselves from his pockets of the sums he had won from them.”	Here, the narrator reveals Mr. Oakhurst’s status as an outcast targeted by Poker Flat’s secret committee. Despite his calm acceptance of his fate, the injustice of the committee’s decision is evident.	This quotation illustrates the theme of justice versus injustice, highlighting the arbitrary nature of societal judgment and the persecution of individuals based on superficial criteria. It also explores the moral ambiguity surrounding the character of Mr. Oakhurst and challenges the reader to consider the ethics of his exile.
“Night came, but not Mr. Oakhurst. It brought the storm again and the whirling snow. Then the Duchess, feeding the fire, found that someone had quietly piled beside the hut enough fuel to last a few days longer.”	This passage occurs after Mr. Oakhurst decides to sacrifice himself for the survival of Piney and the Duchess. Despite his absence, his final act of kindness and selflessness is revealed through the provision of additional fuel.	This quotation exemplifies the theme of sacrifice and redemption, showcasing Mr. Oakhurst’s transformation from a morally ambiguous gambler to a compassionate and honorable figure. It also underscores the idea of redemption through selfless acts, even in the face of inevitable demise.
“But at the head of the gulch, on one of the largest pine trees, they found the deuce of clubs pinned to the bark with a bowie knife.”	The story concludes with this grim yet poignant scene, marking the death of Mr. Oakhurst. The presence of the deuce of clubs serves as a symbolic reminder of his gambling profession and the “bad luck” that ultimately led to his demise.	This quotation encapsulates the theme of fate and inevitability, suggesting that Mr. Oakhurst’s downfall was predetermined by his profession and the circumstances of Poker Flat. It also highlights the theme of mortality and the acceptance of one’s fate, as Mr. Oakhurst faces his end with calm resignation.

Introduction: “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

“Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston first appeared in print in 1926, a year that witnessed the publication of the groundbreaking Harlem Renaissance anthology, The New Negro. While not included within that specific collection, “Sweat” stands out for its unflinching portrayal of marital discord, gender roles, and the harsh realities faced by African Americans in the working class during the early 20th century. Hurston’s masterful prose and evocative imagery craft a narrative that is both brutally honest and deeply affecting.

