Month: April 2024

Introduction: “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

“Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway, first published in 1925 in the short story collection “In Our Time,” is notable for its simple and precise use of language to convey a wide range of complex emotions. “Cat in the Rain” is a short story about an American couple on vacation in Italy, and it received acclaim from many notable authors of the period, including Ford Madox Ford, John Dos Passos and F. Scott Fitzgerald.

Main Events in “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

1. American Tourists in Italy
   Two American tourists, a husband and wife, are staying at a hotel in an unnamed Italian town. They are the only Americans at the hotel and do not know anyone else.
2. The Wife Sees a Cat in the Rain
   The wife sees a cat crouched under a table outside their window, trying to stay dry in the rain. She feels sorry for the cat and decides to go downstairs to get it.
3. Friendly Hotel Staff
   The hotel owner and the maid are friendly and courteous to the wife. She likes their dignity and seriousness, and the way they take their jobs seriously.
4. Disappointment Outside
   When she goes outside, the cat is gone, and she is disappointed. The maid tries to comfort her, but the wife is still upset.
5. Unresponsive Husband
   Back in their room, the wife talks to her husband, George, about her desire for a cat and other things she wants, like long hair and nice clothes. However, George is not very responsive and is more interested in reading his book.
6. Feeling Small and Tight
   The wife feels small and tight inside, and her desires and frustrations are still unaddressed. She is looking for something more in her life, but her husband is not providing it.
7. The Maid’s Kindness
   The maid tries to comfort the wife and shows kindness towards her. She even offers her an umbrella to keep her dry in the rain.
8. Desire for a Cat
   The wife’s desire for a cat represents her desire for something more in her life. She wants something to care for and love, but her husband is not providing it.
9. Fulfillment of Desire
   The maid arrives with a big tortoiseshell cat, which the wife is happy to receive. Her desire for a cat is finally fulfilled, but her other desires and frustrations are still unaddressed.
10. Unresolved Frustrations
    The story ends with the wife’s desire for a cat fulfilled, but her other desires and frustrations still unaddressed. She is still looking for something more in her life, and her husband is still not providing it.

Literary Devices in “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

Term	Definition	Example
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words in close proximity.	“The rain dripped from the palm trees.”
Characterization	The method used to develop a character in a narrative.	The description of the American wife’s desire for a cat reveals her longing for companionship.
Conflict	The struggle between opposing forces in a narrative.	The American wife’s internal conflict between her desire for a cat and her current circumstances.
Dialogue	Conversation between characters in a literary work.	The exchange between the American wife and the maid about the missing cat.
Flashback	Interruption of the chronological sequence of events to provide background information.	None in this excerpt.
Foreshadowing	Hints or clues about events that will occur later in the story.	The cat seeking shelter from the rain foreshadows the American wife’s desire for companionship.
Imagery	Use of descriptive language to create sensory experiences for the reader.	“The rain dripped from the palm trees.”
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.	The American wife desires a cat, and at the end, the maid brings one unexpectedly.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unrelated things.	“She sat down on the bed.”
Mood	The atmosphere or feeling created by a literary work.	The melancholic mood of the rainy weather.
Plot	The sequence of events in a narrative.	The American wife’s quest to find a cat in the rain.
Point of View	The perspective from which a story is told.	Third-person limited point of view focusing on the American wife.
Setting	The time and place in which the events of a narrative occur.	A hotel room facing the sea during a rainy day.
Simile	A figure of speech that compares two different things using “like” or “as”.	None in this excerpt.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or concepts.	The cat symbolizes the American wife’s desire for companionship.
Theme	The central idea or message of a literary work.	Loneliness and longing for connection.
Tone	The author’s attitude toward the subject matter or audience.	The tone of the narrative is subdued and reflective.
Conflict	The struggle between opposing forces in a narrative.	The American wife’s internal conflict between her desire for a cat and her current circumstances.
Foreshadowing	Hints or clues about events that will occur later in the story.	The cat seeking shelter from the rain foreshadows the American wife’s desire for companionship.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or concepts.	The cat symbolizes the American wife’s desire for companionship.

Characterization in “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

Major Character: American Wife

• Direct Characterization: The American wife is portrayed as compassionate and yearning for companionship.
  • Example: Hemingway directly characterizes her by describing her concern for the cat caught in the rain: “The poor kitty out trying to keep dry under a table.”
• Indirect Characterization: Her personality and desires are revealed through her actions and dialogue, particularly her longing for a cat and dissatisfaction with her current circumstances.
  • Example: Through her dialogue and actions, the reader understands her emotional state and desires: “I wanted it so much… It isn’t any fun to be a poor kitty out in the rain.”

Minor Character: Hotel Owner

• Direct Characterization: The hotel owner is depicted as dignified and courteous towards the American wife.
  • Example: Hemingway directly characterizes him by describing the American wife’s admiration for him: “She liked his dignity… She liked his old, heavy face and big hands.”
• Indirect Characterization: His demeanor and attitude towards the American wife are revealed through his actions and interactions.
  • Example: Through his respectful gestures and demeanor, the reader infers his professionalism and hospitality: “He stood up and bowed to her as she passed the office… She liked the way he felt about being a hotelkeeper.”

Major Themes in “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

• Theme 1: Alienation and Isolation
  The story highlights the emotional disconnection between the American couple, George and his wife. They are physically together but mentally distant, exemplified by George’s indifference to his wife’s desires and feelings. The wife’s attempt to connect with the cat and her frustration when it’s gone underscore her sense of loneliness. The rain and empty streets outside their hotel room reinforce their isolation, emphasizing the emotional void between them.
• Theme 2: Desire for Human Connection
  The wife’s longing for a cat represents her deeper desire for human connection and companionship. She craves something to care for and love, which George fails to provide. Her fascination with the cat and her disappointment when it’s gone illustrate her yearning for a meaningful relationship. The story suggests that people seek connections with others, even if it’s with an animal, to alleviate their emotional emptiness.
• Theme 3: Disillusionment and Frustration
  The wife’s experiences throughout the story convey a sense of disillusionment and frustration. She’s disappointed by the cat’s absence, George’s indifference, and the unfulfilled desires she expresses. Her frustration is palpable when she says, “I want a cat. I want a kitty.” This repetition emphasizes her desperation for something to fill the emotional void in her life. The story portrays the consequences of unmet desires and the emotional toll of a loveless relationship.
• Theme 4: The Search for Meaning
  The story explores the human quest for meaning and purpose. The wife’s desires and frustrations symbolize her search for something more in life. She’s drawn to the cat, which represents comfort, companionship, and a sense of purpose. George’s detachment and the couple’s isolation suggest a lack of meaning in their relationship. The story implies that people seek meaning and connection to overcome their emotional emptiness and find fulfillment.

Writing Style in “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

• Simple and Direct Language
  • Example: “There were only two Americans stopping at the hotel.” (first sentence)
  • Hemingway uses short, straightforward sentences to convey a sense of simplicity and clarity.
• Minimal Description
  • Example: “The room was on the second floor facing the sea.” (no elaborate description of the room)
  • Hemingway provides only essential details, leaving much to the reader’s imagination.
• Use of Understatement
  • Example: “The wife was looking out of the window. It was quite dark now and still raining in the palm trees.” (no dramatic description of the storm)
  • Hemingway downplays emotions and descriptions to create a sense of restraint and subtlety.
• Iceberg Principle (Implication rather than Statement)
  • Example: The wife’s desire for a cat is not explicitly stated, but implied through her actions and dialogue.
  • Hemingway suggests more than he states, leaving readers to infer meanings and emotions.
• Repetition
  • Example: The wife repeats “I want a cat” twice, emphasizing her desire.
  • Hemingway uses repetition to convey intensity, frustration, or obsession.
• Use of Symbolism
  • Example: The cat represents companionship, comfort, and the wife’s desire for human connection.
  • Hemingway employs symbols to convey deeper meanings and themes.
• Emphasis on Action and Dialogue
  • Example: The story focuses on the wife’s actions (looking out the window, going downstairs) and her dialogue with George.
  • Hemingway prioritizes action and dialogue over narration to create a sense of immediacy and intimacy.
• Absence of Flowery Language
  • Example: No poetic descriptions of nature or emotions.
  • Hemingway avoids ornate language to create a sense of starkness and realism.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Examples from the Story
Psychoanalytic Theory	The story can be interpreted through the lens of Freudian psychoanalysis, focusing on unconscious desires and conflicts within the characters.	The American wife’s longing for the cat may symbolize her unconscious desire for affection and connection.
Feminist Theory	This approach examines gender roles, power dynamics, and societal expectations within the narrative.	The American wife’s dissatisfaction with her appearance and desire for a cat may reflect her constrained role as a woman in society.
Formalist Theory	Formalist analysis focuses on the structure, language, and literary devices used in the text.	The repetition of the word “cat” emphasizes the wife’s fixation on obtaining the animal.
Marxist Theory	Marxist interpretation explores social class, economic power, and oppression within the narrative.	The depiction of the American couple’s stay at a hotel and their interactions with the hotel staff may reflect class disparities.
Reader-Response Theory	This theory emphasizes the reader’s interpretation and response to the text, considering individual perspectives.	Readers may empathize with the American wife’s desire for companionship and her sense of isolation.
Structuralist Theory	Structuralism examines underlying binary oppositions and narrative structures within the text.	The contrast between the rainy exterior and the hotel’s interior may represent the wife’s inner turmoil.
Postcolonial Theory	Postcolonial analysis considers power dynamics, cultural imperialism, and colonial legacies within the narrative.	The presence of Italian characters and references to the war monument hint at colonial history and its impact.

Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Loneliness and Isolation	How does the theme of loneliness manifest in “Cat in the Rain”?	In “Cat in the Rain,” Hemingway explores the profound loneliness experienced by the American wife through her longing for companionship symbolized by the cat.
Gender Roles	What role do gender expectations play in the story?	Through the portrayal of the American wife’s desire for a cat and dissatisfaction with her appearance, Hemingway critiques traditional gender roles and societal expectations.
Symbolism of the Cat	What does the cat symbolize in the narrative?	The cat in “Cat in the Rain” symbolizes the American wife’s yearning for emotional connection, comfort, and fulfillment in her life.
Communication	How do characters communicate and connect in the story?	Hemingway explores the theme of communication and connection through the interactions between the American wife and other characters, highlighting the challenges and limitations of human connection.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

• Question 1: How does Hemingway use the setting to reflect the characters’ emotional states?
• Answer: Hemingway uses the rain-soaked landscape to mirror the emotional desolation of the American couple. The “empty square” and “dark” room symbolize their emotional emptiness, while the “rain dripping from the palm trees” creates a sense of melancholy. The setting reinforces the couple’s disconnection and the wife’s longing for human connection, exemplified by her desire for a cat.
• Question 2: What role does the cat play in the story, and what does it symbolize?
• Answer: The cat represents companionship, comfort, and the wife’s deep-seated desire for human connection. Her fixation on the cat signifies her emotional isolation and yearning for something to care for and love. The cat’s absence underscores her sense of loneliness, while its eventual arrival offers a glimmer of hope for connection.
• Question 3: How does Hemingway’s writing style contribute to the story’s themes and tone?
• Answer: Hemingway’s sparse, direct language and use of understatement create a sense of restraint and subtlety, mirroring the couple’s emotional suppression. The iceberg principle, where more is implied than stated, adds to the story’s emotional depth. The focus on action and dialogue over narration creates an intimate, immediate tone, drawing readers into the characters’ emotional struggles.
• Question 4: What does the story suggest about the human need for connection and companionship?
• Answer: The story highlights the human desire for connection and companionship, underscoring the emotional toll of isolation. The wife’s desperation for a cat and her frustration with George’s indifference illustrate the consequences of unmet emotional needs. The story implies that people seek connections with others, even if it’s with an animal, to alleviate their emotional emptiness and find meaning.

Literary Works Similar to “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

• The Old Man and the Sea: This novel by Ernest Hemingway follows an aging fisherman, Santiago, who goes out to sea and catches a giant marlin. The story explores themes of isolation, perseverance, and the human struggle against nature.
• The Sun Also Rises: This novel by Ernest Hemingway follows a group of American and British expats living in Paris and Spain in the 1920s. The story explores themes of disillusionment, moral bankruptcy, and the search for meaning in a post-World War I world.
• A Moveable Feast: This memoir by Ernest Hemingway is a nostalgic and introspective account of his time as a young writer in Paris in the 1920s. The story explores themes of writing, love, and the human experience.
• “The Yellow Wallpaper“: This short story by Charlotte Perkins Gilman follows a woman who is confined to a room by her husband and descends into madness. The story explores themes of isolation, oppression, and the search for freedom and autonomy.
• “A Good Man is Hard to Find”: This short story by Flannery O’Connor follows a family on a road trip who encounter a criminal on the run. The story explores themes of morality, family, and the American South.

Suggested Readings about/on “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

1. Lodge, David. “Analysis and Interpretation of the Realist Text: A Pluralistic Approach to Ernest Hemingway’s” Cat in the Rain”.” Poetics Today 1.4 (1980): 5-22.
2. Carter, Ronald. “Style and interpretation in Hemingway’s ‘Cat in the rain’.” The Language and Literature Reader. Routledge, 2020. 96-108.
3. Bennett, Warren. “The Poor Kitty and the Padrone and the Tortoise-shell Cat in’Cat in the Rain.” Hemingway Review 8.1 (1988): 26-36.
4. Holmesland, Oddvar. “Structuralism and interpretation: Ernest Hemingway’s ‘cat in the rain’.” (1986): 221-233.
5. Barton, Edwin J. “The story as it should be: epistemological uncertainty in Hemingway’s” Cat in the Rain.”(Ernest Hemingway).” The Hemingway Review 14.1 (1994): 72-79.
6. Felty, Darren. “Spatial Confinement in Hemingway’s” Cat in the Rain”.” Studies in Short Fiction 34.3 (1997): 363-363.
7. Breuer, Horst. “Past and Present in “Cat in the Rain” and “Old Man at the Bridge”.” Journal of the Short Story in English. Les Cahiers de la nouvelle 49 (2007): 99-108.
8. https://biblioklept.org/2014/02/11/cat-in-the-rain-ernest-hemingway/
9. https://www.jetir.org/papers/JETIR1904R23.pdf

Representative Quotations from “Cat in the Rain” by Ernest Hemingway

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“I’m going down and get that kitty.”	American wife sees a cat under a table outside and wants to rescue it.	The wife’s desire to save the cat represents her need for connection and companionship.
“Don’t get wet.”	Husband warns wife about the rain.	The husband’s detachment and lack of emotional support are evident in his brief and practical response.
“Il piove.”	Wife comments on the rain to the hotel owner.	The wife’s use of Italian shows her attempt to connect with the hotel owner and the local culture.
“Si, si, Signora, brutto tempo.”	Hotel owner responds to the wife’s comment about the rain.	The hotel owner’s dignified and serious demeanor impresses the wife, who appreciates his respect and kindness.
“You must not get wet.”	Maid offers to hold an umbrella for the wife.	The maid’s concern for the wife’s well-being contrasts with the husband’s indifference.
“There was a cat.”	Wife explains to the maid why she went outside.	The wife’s repetition of her desire for a cat emphasizes her emotional investment in this desire.
“A cat in the rain?”	Maid laughs at the wife’s desire to rescue a cat in the rain.	The maid’s laughter highlights the wife’s naivety and the absurdity of her desire.
“I wanted it so much.”	Wife expresses her disappointment at not finding the cat.	The wife’s emotional intensity and sense of loss reveal her deep-seated desire for connection and companionship.
“I want a kitty to sit on my lap and purr when I stroke her.”	Wife expresses her desires to George.	The wife’s desire for a cat represents her longing for comfort, companionship, and a sense of purpose.