Main Events in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Devices in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Device	Example from “Sweat”	Explanation
Allegory	Delia’s struggle with the snake allegorically represents her marital conflict with Sykes.	The snake symbolizes Sykes’ cruelty and betrayal, while Delia’s fear and eventual triumph over the snake represent her confrontation with her abusive husband.
Alliteration	“She lay awake, gazing upon the debris that cluttered their matrimonial trail.”	The repetition of the “d” sound emphasizes the dismal state of Delia and Sykes’ marriage, highlighting the clutter and ruin that characterize their relationship.
Allusion	“Ah wantah cross Jurden in uh calm time.”	This alludes to crossing the River Jordan, a biblical reference often associated with spiritual trials and tribulations, suggesting Delia’s desire for peace and redemption in the face of her marital turmoil.
Conflict	The central conflict between Delia and Sykes drives the narrative forward, particularly their emotional and physical battles.	The conflict between Delia’s desire for peace and Sykes’ abusive behavior creates tension and drives the story’s progression as Delia seeks to assert her autonomy and confront her husband.
Foreshadowing	Delia’s reaction to the snake in the soapbox foreshadows the climactic event later in the story involving the snake and Sykes.	The intense fear and horror Delia experiences when encountering the snake foreshadows the danger that will later befall Sykes as a result of his own actions.
Imagery	“Grass withered, leaves browned, snakes went blind in shedding and men and dogs went mad.”	The vivid imagery paints a picture of the oppressive heat and desolation of the environment, evoking a sense of suffocation and chaos that mirrors the emotional turmoil of the characters.
Irony	Sykes’ use of the snake to torment Delia ultimately leads to his own demise when he is fatally bitten by the snake.	The irony lies in the reversal of roles, as Sykes, who intended to instill fear in Delia with the snake, becomes its victim instead, highlighting the consequences of his cruelty and the poetic justice of his fate.
Metaphor	“Delia’s work-worn knees crawled over the earth in Gethsemane and up the rocks of Calvary many, many times during these months.”	Delia’s struggles are metaphorically compared to the biblical journey of Jesus in Gethsemane and his crucifixion on Calvary, emphasizing the depth of her suffering and her journey towards redemption.
Motif	The motif of snakes recurs throughout the story, representing both Sykes’ cruelty and Delia’s eventual triumph over her fears.	The repeated appearance of snakes serves to underscore the theme of oppression and fear in Delia’s life, as well as her eventual empowerment and liberation from Sykes’ abusive influence.
Personification	“The sun crept on up, and he called.”	The sun is personified as it “creeps” and “calls,” attributing human-like qualities to it, which emphasizes the passage of time and the persistence of Sykes’ calls for Delia, despite the escalating events.
Repetition	“Sweat, sweat, sweat! Work and sweat, cry and sweat, pray and sweat!”	The repetition of “sweat” emphasizes the physical and emotional labor that Delia endures in her daily life, highlighting the repetitive nature of her struggles and the exhaustion that accompanies them.
Satire	The portrayal of Sykes as a self-absorbed and abusive husband satirizes the toxic masculinity and patriarchal attitudes prevalent in society at the time.	Through satire, Hurston critiques the societal norms that enable and perpetuate male dominance and mistreatment of women, exposing the absurdity and harmful consequences of such behavior.
Simile	“You looks jes’ lak de devvul’s doll-baby tuh me.”	Delia compares Sykes’ appearance to a doll possessed by the devil, using a simile to vividly illustrate her contempt and disdain for him, highlighting the extent of their marital discord and her disillusionment.
Symbolism	The snake symbolizes Sykes’ cruelty, betrayal, and eventual downfall, while Delia’s fear and triumph over the snake symbolize her confrontation with her abusive husband and her journey towards liberation.	The snake serves as a powerful symbol of oppression and fear in Delia’s life, representing the threat posed by Sykes and her eventual triumph over him, as well as the cleansing and renewal that follows his demise.
Tone	The tone shifts between somber and defiant as Delia confronts her marital struggles with resilience and determination.	The shifting tone reflects Delia’s emotional journey as she navigates the challenges of her marriage, ranging from despair and fear to defiance and empowerment, highlighting her strength and resilience in the face of adversity.
Theme	Themes of oppression, resilience, empowerment, and poetic justice are prevalent throughout the story, reflecting the experiences of African American women in the early 20th century.	These themes explore the struggles and triumphs of marginalized individuals, particularly African American women, as they confront societal injustices and assert their autonomy and agency in the face of adversity.
Mood	The mood oscillates between tension, fear, and catharsis, reflecting the emotional turmoil of the characters and the oppressive atmosphere of the setting.	The mood creates a sense of unease and apprehension, punctuated by moments of relief and empowerment, as the characters grapple with their internal conflicts and external challenges, ultimately leading to a cathartic resolution.
Hyperbole	“Dat ol’ scratch is woke up now!”	The use of “ol’ scratch” as a hyperbolic term for the devil emphasizes Delia’s heightened emotional state and her belief in the malevolent forces at play in her life, highlighting the intensity of her fear and desperation.
Onomatopoeia	“A tremendous stir inside there, another series of animal screams, the intermittent whirr of the reptile.”	The use of onomatopoeia, such as “whirr,” “screams,” and “stir,” creates auditory imagery that heightens the suspense and tension of the scene, immersing the reader in the chaotic and terrifying events unfolding.
Paradox	Delia’s fear of the snake paradoxically empowers her to confront Sykes and assert her independence, despite her initial vulnerability.	The paradox lies in the transformative effect of fear, as Delia’s initial terror of the snake ultimately strengthens her resolve to defy Sykes and reclaim control of her life, highlighting the complex interplay of emotions and motivations.