Introduction: “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

“A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman was first published in 1891 in the collection “A New England Nun and Other Stories”. This short story showcases Freeman’s exceptional storytelling skills and her ability to craft relatable characters with good qualities, such as the protagonist Louisa Ellis’s independence and self-sufficiency. The story is set in a small New England town, providing a unique context that explores the societal norms and expectations of women during the late 19th century. Through Louisa’s experiences, Freeman masterfully weaves a narrative that highlights the complexities of women’s lives and the choices they make in pursuit of happiness and fulfillment.

Main Events in “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

1. Louisa’s Peaceful Life: Louisa Ellis lives a peaceful and solitary life in her own home, enjoying her hobbies and interests.
2. Fifteen-Year Engagement: Louisa has been engaged to Joe Dagget for fifteen years, during which time Joe has been away making his fortune.
3. Joe’s Return: Joe returns home, expecting to marry Louisa, but finds her changed and distant.
4. Awkward Encounter: Louisa and Joe have an awkward conversation, with Joe struggling to find his place in Louisa’s delicate and feminine world.
5. Louisa’s Fear of Change: Louisa fears the changes that marriage will bring, including the loss of her peaceful and orderly home.
6. Leaving Her Home: Louisa must leave her own home and move into Joe’s family home, where she will be expected to care for his mother and manage a large household.
7. Giving Up Her Independence: Louisa must give up her independence and her beloved solitary life, including her hobbies and interests.
8. Joe’s Disillusionment: Joe realizes that Louisa is not the same woman he left behind, and that their marriage may not be the romantic reunion he imagined.
9. Uncertain Future: The story concludes with Louisa and Joe’s future uncertain, as they face the challenges of their long-awaited marriage.
10. A New Chapter: The story ends with Louisa and Joe embarking on a new chapter in their lives, unsure of what the future holds.

Literary Devices in “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

Literary Device	Definition	Example from the Story
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words in close proximity.	“little swarms of flies were dancing up and down before the people’s faces”
Allusion	Brief reference to a person, place, event, or work of art that is well-known to the reader.	Reference to St. George’s dragon
Characterization	Techniques used to create and develop characters.	Description of Louisa’s meticulous and orderly habits
Conflict	Struggle between opposing forces, which creates tension and drives the plot.	Internal conflict within Louisa about her impending marriage versus her desire to maintain her peaceful, solitary lifestyle
Foreshadowing	Hints or clues about events that will occur later in the story.	The peaceful atmosphere and routine of Louisa’s life before the disruption caused by Joe Dagget’s return
Imagery	Use of descriptive language to create sensory experiences for the reader.	Description of the setting, such as “luxuriant clumps of bushes,” “moonlight shining through the tree branches,” and “beautiful shifting dapple of silver and shadow”
Irony	Contrast between expectation and reality, often with humorous or dramatic effect.	Louisa’s anticipation of a peaceful married life versus the disruptive events that unfold after Joe Dagget’s return
Metaphor	Comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	Comparison of Louisa’s life to that of a nun, suggesting her solitude and dedication to a routine lifestyle
Motif	Recurring element that has symbolic significance and contributes to the theme.	References to sewing, orderliness, and routine throughout the story
Personification	Giving human characteristics to non-human entities.	Description of the wind “whistling loud and sweet” through Joe Dagget’s ears
Repetition	Repeating words, phrases, or motifs for emphasis or thematic effect.	Repetition of the phrase “I hope you won’t” by Joe Dagget when discussing Lily Dyer’s future
Setting	Time and place where the story takes place, which often influences the mood and atmosphere.	Rural New England setting, with descriptions of the countryside, harvest fields, and Louisa’s meticulously kept home
Simile	Comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.”	Comparison of Joe Dagget’s exit from Louisa’s house to an innocent bear exiting a china shop
Symbolism	Use of symbols to represent ideas or concepts.	Louisa’s china representing her desire for refinement and elegance, contrasted with the simplicity of her surroundings
Theme	Central message or insight about life explored in the story.	Themes of loyalty, duty, and the tension between personal desires and societal expectations
Tone	Author’s attitude toward the subject matter or audience, conveyed through the writing style.	Gentle and contemplative tone throughout the story, reflecting Louisa’s peaceful and introspective nature
Flashback	Interruption of the chronological sequence to present events that occurred earlier.	Reflections on Louisa and Joe Dagget’s long courtship and the circumstances leading up to their impending marriage
Foil	Character who contrasts with another character, highlighting their differences.	Contrast between Louisa’s quiet and orderly demeanor and Lily Dyer’s assertive and outspoken nature
Juxtaposition	Placement of two or more contrasting elements side by side to highlight their differences.	Juxtaposition of Louisa’s solitary routine and Joe Dagget’s disruptive presence
Suspense	Feeling of uncertainty or anticipation about what will happen next in the story.	Suspense regarding Louisa’s decision about whether to marry Joe Dagget or maintain her solitary lifestyle

Characterization in “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

Major Characters:

• Louisa Ellis:
  • Independent and self-sufficient: Louisa has lived alone for so long that she has become accustomed to relying only on herself.
  • Values her solitude and peaceful life: Louisa’s home is her sanctuary, and she takes great care to maintain its order and tranquility.
  • Fears change and uncertainty: The prospect of marrying Joe and leaving her home fills Louisa with anxiety and dread.
  • Examples: Louisa’s meticulous care of her home, her hesitation to marry Joe, her tears when leaving her home, and her distillation of essences from roses and peppermint.
• Joe Dagget:
  • Loyal and dedicated: Joe has waited 15 years for Louisa and remains committed to their engagement.
  • Values his relationship with Louisa: Joe’s return is motivated by his desire to finally marry Louisa and start a life together.
  • Struggles to understand Louisa’s perspective: Joe’s awkward interactions with Louisa reveal his difficulty in grasping her thoughts and feelings.
  • Examples: Joe’s return after 15 years, his attempts to connect with Louisa, his disappointment with her changed behavior, and his clumsy accident with the workbasket.

Minor Characters:

• Joe’s Mother:
  • Domineering and opinionated: Joe’s mother is a strong-willed woman who expects others to conform to her expectations.
  • Values traditional gender roles: She disapproves of Louisa’s independence and expects her to adopt a more submissive role.
  • Examples: Her disapproval of Louisa’s independence, her expectation of Louisa’s domesticity, and her reliance on Lily Dyer for household help.
• Lily Dyer:
  • Young and energetic: Lily is a vibrant and lively presence in the story.
  • Helps Joe’s mother with household chores: Lily’s assistance highlights Joe’s mother’s reliance on others for domestic support.
  • Examples: Her presence at Joe’s mother’s house, her conversation with Joe about his mother’s health, and her role as a foil to Louisa’s more subdued personality.

Major Themes in “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

1. Isolation and Independence: Louisa Ellis embodies the theme of isolation, living a solitary life for fourteen years while awaiting her fiancé’s return. Her independence is symbolized by her meticulous routines and domestic habits, such as sewing, gardening, and caring for her home. Even after Joe Dagget’s return, Louisa grapples with the prospect of giving up her solitary existence. For example, she reflects on the changes marriage will bring, including relinquishing her hobbies and caring for Joe’s elderly mother.
2. Expectations vs. Reality: The story examines the contrast between Louisa’s expectations of marriage and the reality she faces. Initially, Louisa’s anticipation of marriage is romanticized, as she has faithfully waited for Joe’s return. However, the reality of their reunion challenges her idealized vision. Louisa overhears Joe’s conversation with Lily Dyer, revealing his doubts and concerns about their impending marriage. This confrontation shatters Louisa’s illusions and forces her to confront the possibility of an uncertain future.
3. Gender Roles and Expectations: “A New England Nun” also explores traditional gender roles and societal expectations placed upon women. Louisa adheres to traditional domestic duties and displays exceptional skill in maintaining her household. However, her impending marriage threatens to disrupt her established routines and independence. Louisa’s decision to maintain her autonomy reflects her resistance to conforming to societal expectations of women in marriage. Additionally, Lily Dyer’s character challenges traditional gender norms with her assertiveness and refusal to conform to romantic expectations.
4. Self-Discovery and Empowerment: Throughout the story, Louisa undergoes a journey of self-discovery and empowerment. Initially content with her solitary life, Louisa confronts her fears and reevaluates her priorities in the face of uncertainty. Her decision to call off the wedding signifies her agency and newfound sense of self-awareness. By asserting her independence and choosing to preserve her solitary lifestyle, Louisa embraces her own desires and takes control of her future, demonstrating her empowerment as a woman.