Characterization in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Major Characters:

• Delia Jones:
  • Example: Delia is portrayed as a hardworking, resilient woman who endures physical and emotional abuse from her husband, Sykes. Despite her struggles, she remains steadfast in her commitment to her work and ultimately finds the strength to stand up to Sykes.
• Sykes Jones:
  • Example: Sykes is depicted as a cruel and abusive husband who takes pleasure in tormenting Delia. His mistreatment of her, including his affair and use of a venomous snake to terrorize her, ultimately leads to his own downfall.

Minor Characters:

• **Bertha:
  • Example: Bertha is Sykes’ mistress, whose presence exacerbates the tension in Delia and Sykes’ marriage. Her affair with Sykes adds another layer of betrayal and conflict to the story.
• Joe Clarke:
  • Example: Joe Clarke is the store owner and a central figure in the community. He serves as a mediator in Delia and Sykes’ marital disputes, offering advice and insight into their relationship dynamics.
• Elijah Moseley:
  • Example: Elijah Moseley is a friend of Sykes who serves as a witness to the deterioration of Delia and Sykes’ marriage. His presence highlights the interconnectedness of the community and provides perspective on Sykes’ character.
• The Snake:
  • Example: The snake symbolizes Sykes’ cruelty and betrayal, as well as Delia’s eventual triumph over her fears. Its presence in the story catalyzes the climactic events that lead to Sykes’ demise.

Major Themes in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Writing Style in “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Example
Feminist Criticism	Analyzes gender dynamics and power structures, highlighting the oppression and resistance of women.	Delia’s character can be analyzed through a feminist lens, showcasing her resilience in the face of patriarchal oppression from her husband, Sykes.
		Example: Delia’s refusal to be intimidated by Sykes’ abuse and her eventual liberation from his control demonstrate her agency and strength as a woman.
Marxist Criticism	Focuses on class struggle and economic inequality, examining how social and economic factors shape characters and their interactions.	The exploitation of Delia’s labor by Sykes can be analyzed through a Marxist lens, highlighting the economic power dynamics within their marriage.
		Example: Delia’s work as a laundress symbolizes her economic independence and highlights Sykes’ dependence on her income, underscoring their unequal relationship.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores characters’ subconscious desires, fears, and motivations, often examining the impact of childhood experiences on adult behavior.	Sykes’ abusive behavior towards Delia may be interpreted through a psychoanalytic lens, revealing underlying psychological conflicts and insecurities.
		Example: Sykes’ mistreatment of Delia and his need to assert dominance over her may stem from deep-seated insecurities and feelings of inadequacy.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Gender Roles and Power Dynamics	How do gender roles influence the characters’ actions and relationships in “Sweat”?	In “Sweat,” Zora Neale Hurston explores the complexities of gender roles, depicting how societal expectations shape power dynamics within relationships.
	How does Delia challenge traditional gender norms in the face of her husband’s abuse?	Delia’s defiance of gender norms in “Sweat” serves as a powerful assertion of agency and resistance against patriarchal oppression.
Race and Identity	What role does race play in shaping the characters’ identities and experiences in the story?	Through the lens of race, “Sweat” delves into the intersectionality of identity and highlights the impact of racial prejudice on individual lives.
	How does Hurston portray the complexities of racial identity within the African American community?	Hurston’s portrayal of racial identity in “Sweat” reveals the multifaceted nature of the African American experience, challenging monolithic narratives.
Socioeconomic Inequality	How do socioeconomic factors contribute to the characters’ struggles and conflicts?	“Sweat” exposes the harsh realities of socioeconomic inequality, illustrating how poverty exacerbates power imbalances and interpersonal tensions.
	To what extent does economic dependence influence the characters’ behavior and choices?	Economic dependence emerges as a central theme in “Sweat,” underscoring the complexities of survival and autonomy in impoverished communities.
Domestic Abuse and Psychological Trauma	What are the psychological effects of domestic abuse on the characters, particularly Delia?	Delia’s journey in “Sweat” illuminates the psychological toll of domestic abuse, highlighting the resilience and inner strength required to break free from cycles of trauma.
	How does Hurston explore the cyclical nature of abuse and its impact on subsequent generations?	Through nuanced character portrayals, “Sweat” examines the intergenerational transmission of trauma and the potential for healing and resilience.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