Writing Style in “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

1. Realism: The story is set in a realistic, everyday environment, depicting the mundane life of a solitary woman in a small New England town.
2. Simple and concise language: Freeman uses straightforward, uncomplicated language to convey the story, mirroring Louisa’s plain and unadorned life.
3. Descriptive details: The author incorporates vivid descriptions of Louisa’s home, garden, and daily routines, creating a strong sense of setting and atmosphere.
4. Symbolism: Freeman employs symbols like the still, the garden, and the china to represent Louisa’s independence, solitude, and fear of change.
5. Psychological insight: The story offers a nuanced exploration of Louisa’s inner thoughts, feelings, and motivations, providing a deep understanding of her character.
6. Subtle humor: Freeman injects gentle humor through Joe’s clumsiness and Louisa’s reactions, adding a touch of lightness to the narrative.
7. Slow pace: The story unfolds at a leisurely pace, mirroring Louisa’s measured and deliberate movements, and building a sense of quiet tension.
8. Domestic focus: The narrative centers on Louisa’s domestic life, emphasizing her daily routines and household concerns, which were significant aspects of women’s lives during that era.
9. Character-driven narrative: The story is driven by Louisa’s character and her inner conflicts, making her the focal point of the narrative.
10. Themes: Freeman explores themes of independence, solitude, change, and the constraints of societal expectations, which were relevant to women’s experiences during the late 19th century.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

1. Feminist Theory: From a feminist perspective, the story explores the constraints of traditional gender roles and societal expectations placed upon women. Louisa Ellis’s character embodies the struggles and limitations imposed by these roles. She is expected to conform to the domestic sphere and sacrifice her independence upon marriage. However, Louisa’s decision to maintain her solitary lifestyle challenges these expectations and asserts her autonomy. For instance, her meticulous routines and dedication to domestic tasks symbolize her adherence to traditional gender roles, yet her ultimate choice to call off the wedding demonstrates her agency and resistance to patriarchal norms.
2. Psychoanalytic Theory: Through a psychoanalytic lens, the story can be interpreted as a manifestation of repressed desires and unconscious conflicts. Louisa’s prolonged engagement and seemingly contented solitude may symbolize a subconscious resistance to intimacy and commitment. Her meticulous routines and fixation on domestic tasks could be seen as displacement activities, masking deeper anxieties about change and the unknown. Similarly, Joe Dagget’s return and the revelation of his doubts about marriage may trigger Louisa’s latent fears and insecurities, prompting her to confront her inner conflicts and desires.
3. Marxist Theory: Marxist theory examines social class dynamics and economic structures within literature. In “A New England Nun,” class distinctions are subtly portrayed through the characters’ interactions and aspirations. Louisa Ellis represents the lower middle class, while Joe Dagget’s return as a successful man from the West highlights disparities in social mobility. The potential marriage between Louisa and Joe raises questions about financial stability and social status, as well as the power dynamics inherent in such relationships. Louisa’s decision to maintain her independence can be viewed as a form of resistance against economic dependence and societal expectations tied to marriage.
4. Reader-Response Theory: Reader-response theory emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting and constructing meaning from a text. In “A New England Nun,” readers may engage with the story’s themes of isolation, independence, and self-discovery based on their own experiences and perspectives. Some readers may sympathize with Louisa’s desire for independence and admire her strength in asserting her autonomy. Others may view her decision to call off the wedding as selfish or unrealistic. Reader responses can vary widely depending on individual interpretations and personal values, enriching the complexity of the story’s meaning.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Independence vs. Marriage	How does Louisa’s independence conflict with her expected role as a wife?	Louisa’s reluctance to marry Joe stems from her desire to preserve her independence and autonomy, which she believes will be compromised by marriage.
Gender Roles and Expectations	How do societal expectations of women influence Louisa’s decisions and actions?	The story highlights the restrictive gender roles of the time, as Louisa faces pressure to conform to traditional feminine norms, threatening her individuality and freedom.
Change and Uncertainty	How does Louisa respond to the prospect of change and uncertainty in her life?	Louisa’s fear of change and uncertainty drives her resistance to marrying Joe, as she clings to her familiar solitary life and routines, illustrating the human struggle with adapting to new circumstances.
Symbolism and Setting	How does the author use setting and symbolism to convey Louisa’s character and themes?	The author employs the still, garden, and china as symbols of Louisa’s independence, solitude, and fear of change, while the New England setting reinforces the story’s themes of tradition and societal expectations.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

Literary Works Similar to “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

1. “Ethan Frome” by Edith Wharton: Like “A New England Nun,” “Ethan Frome” is set in rural New England and explores themes of isolation, duty, and societal expectations. The novella delves into the lives of Ethan Frome and his wife Zeena, as well as their houseguest Mattie Silver, revealing the consequences of unfulfilled desires and repressed emotions.
2. The Awakening by Kate Chopin: This novel centers on Edna Pontellier, a woman who grapples with the confines of marriage and motherhood in late 19th-century Louisiana. Like Louisa Ellis in “A New England Nun,” Edna seeks autonomy and self-discovery amidst societal expectations, ultimately challenging traditional gender roles and norms.
3. “Winesburg, Ohio” by Sherwood Anderson: This collection of interconnected short stories depicts life in a small town in Ohio, exploring the struggles and desires of its inhabitants. Like Mary E. Wilkins Freeman’s work, “Winesburg, Ohio” delves into the complexities of human relationships, loneliness, and the search for meaning in a provincial setting.
4. “My Ántonia” by Willa Cather: Set in the American Midwest, “My Ántonia” follows the life of Jim Burden and his relationship with Ántonia Shimerda, a young immigrant woman. The novel examines themes of nostalgia, immigration, and the American Dream, offering a poignant portrayal of life on the frontier.
5. “The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman: This short story explores themes of confinement, mental illness, and female oppression in the late 19th century. Like “A New England Nun,” it delves into the psychological effects of societal expectations and the constraints placed upon women during that time period.

Suggested Readings about/on “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

• Freeman, Mary E. Wilkins. A New-England Nun: And Other Stories. Penguin, 2000.
• Oaks, Susan. “The haunting will: The ghost stories of Mary Wilkins Freeman.” Colby Quarterly 21.4 (1985): 6.
• Reichardt, Mary R. The Uncollected Stories of Mary Wilkins Freeman. Univ. Press of Mississippi, 1992.
• Reichardt, Mary R. “Mary Wilkins Freeman: One Hundred Years of Criticism.” Legacy (1987): 31-44.
• Brand, Alice Glarden. “Mary Wilkins Freeman: Misanthropy as Propaganda.” New England Quarterly (1977): 83-100.
• Blum, Virginia L. “Mary Wilkins Freeman and the Taste of Necessity.” American Literature 65.1 (1993): 69-94.
• https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mary-Eleanor-Wilkins-Freeman
• http://www.lib.luc.edu/specialcollections/exhibits/show/autograph-collection/mary-e–wilkins-freeman
• https://njwomenshistory.org/biographies/mary-e-wilkins-freeman-2/

Representative Quotations from “A New England Nun” by Mary E. Wilkins Freeman

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“It was late in the afternoon, and the light was waning. There was a difference in the look of the tree shadows out in the yard. Somewhere in the distance cows were lowing and a little bell was tinkling; now and then a farm-wagon tilted by, and the dust flew; some blue-shirted laborers with shovels over their shoulders plodded past; little swarms of flies were dancing up and down before the peoples’ faces in the soft air. There seemed to be a gentle stir arising over everything for the mere sake of subsidence — a very premonition of rest and hush and night.”	This opening passage sets the tranquil scene, depicting the peaceful atmosphere of a late afternoon in a rural setting. The description of various elements of nature and human activity creates a serene backdrop against which the story unfolds.	The calm and serene setting established in the opening lines foreshadows the theme of peace and quiet that dominates Louisa Ellis’s life. It sets the stage for the introspective and contemplative nature of the narrative, reflecting the subdued tone and pace of the story.
“Louisa Ellis could not remember that ever in her life she had mislaid one of these little feminine appurtenances, which had become, from long use and constant association, a very part of her personality.”	This sentence describes Louisa’s meticulous nature and attention to detail, particularly in her domestic life. It emphasizes her adherence to routine and the comfort she finds in familiar habits and objects.	The quotation underscores Louisa’s deeply ingrained sense of order and routine, highlighting her attachment to the familiar and her resistance to change. It foreshadows her reluctance to disrupt the stability of her life, even when faced with unexpected events or decisions.
“Louisa used china every day — something which none of her neighbors did. They whispered about it among themselves. Their daily tables were laid with common crockery, their sets of best china stayed in the parlor closet, and Louisa Ellis was no richer nor better bred than they. Still she would use the china.”	This passage reveals Louisa’s adherence to tradition and her willingness to defy social norms in favor of her own preferences. Despite societal expectations, she chooses to use her best china daily, finding value in the beauty and elegance it brings to her everyday life.	The quotation highlights Louisa’s autonomy and independence, suggesting her willingness to assert her individuality and resist conformity. It serves as a symbol of her determination to live according to her own standards, regardless of external judgment or criticism.
“Presently Dagget began fingering the books on the table. There was a square red autograph album, and a Young Lady’s Gift-Book which had belonged to Louisa’s mother. He took them up one after the other and opened them; then laid them down again, the album on the Gift-Book. Louisa kept eying them with mild uneasiness.”	Joe Dagget’s actions reveal his lack of awareness or consideration for Louisa’s personal space and belongings. His casual handling of her cherished possessions contrasts with her careful preservation of them, causing her discomfort and unease.	This moment symbolizes the differences between Louisa and Joe, highlighting their contrasting attitudes towards tradition, sentimentality, and personal boundaries. It foreshadows the tension and misunderstandings that arise between them as their relationship evolves.
“Joe’s consternation came later. He eyed Louisa with an instant confirmation of his old admiration. She had changed but little. She still kept her pretty manner and soft grace, and was, he considered, every whit as attractive as ever.”	Joe’s reaction to seeing Louisa again after many years underscores his enduring affection for her and his perception of her as a constant presence in his life. Despite the passage of time and the changes they have both undergone, his admiration for her remains unchanged.	This moment highlights the theme of constancy and continuity in the face of change. It suggests that while external circumstances may shift, the essence of their relationship and the feelings they have for each other endure over time.
“Louisa sat there in a daze, listening to their retreating steps. After a while she got up and slunk softly home herself. The next day she did her housework methodically; that was as much a matter of course as breathing; but she did not sew on her wedding-clothes. She sat at her window and meditated.”	This passage captures Louisa’s internal turmoil and indecision following her eavesdropping on Joe and Lily’s conversation. It reveals her uncertainty about her impending marriage and her need for introspection and reflection.	The quotation reflects Louisa’s internal conflict and her struggle to reconcile her sense of duty with her personal desires. It marks a pivotal moment in the story where she begins to question the path she has chosen and consider alternative possibilities for her future.
“Louisa could sew linen seams, and distil roses, and dust and polish and fold away in lavender, as long as she listed. That afternoon she sat with her needlework at the window, and felt fairly steeped in peace.”	This closing passage depicts Louisa’s acceptance of her decision and her return to a state of tranquility and contentment. Despite the upheaval and uncertainty she has experienced, she finds solace in the familiar rhythms of her daily life and the comfort of her domestic surroundings.	The quotation symbolizes Louisa’s embrace of her chosen path and her reaffirmation of her commitment to her own values and priorities. It suggests that, ultimately, she finds fulfillment and happiness in maintaining her autonomy and staying true to herself.

Introduction: “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

“A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell first appeared in print in 1917 in the pages of Every Week magazine, was not originally included in a collection, the story’s enduring merit has secured its place in numerous anthologies. Its strengths lie in the nuanced exploration of gender roles and societal expectations prevalent in rural America at the time. A feminist forerunner, Glaspell sheds light on the unspoken realities of women’s lives, particularly the isolation and constraints that could fester beneath an unassuming exterior. The focus on seemingly insignificant details and the power of unspoken communication between women resonates deeply with readers, solidifying “A Jury of Her Peers” as a captivating and thought-provoking work.

Main Events in “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

1. A Grim Discovery: Sheriff Lewis and County Attorney Henderson arrive at the isolated Wright farmhouse to investigate the reported death of John Wright. Mrs. Peters, accompanying her sheriff husband, joins Mrs. Hale, the neighbor, at the farmhouse.
2. Cleaning with Unease: While the men focus on the crime scene, Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale are tasked with cleaning the house. As they go about their chores, a sense of unease grows as they observe peculiar details – a broken birdcage, a lack of freshly baked bread, and an assortment of empty fruit jars.
3. Hints of Isolation: These seemingly insignificant details paint a picture of Minnie Wright’s potential isolation and loneliness within the marriage. The lack of fresh bread suggests a neglect of household duties, while the empty jars could hint at a lack of fulfillment in her life.
4. A Hidden Cry for Help: As they delve deeper into the cleaning, Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters make a shocking discovery – a dead canary hidden within a sewing basket. Additionally, they find a ripped quilt with a missing lining. These hidden elements add another layer of distress to Minnie’s situation.
5. Blind Spots of the Law: Focused on traditional signs of violence, the male authorities, Sheriff Lewis and County Attorney Henderson, completely miss the significance of these subtle clues that hint at Minnie’s emotional state.
6. Empathy Blossoms: Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters, however, begin to connect the dots. They empathize with Minnie’s situation, recognizing the possibility of a desperate act driven by isolation and unhappiness.
7. A Difficult Decision: Fearing that the hidden evidence – the dead canary and the ripped quilt – could be used against Minnie, the women face a difficult decision. They grapple with the potential legal ramifications but ultimately choose to conceal these incriminating elements.
8. Frustration and a Shift: Returning from their investigation frustrated by the lack of definitive evidence, the men encounter Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters. Here, the story takes a subtle turn.
9. Unspoken Communication: Through a display of unspoken understanding, the women subtly connect the dots for the male authorities. Their body language and expressions reveal a newfound understanding of Minnie’s situation.
10. The Canary’s Song: The climax arrives as Mrs. Hale reveals the previously hidden dead canary. This act, coupled with the sight of the ripped quilt lining clutched in Mrs. Peter’s hand, indirectly suggests Minnie’s motive.
11. Emotional Context Unveiled: Confronted with the emotional context unveiled by the women’s silent accusation, the men are left speechless. The dead canary becomes a symbol of Minnie’s stifled life, while the ripped quilt lining hints at the struggle that may have led to John Wright’s demise.
12. A Moral Dilemma: The story concludes with the implication that the women will protect Minnie. They choose to withhold the incriminating evidence, leaving the legal ramifications of the situation deliberately ambiguous. This final act forces the reader to grapple with the moral dilemma – are they protecting a murderer or a victim driven to a desperate act?
13. Beyond the Obvious: “A Jury of Her Peers” highlights the importance of looking beyond the obvious. The subtle clues observed by the women play a crucial role in piecing together the events that transpired within the Wright household.
14. Gender Roles and Empathy: The story also delves into the limitations placed upon women during this time period. Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters, despite their confined roles, demonstrate a deep understanding of Minnie’s emotional state, highlighting the power of female empathy.
15. A Lingering Question: The story leaves the reader with a lingering question – will the women’s actions ultimately lead to justice or merely protect a murderer?