1. “The Gilded Six-Bits” by Zora Neale Hurston
   • Another captivating work by Hurston, this story explores themes of infidelity, forgiveness, and resilience within a marriage tested by external influences. It offers a vivid portrayal of African American life in the rural South.
2. “Spunk” by Zora Neale Hurston
   • Set in the rural South, this story by Hurston delves into themes of jealousy, revenge, and the supernatural. It centers around the consequences of challenging societal norms and the power dynamics within a small community.
3. “The Worn Path” by Eudora Welty
   • Welty’s poignant story follows an elderly African American woman on her journey to town to retrieve medicine for her grandson. Like “Sweat,” it explores themes of perseverance, sacrifice, and the resilience of the human spirit in the face of adversity.
4. “The Conscience of the Court” by Zora Neale Hurston
   • In this lesser-known gem by Hurston, themes of justice, racial prejudice, and the pursuit of truth are explored through the lens of a courtroom drama. It offers a compelling portrayal of the challenges faced by African Americans in the legal system.
5. “That Evening Sun” by William Faulkner
   • Faulkner’s short story, set in the American South, examines themes of race, class, and morality through the eyes of a young boy witnessing the injustices faced by an African American woman in his community. It shares with “Sweat” a vivid depiction of Southern life and the complexities of human relationships.

Suggested Readings about/on “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Articles:

• Lindenberger, Laura. “” Sweat:” Through the Lens of Womanness.” The Corinthian 4.1 (2002): 6.

Books:

• Baker, Houston A., Jr. Long Black Song: Essays in Black Literature and Culture. Oxford Univ. Press, 2002.
• Gates, Henry Louis, and Evelyn Louise Brière. The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. Second Edition, W. W. Norton & Company, 2004.

Websites:

• https://www.amazon.com/Sweat-Written-Neale-Hurston-Writers/dp/081352315X

Representative Quotations from “Sweat” by Zora Neale Hurston

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“Course Ah knowed it! That’s how come Ah done it.”	Sykes throws a bull whip at Delia to scare her, knowing she is afraid of snakes.	This quote illustrates Sykes’ abusive behavior and his lack of empathy towards Delia’s fear. It also reflects his sadistic enjoyment in frightening her.
“Ah just come from taking sacrament at the church house.”	Delia explains she just came from church, hoping to avoid conflict.	Delia’s attempt to avoid confrontation highlights her desire for peace despite Sykes’ antagonistic behavior. It also emphasizes the conflict between her religious beliefs and her abusive marriage.
“What’s it got to do with you, Sykes? Mah tub of suds is filled yo’ belly with vittles more times than yo’ hands is filled it.”	Delia confronts Sykes about his lack of contribution to their household.	This quote reveals Delia’s frustration with Sykes’ laziness and irresponsibility. It also highlights the gendered division of labor and the unequal power dynamics in their marriage.
“Ah hates you, Sykes. Ah hates you tuh de same degree dat Ah useter love yuh.”	Delia expresses her hatred towards Sykes after enduring years of abuse.	Delia’s statement signifies her transformation from a submissive wife to a woman asserting her independence and self-worth. It marks a pivotal moment in her resistance against Sykes’ tyranny.
“Ah wants you tuh take dat snake ‘way fum heah.”	Delia demands Sykes to remove the snake he brought into their home.	Delia’s demand reflects her assertion of control over her environment and her refusal to tolerate Sykes’ abuse any longer. It also symbolizes her desire to rid herself of the threats and dangers he brings into her life.
“Delia. Delia!”	Sykes calls out to Delia in despair after being bitten by the snake.	Sykes’ desperate cries for help contrast with Delia’s indifference, symbolizing the reversal of power dynamics in their relationship. It also signifies the consequences of his abusive behavior finally catching up to him.
“Mah Gawd fum Heben!”	Sykes cries out in agony as he realizes his fate after being bitten by the snake.	This quote highlights Sykes’ realization of the consequences of his actions and his fear of impending death. It symbolizes the ultimate punishment for his cruelty towards Delia and reflects the theme of divine justice in the story.