Literary Devices in “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

Device	Definition	Example
Characterization (indirect)	Revealing a character’s traits through their actions, dialogue, or thoughts.	The lack of freshly baked bread at the Wright house suggests Minnie Wright’s neglect of household duties.
Foreshadowing	Hints about future events planted throughout the story.	The broken birdcage foreshadows the discovery of the dead canary and Minnie’s stifled life.
Hyperbole	An exaggeration used for emphasis.	“It never seemed to me that Minnie could hurt a fly” (Mrs. Hale).
Irony (dramatic)	The audience knows something a character doesn’t.	The women know the significance of the dead canary, while the men remain clueless.
Irony (situational)	An event occurs that contradicts expectations.	The women, expected to clean the crime scene, end up uncovering evidence that aids Minnie.
Metaphor	A comparison between two things that are not alike, but share a similar characteristic.	The dead canary symbolizes Minnie’s stifled life and isolation.
Metonymy	Substituting a closely related thing for something else.	The empty jars could represent Minnie’s unfulfilled life and lack of purpose.
Mood	The overall feeling created by the story.	The story evokes a sense of suspense, claustrophobia, and unspoken tension.
Onomatopoeia	A word that imitates the sound it describes.	“Thump as the men’s shoes scraped on the puncheon floor.”
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things.	“The house had a sinister appearance.”
Point of View (third-person limited)	The story is narrated from a perspective with limited access to characters’ thoughts.	The reader primarily experiences the story through the observations of Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters.
Simile	A comparison between two things using “like” or “as.”	“The kitchen… was cluttered up with a confusion of things.”
Symbolism	An object, person, or place that represents something else, a deeper meaning.	The ripped quilt represents the unraveling of Minnie’s life and marriage.
Synecdoche	Using a part to represent the whole.	“Her hands were thin and … showed wrists abused and swollen.”
Understatement	Downplaying the seriousness of a situation.	“It’s kind of queer about Minnie’s not having a bird anymore.” (Mrs. Hale)
Verbal Irony	Saying the opposite of what one means.	“Oh, Lewis, I wouldn’t go near her with a ten-foot pole.” (Mrs. Peters) (She actually feels empathy for Minnie.)
Foreshadowing	Hints about future events planted throughout the story.	The broken birdcage foreshadows the discovery of the dead canary and Minnie’s stifled life.

Characterization in “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

Major Characters:

Minor Characters:

• George Henderson: The County Attorney, Henderson, embodies a more stereotypical and dismissive view of women. He focuses on the traditional signs of violence and fails to grasp the emotional context surrounding Minnie’s situation.
• Henry Peters: The Sheriff, Henry Peters, appears less antagonistic towards Minnie but ultimately defers to the judgment of County Attorney Henderson.
• Lewis Hale: Mrs. Hale’s husband, Lewis, plays a minor role but serves as a bridge between the domestic sphere and the investigation. He is the one who discovers John Wright’s body and relays the initial information to the authorities.

Major Themes in “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

1. Gender Roles and Expectations: The story delves into the traditional gender roles and expectations of women in early 20th-century rural America. Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters find themselves marginalized and underestimated by the men in the story, who dismiss their concerns and observations as trivial. Despite this, the women’s perspective and insights ultimately prove crucial in uncovering the truth about Minnie Wright’s situation. For example, the men ridicule the women’s attention to domestic details like preserves and a dirty towel, but these details hold significant clues to understanding Minnie’s state of mind and potential motives.
2. Isolation and Loneliness: The setting of the story, a remote farmhouse in the harsh landscape of winter, underscores themes of isolation and loneliness. The Wright household is described as lonesome-looking, surrounded by barren trees, mirroring Minnie’s own emotional isolation. Through Minnie’s story, the narrative explores the consequences of social isolation and the toll it takes on one’s mental well-being.
3. Justice and Empathy: The story challenges conventional notions of justice and the legal system’s ability to understand and address the complexities of human behavior. While the men focus solely on finding evidence to support their preconceived notions of guilt, the women demonstrate empathy and a deeper understanding of Minnie’s situation. They recognize the oppression and loneliness Minnie experienced in her marriage, ultimately leading them to empathize with her actions rather than condemn them.
4. Domesticity and Rebellion: The domestic space, typically associated with women’s traditional roles, becomes a site of rebellion and resistance for Minnie Wright. Through her preservation of cherries and concerns about her fruit jars, the story symbolizes Minnie’s desire for autonomy and agency within the confines of her domestic life. Her act of rebellion, though ultimately tragic, reflects the broader theme of women’s resistance against oppressive societal norms.

Writing Style in “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

• Direct and Objective: The narration is generally direct and objective, focusing on the actions and observations of the characters, particularly Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters. This allows the reader to draw their own conclusions about the events and characters’ motivations.
• Dialogue-Heavy: A significant portion of the story unfolds through dialogue between the characters. This allows for a natural flow of information and reveals personalities through conversations. The dialogue also reflects the rural setting and time period, with colloquial language and simple sentence structure.
• Subtlety and Symbolism: Glaspell employs a subtle style, using seemingly insignificant details to build a deeper understanding of the characters and the situation. Objects like the broken birdcage, empty jars, and dead canary become symbolic representations of Minnie’s isolation and emotional state. The reader is encouraged to pay close attention to these details to piece together the story.
• Focus on Atmosphere: The writing creates a distinct atmosphere of suspense, claustrophobia, and unspoken tension. This is achieved through descriptions of the Wright farmhouse and the characters’ emotional responses to their surroundings. The oppressive nature of the house reflects the characters’ feelings of entrapment.
• Feminist Perspective: The story subtly critiques the societal expectations placed on women during this time period. Through Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters’ observations and actions, Glaspell highlights the power of female empathy and their unique understanding of Minnie’s situation.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

Literary Theory	Interpretation	Specific Points from the Story
Feminist Theory	Focuses on gender roles, power dynamics, and the oppression of women.	Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters, the two women in the story, offer insights into the female experience and challenge the male-dominated perspective. They empathize with Minnie’s plight and ultimately protect her.
Marxist Theory	Analyzes social class, economic inequality, and the struggle between the proletariat and bourgeoisie.	The Wrights’ modest farmhouse and Minnie’s lack of resources reflect the economic hardships faced by rural families. The men’s dismissal of the women’s concerns highlights class-based biases.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Explores the subconscious, motivations, and inner conflicts of characters.	Minnie’s isolation and suppressed emotions are evident in her neglected home and disheveled appearance. Her act of rebellion through the dead canary symbolizes her subconscious desires for freedom and revenge.
New Historicism	Examines the text within its historical and cultural context, focusing on power dynamics and societal norms.	The story reflects the patriarchal society of early 20th-century rural America, where women were marginalized and their experiences often ignored. The men’s attitudes towards the women highlight prevailing gender norms.
Reader-Response Theory	Emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting and constructing meaning from the text.	Readers may empathize with the women’s perspective and question the fairness of the legal system. The story prompts readers to reflect on their own views on gender, justice, and empathy.
Formalist/Narrative Theory	Analyzes the structure, symbolism, and language of the text to uncover its deeper meanings.	The story’s focus on domestic details, such as preserves and a dirty towel, symbolizes the hidden truths and complexities of Minnie’s life. Symbolism, such as the dead canary, reveals underlying themes of oppression and rebellion.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Gender Roles	How do the characters in “A Jury of Her Peers” challenge or reinforce traditional gender roles?	In “A Jury of Her Peers,” Susan Glaspell subverts traditional gender roles through the characters of Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters, ultimately highlighting the oppressive nature of patriarchal society.
Justice and Empathy	How does the story explore the themes of justice and empathy, particularly in relation to Minnie Wright?	Through its portrayal of the male characters’ dismissive attitude towards Minnie Wright’s plight, “A Jury of Her Peers” underscores the importance of empathy and understanding in the pursuit of justice.
Symbolism and Meaning	What symbolic elements are present in the story, and what do they represent?	Susan Glaspell employs symbolism, such as the dead canary and the unfinished chores, to convey themes of oppression, isolation, and female solidarity in “A Jury of Her Peers.”
Social Commentary	How does “A Jury of Her Peers” critique the societal norms and expectations of early 20th-century America?	Through its depiction of rural life and the dynamics between men and women, the story offers a poignant critique of the gender inequalities and injustices prevalent in early 20th-century American society.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