Introduction: “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

“The Man Who Was Almost a Man,” also known as “Almos’ a Man,” is a short story by Richard Wright, originally published in 1940 in Harper’s Bazaar magazine, and again in 1961 as part of Wright’s compilation Eight Men. This powerful short story showcases Wright’s masterful exploration of the African American experience, delving into themes of racial tension, masculinity, and the struggles of adolescence. Through the protagonist’s journey, Wright skillfully portrays the qualities of frustration, anger, and the quest for identity, which continue to resonate with readers today. The story’s vivid and poignant portrayal of a young black man’s struggles in the American South during the 1940s remains a significant contribution to the literary canon.

Main Events in “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

Literary Devices in “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“He heard Joe coming back. He craned his neck to see if he were bringing the book.”	Alliteration occurs with the repetition of the “c” sound in “craned” and “coming,” creating a rhythmic effect.
Characterization	Dave’s internal dialogue and actions reveal his desire for maturity and respect.	Through interactions with various characters, Dave’s traits and motivations are revealed, driving the narrative.
Conflict	The central conflict revolves around Dave’s desire for a gun and its consequences.	The tension between Dave’s aspirations and reality drives the story forward, shaping his character development.
Dialogue	Conversations reveal character relationships, tensions, and motivations.	Through exchanges between characters, their dynamics, conflicts, and themes of power and authority are highlighted.
Foreshadowing	Dave’s fascination with the gun and secret practice sessions hint at tragedy.	Early clues and hints suggest the eventual outcome, adding depth and anticipation to the narrative.
Hyperbole	“A gun! Whut you want with a gun?”	Hyperbole emphasizes Joe’s disbelief at Dave’s desire for a gun, intensifying the scene.
Imagery	“Her hands moved slowly, reflectively Dave kept an anxious silence.”	Vivid descriptions create a tense atmosphere, evoking emotions and anticipation in the reader.
Irony	Dave believes a gun will make him a man, but its mishandling leads to tragedy.	The contrast between Dave’s expectations and reality adds depth and complexity to the narrative.
Metaphor	“His courage began to ooze.”	Metaphorically, Dave’s confidence diminishes in the presence of authority, highlighting his vulnerability.
Mood	Tension and unease permeate the story.	The emotional atmosphere shapes the reader’s experience, creating suspense and anticipation.
Personification	“The gun lay at his feet. He did not quite know what had happened.”	Giving human traits to the gun suggests its influence on events, adding depth to the narrative.
Point of View	Third-person limited perspective on Dave’s thoughts and experiences.	The narrative focuses on Dave’s perspective, providing insight into his mindset and actions.
Repetition	“He laid the catalogue down and slipped his arm around her waist.”	Repetition emphasizes Dave’s actions, highlighting his attempts to gain approval and support.
Setting	Rural Southern setting serves as backdrop for themes of power and identity.	The environment reflects societal norms and influences characters’ behaviors and aspirations.
Simile	“Like a hungry dog scratching for a bone, he pawed it up.”	The simile compares Dave’s determination to find the gun to a hungry dog seeking food, emphasizing his desperation.
Symbolism	The gun symbolizes power and autonomy for Dave.	The gun represents Dave’s aspirations and the societal pressures he faces, adding depth to his character.
Theme	Themes of power, autonomy, and consequences of actions are explored.	The narrative delves into universal concepts, shaping character arcs and driving the plot forward.
Tone	Shifts from anticipation to tension, regret, and resignation.	The tone sets the story’s emotional atmosphere, reflecting characters’ experiences and the narrative’s progression.
Understatement	“Looks like you have bought you a mule, Dave.”	Understatement downplays the severity of Dave’s actions, highlighting the community’s indifference.
Voice	Wright’s narrative voice authentically captures characters’ speech patterns.	The distinctive voice immerses the reader in the Southern setting, enhancing the story’s authenticity.

Characterization in “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

Major Characters:

1. Dave Saunders:
   • Example: Dave is characterized as a young, naive, and impulsive teenager who longs for respect and autonomy. His desire for a gun symbolizes his aspiration to assert his manhood and gain recognition in a society where he feels powerless.
   • Explanation: Throughout the story, Dave’s actions and internal dialogue reveal his internal conflict between youthful impulsiveness and a desire for maturity. His interactions with his mother, Joe, and Jim Hawkins illustrate his yearning for respect and the consequences of his reckless decisions.

Minor Characters:

1. Dave’s Mother:
   • Example: Dave’s mother is depicted as a hardworking and pragmatic woman who cares deeply for her son. She serves as a voice of reason and caution, advising Dave against his obsession with owning a gun.
   • Explanation: Through her dialogue and interactions with Dave, his mother demonstrates her concern for his well-being and attempts to guide him towards responsible behavior. Her refusal to support his desire for a gun highlights her understanding of the dangers it poses.
2. Joe:
   • Example: Joe is portrayed as a stern but fair figure in Dave’s life, representing authority and the adult world. He serves as Dave’s boss at Mr. Hawkins’ farm and becomes involved in the consequences of Dave’s actions.
   • Explanation: Joe’s interactions with Dave reveal his role as a mentor and disciplinarian. His disapproval of Dave’s desire for a gun reflects societal norms and expectations regarding maturity and responsibility.
3. Jim Hawkins:
   • Example: Jim Hawkins is the owner of the farm where Dave works and represents the embodiment of authority and power in the story. His reaction to Dave’s mishandling of the gun underscores the serious consequences of Dave’s actions.
   • Explanation: Jim Hawkins’ brief appearance in the story emphasizes the impact of Dave’s choices on those in positions of authority. His response to the incident serves as a sobering reality check for Dave, highlighting the gravity of his actions.

Major Themes in “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

Writing Style in “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

1. Vivid Dialect: Wright captures the Southern dialect of the characters authentically, using contractions (“Ahma”), shortened words (“suppah”), and regional pronunciations (“thata”). This creates a sense of place and immediacy, immersing the reader in David’s world.
2. Simple, Direct Language: The prose is clear and concise, mirroring David’s young age and limited education. It allows the story’s themes and emotions to emerge organically without flowery language getting in the way.
3. Focus on Action and Details: Wright paints a picture through specific actions and details. We see David “tucking the thick catalogue under his arm,” “grabbing for it,” and “thumbing page after page.” These details bring the story to life and reveal David’s inner world.
4. Sparse Emotional Expression: David’s emotions are often implied rather than explicitly stated. We see his frustration in his actions, like “groping back to the kitchen” after being pushed. This technique allows the reader to connect with David on an emotional level without him needing to articulate his feelings directly.
5. Shifting Perspectives: The story primarily follows David’s thoughts, but Wright occasionally shifts to the perspective of other characters. This provides glimpses into their viewpoints, adding depth to the story and highlighting the power dynamics between David and those around him (like his father).