• Who are the true jurors in the story, and how do they reach their verdict?
• While Sheriff Lewis and County Attorney Henderson hold the official titles, the true jurors in “A Jury of Her Peers” are Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters. Unlike the men who focus solely on physical evidence, these women become jurors of Minnie’s emotional state. They reach their verdict not through a formal trial but through a series of observations and unspoken communication. The key evidence for Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters isn’t bloody fingerprints or a murder weapon, but seemingly insignificant details within the Wright farmhouse. The empty fruit jars, a sign of Minnie’s neglected domestic duties, and the broken birdcage, symbolizing a loss of vibrancy, paint a picture of a lonely and potentially desperate woman. The hidden discovery of the dead canary further strengthens their case. The canary, a traditionally cherished pet, represents a stifled life. Its demise becomes a metaphor for Minnie’s own stifled spirit. Ultimately, their verdict isn’t a guilty or not guilty, but a silent decision to protect Minnie. By concealing the dead canary and the ripped quilt lining (potentially used as a weapon), they choose to withhold evidence that could incriminate her. This act of defiance against the established legal system demonstrates their belief that Minnie deserves compassion and understanding, not punishment.
• What is the significance of the dead canary?
• The dead canary in “A Jury of Her Peers” is a powerful symbol with multiple layers of meaning. On a surface level, it represents a loss of life. However, its significance goes deeper, reflecting the emotional state of Minnie Wright. Canaries were traditionally cherished household pets, known for their beautiful song. A dead canary in a cage signifies not just death, but the silencing of a once vibrant creature. This directly parallels Minnie’s situation. The story portrays her as a woman whose spirit has been crushed by isolation and loneliness within her marriage. Just as the bird’s song is silenced, Minnie’s voice has been stifled. The discovery of the dead canary by Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters becomes a crucial turning point. It’s a hidden piece of the puzzle that speaks volumes about Minnie’s emotional state and potential desperation. The canary’s death foreshadows the possibility of a violent act within the Wright household, but it’s a violence born out of despair rather than malice.
• How does the story depict the societal expectations for women?
• “A Jury of Her Peers” subtly critiques the societal expectations placed on women during this time period. The story confines the female characters, particularly Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters, to domestic roles. Their opinions and observations are initially disregarded by the male authorities, Sheriff Lewis and County Attorney Henderson. The men view the women’s concerns about the empty jars and the broken birdcage as irrelevant gossip, solely focused on maintaining a clean and organized household. However, beneath this surface portrayal, Glaspell highlights the power of female empathy and understanding. Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters, despite their confined roles, demonstrate a deeper awareness of the emotional realities faced by women like Minnie. They recognize the loneliness and despair that could have driven Minnie to a desperate act. This unspoken bond between the women stands in stark contrast to the dismissive and impersonal approach of the male characters.
• What is the ending’s implication, and what moral dilemma does it pose?
• The ending of “A Jury of Her Peers” is deliberately ambiguous, leaving the reader to grapple with a complex moral dilemma. By concealing the dead canary and the ripped quilt lining, Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters clearly obstruct justice. They withhold evidence that could potentially convict Minnie of murder. However, the story also paints a picture of Minnie as a victim of circumstance. Her isolated and stifled life within the marriage suggests a level of desperation that could have led to violence. The act of hiding the evidence can be seen as an act of compassion, a choice to protect a woman who may not have been in full control of her actions. Ultimately, the reader is left to decide whether Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters are accomplices to murder or protectors of a victim. The story challenges traditional notions of justice and compels the reader to consider the emotional context that may lie beneath the surface of a crime

Suggested Readings about/on “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

Books:

• Glaspell, Susan. “A jury of her peers.” Literature and Gender. Routledge, 2013. 370-384.
• Glaspell, Susan. Plays by Susan Glaspell. Cambridge University Press, 1987.
• Ben-Zvi, Linda. Susan Glaspell: her life and times. Oxford University Press, 2007.
• Ben-Zvi, Linda, ed. Susan Glaspell: essays on her theater and fiction. University of Michigan Press, 2002.
• Ozieblo, Barbara, and Jerry Richard Dickey. Susan Glaspell and Sophie Treadwell. New York: Routledge, 2008.

Articles:

• Gazzaz, Rasha Asim. Suppressed Voices: Women and Class in the Fiction of Susan Glaspell. Diss. University of Leicester, 2015.
• Carpentier, Martha C., and Barbara Ozieblo. Disclosing Intertextualities: The Stories, Plays, and Novels of Susan Glaspell. Vol. 37. BRILL, 2016.
• Black, Cheryl. “Making Queer New Things’: Queer Identities in the Life and Dramaturgy of Susan Glaspell.” Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism (2005): 49-64.
• Ben-Zvi, Linda. “The Political as Personal in the Writing of Susan Glaspell.” Disclosing Intertextualities. Brill, 2006. 275-294.
• Carpentier, Martha C. “The deracinated self: immigrants, orphans, and the” migratory consciousness” of Willa Cather and Susan Glaspell.” Studies in American Fiction 35.2 (2007): 131-157.
• Fletcher, Caroline Violet. ““THE RULES OF THE INSTITUTION”: SUSAN GLASPELL AND SISTERHOOD.” Disclosing Intertextualities. Brill, 2006. 239-256.

Websites:

• Susan Glaspell Society: https://blogs.shu.edu/glaspellsociety/ (This website offers biographical information on Glaspell, resources on her work, and critical essays.)
• SparkNotes: “A Jury of Her Peers”: https://www.sparknotes.com/short-stories/a-jury-of-her-peers/summary/ (This website provides a summary, character analysis, and themes for “A Jury of Her Peers.”)
• Modern American Literature: “A Jury of Her Peers”: https://americanliterature.com/author/susan-glaspell/short-story/a-jury-of-her-peers (This website contains a brief analysis and discussion prompts for “A Jury of Her Peers.”)

Representative Quotations from “A Jury of Her Peers” by Susan Glaspell

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“Martha Hale opened the storm-door and got a cut of the north wind…But what her eye took in was that her kitchen was in no shape for leaving.”	Martha Hale rushes to join the men waiting outside, leaving her kitchen in disarray. This sets the scene and establishes Martha’s character as someone who values order and completion of tasks.	This quotation highlights Martha’s internal conflict between her sense of duty towards her household chores and the urgency of the situation.
“The country’s not very pleasant this time of year.”	Mrs. Peters makes small talk, attempting to ease the tension, as they approach the Wright place.	This reflects the attempt to maintain social norms and decorum in uncomfortable situations.
“I didn’t see or hear anything. I knocked at the door…and there, in that rocker…sat Mrs. Wright.”	Mr. Hale describes his discovery of Mrs. Wright in a detached manner, emphasizing her unusual behavior.	The detached tone hints at the detachment of society from women’s experiences and struggles.
“She just pointed upstairs–like this–“	Mrs. Wright’s simple gesture reveals the location of her husband’s body, showcasing her emotional detachment from the situation.	This reflects Mrs. Wright’s psychological state and her acceptance of her husband’s fate.
“He died of a rope round his neck…and just went on pleatin’ at her apron.”	Mrs. Wright’s calm admission of her husband’s death shocks Mr. Hale, highlighting her emotional repression and inner turmoil.	This suggests the oppressive nature of Mrs. Wright’s marriage and her suppressed emotions.
“Nobody spoke; it was as if every one were seeing the woman who had sat there the morning before.”	The silence in the room indicates the shared understanding and empathy for Mrs. Wright’s plight among the onlookers.	This demonstrates the collective realization of the tragedy and the recognition of Mrs. Wright’s suffering.
“Well, my first thought was to get that rope off… ‘No, he’s dead all right, and we’d better not touch anything.’ So we went downstairs.”	Mr. Hale’s initial impulse to remove the rope contrasts with Harry’s caution, reflecting the tension between action and restraint in the face of tragedy.	This highlights the characters’ differing responses to the situation and the moral dilemmas they face.
“We may have looked as if we didn’t see how that could be, for after a minute she said, ‘I sleep sound.'”	Mrs. Wright’s assertion that she slept soundly despite her husband’s murder adds to the mystery and intrigue surrounding the case.	This raises questions about Mrs. Wright’s complicity or innocence and the true nature of her character.