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Example from the Story	Explanation
Marxist Literary Theory	Dave’s desire for a gun and his belief that it will elevate his status reflects his aspiration to gain power and autonomy in a society structured by class divisions and economic inequality.	Dave’s longing for a gun symbolizes his desire to transcend his socioeconomic status and assert his independence. His decision to purchase the gun, despite its risks, reflects his belief that it will bring him respect and authority.	In a Marxist interpretation, the story can be seen as a critique of the oppressive social and economic structures that limit individuals like Dave. It highlights how material possessions, such as a gun, become symbols of power and status, perpetuating the cycle of inequality and reinforcing the struggle for agency within marginalized communities.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Dave’s fixation on owning a gun and his impulsive actions can be interpreted as manifestations of subconscious desires and conflicts, such as the need for recognition, fear of emasculation, and rebellion against authority figures.	Dave’s obsession with owning a gun and his reckless behavior stem from deeper psychological motivations, including a desire for validation and a fear of being perceived as weak or powerless. His actions can be seen as attempts to assert his masculinity and autonomy in response to feelings of inadequacy.	From a psychoanalytic perspective, the story explores the complexities of human psychology and the unconscious forces that drive behavior. Dave’s struggles reflect universal themes of identity formation and the quest for self-actualization, offering insights into the inner workings of the human mind and the interplay between conscious desires and subconscious impulses.
Feminist Literary Theory	The story sheds light on the patriarchal norms and gender roles that shape Dave’s aspirations and interactions, as well as the marginalization of female characters such as Dave’s mother.	Dave’s mother serves as a voice of reason and caution, yet her authority is undermined by patriarchal expectations that diminish her agency and influence. Her refusal to support Dave’s desire for a gun highlights the constraints imposed on women within traditional gender roles.	Through a feminist lens, the story critiques the societal constructs that perpetuate gender inequality and restrict women’s autonomy. It underscores the importance of challenging traditional gender norms and amplifying the voices of marginalized individuals, offering a nuanced portrayal of the struggles faced by women and the impact of gender dynamics on personal agency and relationships.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Socioeconomic Disparity	How does socioeconomic status influence the characters’ actions and aspirations in the story?	In “A Man Who Was Almost a Man,” Richard Wright explores the impact of socioeconomic disparity on individual agency and identity, illustrating how aspirations for power and autonomy are shaped by economic constraints.
Masculinity and Identity	How is masculinity portrayed, and how does it affect the characters’ sense of identity and self-worth?	Richard Wright delves into the complexities of masculinity in “A Man Who Was Almost a Man,” depicting how societal expectations and internalized norms influence characters’ perceptions of themselves and their pursuit of validation and respect.
Symbolism of the Gun	What does the gun symbolize, and how does its significance evolve throughout the story?	The gun in “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” serves as a multifaceted symbol representing power, agency, and the struggle for autonomy, its evolving significance reflecting Dave’s journey toward self-realization and the consequences of his actions.
Consequences of Impulsive Behavior	How do impulsive decisions shape the characters’ lives, and what broader commentary does the story offer on human nature?	Richard Wright explores the repercussions of impulsive behavior in “A Man Who Was Almost a Man,” highlighting the intersection of personal agency, social expectations, and the pursuit of autonomy in the face of adversity and systemic oppression.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

• Q1: How does Dave’s desire for a gun reflect his struggles with identity and masculinity, and what commentary does this offer on societal expectations of manhood?
• A1: Dave’s desire for a gun is a symbol of his desire to prove his masculinity and transition from boyhood to manhood. This reflects his struggles with identity, as he feels emasculated by his mother’s control and his father’s absence. His desire for a gun is also influenced by societal expectations of manhood, which equate masculinity with power, strength, and violence. Through Dave’s character, Wright critiques these expectations, highlighting the damaging effects of toxic masculinity and the limitations placed on young black men in a racist society.
• Q2: How does the relationship between Dave and his mother reveal the power dynamics at play in their household and the societal constraints placed on women and children?
• A2: The relationship between Dave and his mother reveals a complex power dynamic, with Dave seeking autonomy and independence, while his mother seeks to maintain control and protect him from harm. This dynamic reflects the societal constraints placed on women and children, particularly in the rural South during the early 20th century. Dave’s mother is forced to manage the household and make difficult decisions, while also being subject to the whims of her husband and the racist society around her. Through their relationship, Wright highlights the ways in which women and children are marginalized and disempowered, and the ways in which they resist and subvert these power structures.
• Q3: What role does economic oppression play in the story, and how does it intersect with racism and gender dynamics?
• A3: Economic oppression is a significant theme in the story, as Dave and his family struggle to make ends meet and are subject to the whims of their white employer, Mr. Hawkins. The story highlights the ways in which economic oppression intersects with racism and gender dynamics, as Dave’s family is forced to rely on the charity of their white employer and is subject to exploitation and violence. The story also highlights the ways in which economic oppression limits the choices and opportunities available to Dave and his family, particularly in terms of education and employment. Through the character of Dave, Wright critiques the capitalist system and its perpetuation of racial and gender inequality.
• Q4: How does the story’s use of dialect and vernacular language contribute to its themes of identity, power, and resistance, and what impact does this have on the reader’s experience?
• A4: The story’s use of dialect and vernacular language is a deliberate choice by Wright to reflect the speech patterns and cultural heritage of African Americans in the rural South. This use of language contributes to the themes of identity, power, and resistance, as it highlights the ways in which language is used as a tool of oppression and resistance. The use of dialect also creates a sense of intimacy and immediacy, drawing the reader into the world of the story and forcing them to confront the harsh realities of racism and oppression. The use of vernacular language also challenges the reader’s expectations and forces them to engage with the story on its own terms, rather than through the dominant language and culture of the time.

Literary Works Similar to “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

1. “Sonny’s Blues” by James Baldwin (1957) – Like Wright’s story, Baldwin’s “Sonny’s Blues” delves into issues of identity, family dynamics, and the struggle for autonomy, albeit in a different socio-cultural context.
2. “A Good Man is Hard to Find” by Flannery O’Connor (1953) – O’Connor’s story shares themes of moral ambiguity, existential crisis, and the consequences of human actions, echoing some of the existential themes present in Wright’s work.
3. “The Lesson” by Toni Cade Bambara (1972) – Bambara’s story explores themes of social inequality, education, and the disillusionment of marginalized youth, resonating with Wright’s portrayal of societal barriers and aspirations for empowerment.
4. “Harrison Bergeron” by Kurt Vonnegut (1961) – Vonnegut’s dystopian tale addresses themes of individuality, conformity, and the quest for freedom in a society that imposes oppressive limitations, paralleling some of the struggles faced by the protagonist in Wright’s story.

Suggested Readings about/on “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

1. Loftis, John E. “Domestic Prey: Richard Wright’s Parody of the Hunt Tradition in ‘The Man Who Was Almost a Man.'” EBSCO Publishing, 2002.
2. Reilly, John. Richard Wright: The Critical Reception. Ayer Publishing, 1978.
3. Wright, Richard. “The Man Who Was Almost a Man.” Harper’s Bazaar, January 1940, pp. 40–41, 105–107.
4. Wright, Richard. “The Man Who Was Almost a Man.” The Norton Anthology of American Literature, edited by Nina Baym, W.W. Norton & Company, 736–747.
5. Wright, Richard. “The Man Who Was Almost a Man.” The Story and Its Writer, edited by Ann Charters, Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2011, pp. 878–87.

Representative Quotations from “A Man Who Was Almost a Man” by Richard Wright

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“Ma, Gawd knows Ah wans one of these.”	Dave expresses his desire for a gun, which he sees as a symbol of manhood and power.	This quotation highlights Dave’s yearning for autonomy and masculinity, reflecting his desire to assert control over his life and circumstances. It also reflects themes of adolescence and coming of age.
“Lawd, chil, whut’s wrong wid yuh?”	Dave’s mother responds to his persistent plea for a gun with concern and disbelief.	This quotation underscores the generational and cultural divide between Dave and his mother. It also reveals the tension between traditional values and youthful aspirations.
“Ah’ll let yuh git tha gun ef yuh promise me one thing.”	Dave’s mother agrees to let him buy the gun but sets a condition.	This quotation illustrates the power dynamic between Dave and his mother, with her imposing authority even as she reluctantly grants him permission. It also foreshadows potential consequences for Dave’s actions.
“Here. Lawd knows yuh don need no gun. But yer pa does.”	Dave’s mother reluctantly gives him the money for the gun, emphasizing its necessity for his father’s protection.	This quotation highlights the sacrifices and responsibilities of parenthood, as well as the theme of familial duty. It also underscores the disparity between Dave’s perception of the gun as a symbol of personal empowerment and his mother’s pragmatic view of it as a tool for practical necessity.
“Yessum.”	Dave’s obedient response to his mother’s instructions.	This quotation signifies Dave’s acknowledgment of his mother’s authority and his compliance with her wishes, despite his desire for independence. It also reflects themes of respect for parental authority and the cultural expectations of obedience.