Introduction: “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

“A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce first appeared in 1891 within his short story collection, “Tales of Soldiers and Civilians.” This publication context is significant, as the collection emerged just a quarter-century after the American Civil War. Bierce, a veteran himself, utilizes the story to deliver a powerful and unflinching portrayal of war’s psychological toll. “A Horseman in the Sky” stands out for its evocative imagery, its exploration of the breakdown of sanity under duress, and its enduring commentary on the brutality of armed conflict.

Main Events in “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

Literary Devices in “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

Literary Device	Definition	Example from Story
Allusion	Reference to another literary work or event	The father’s words to Druse allude to their strained relationship.
Climax	The most intense or significant moment	The climax occurs when Druse makes the decision to shoot.
Conflict	Struggle between opposing forces	Druse experiences internal conflict over whether to shoot.
Foreshadowing	Hinting at future events	The officer’s vision of the horseman foreshadows Druse’s action.
Imagery	Vivid description appealing to the senses	The description of the landscape creates vivid imagery.
Irony	Contrast between expectation and reality	Druse shooting his own father is an example of dramatic irony.
Metaphor	Comparison without using “like” or “as”	Druse perceives the horseman as a statue in the sky.
Motif	Recurring element with symbolic significance	Duty and family loyalty are recurring motifs in the story.
Personification	Giving human traits to non-human objects	The landscape is described as if it were alive.
Plot Twist	Unexpected turn of events	The revelation that Druse shot his own father is a plot twist.
Point of View	Perspective from which the story is told	The story is narrated from a third-person limited point of view.
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis	The repetition of “duty” underscores its importance in the story.
Setting	Time and place where the story occurs	The story is set in western Virginia during the Civil War.
Simile	Comparison using “like” or “as”	The horseman is compared to a Grecian god carved in marble.
Symbolism	Use of symbols to represent ideas or concepts	The horseman symbolizes the looming threat of war.
Theme	Central idea or message of the story	Themes of duty, loyalty, and sacrifice are prominent.
Tone	Author’s attitude toward the subject	The tone of the story is somber and reflective.
Tragedy	Events leading to a disastrous or sorrowful end	The story ends tragically with the shooting of Druse’s father.
Verisimilitude	Appearance of being true or real	The detailed description of the landscape adds verisimilitude.
Word Choice	Selection of words to convey meaning	Bierce’s precise word choice adds to the story’s impact.

Characterization in “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

Major Druse (Carter’s Father):

• Characterization: Though never directly appearing, Major Druse represents the opposing ideology to Carter.
• Example: Descriptions of him as a “Confederate officer” and a man “wearing the gray uniform” solidify his allegiance and create a clear line of division between him and his son.
• Impact: Major Druse’s absence creates a void in Carter’s life, highlighting the emotional cost of choosing his cause over his family.

The Union Soldiers:

• Characterization: These unnamed figures represent the larger military structure and the pressure to conform.
• Example: The description of their “cheers” and their perception of Druse as a “hero” emphasizes the disconnect between their celebratory view and the tragic reality of the situation.
• Impact: Their contrasting perspective amplifies the confusion and moral isolation Druse feels after the shooting.

By using these minor characters effectively, Bierce deepens the reader’s understanding of Carter Druse’s emotional turmoil and the war’s capacity to fracture loyalties and distort perceptions.

Major Themes in “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

1. Duty and Sacrifice: A prominent theme in the story is the conflict between one’s sense of duty and personal feelings or relationships. Carter Druse grapples with his duty as a soldier to protect his comrades and follow orders, even at the expense of his personal ties. His decision to shoot the horseman, despite realizing it is his own father, illustrates the sacrifices individuals make in wartime. Druse’s adherence to duty reflects the larger theme of sacrifice for a greater cause, even when it means betraying familial bonds. For example, Druse’s father acknowledges his son’s duty to the Union, despite the personal pain it causes him.
2. War’s Moral Ambiguity: Bierce explores the morally ambiguous nature of war, where right and wrong are often blurred. The story depicts the harsh realities of conflict, where soldiers must make split-second decisions with profound consequences. Druse’s internal struggle highlights the complexity of wartime morality, as he wrestles with the ethical implications of his actions. His eventual decision to shoot, despite his initial hesitation, reflects the morally gray areas of warfare. For instance, Druse’s choice to shoot the horseman without warning raises questions about the ethics of military engagement.
3. The Brutality of War: Another theme in the story is the brutal and unforgiving nature of war. Bierce vividly portrays the harsh conditions and deadly risks faced by soldiers on both sides of the conflict. The story’s setting amidst the rugged landscape of western Virginia serves as a backdrop for the grim realities of battle. Druse’s solitary vigil as a sentinel underscores the loneliness and peril of wartime duty, where death can come swiftly and unexpectedly. The sudden and tragic outcome of Druse’s decision to shoot further emphasizes the brutal consequences of war. For example, the horseman’s fall off the cliff symbolizes the sudden and violent end that many soldiers face in battle.
4. Family and Loyalty: Despite the overarching themes of duty and sacrifice, the story also explores the enduring bonds of family and loyalty. Druse’s conflicted emotions reflect his deep sense of loyalty to both his family and his country. His decision to join the Union army, despite his father’s disapproval, underscores his commitment to his beliefs and convictions. Similarly, Druse’s hesitation to shoot upon realizing the identity of the horseman highlights the enduring ties of family loyalty, even in the face of opposing allegiances. The tragic outcome of Druse’s actions serves as a poignant reminder of the profound impact of familial bonds amidst the chaos of war.

Writing Style in “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

• Stark Realism: Bierce paints a brutally honest picture of war, devoid of romanticism. He uses vivid descriptions of the setting, like the “cold gray light” of dawn, to create a sense of harshness and isolation.
• Economy of Language: Bierce employs a concise and direct writing style. He avoids unnecessary embellishments and focuses on conveying the essence of the scene or thought. For example, instead of a lengthy description of Druse’s fear, he simply states, “He was afraid.”
• Third-Person Limited Point of View: The story primarily uses a third-person limited perspective, allowing access to Carter Druse’s thoughts and feelings. This creates a sense of intimacy with the protagonist and his internal struggles.
• Shifting Focus: While Druse’s perspective dominates, Bierce occasionally employs brief shifts in focus to the reactions of the other soldiers. This technique highlights the contrast between Druse’s subjective experience and the external perception of his actions.
• Ominous Foreshadowing: The story employs subtle hints that build towards the tragic climax. Phrases like “a strange, half-defined feeling” or “a great weariness” foreshadow Druse’s mental and physical exhaustion, hinting at the potential for a misstep.
• Irony and Ambiguity: Bierce uses situational irony to create a sense of shock and absurdity. The revelation that the hanged figure is Druse’s father adds a layer of tragic irony, while leaving the details of Druse’s ultimate fate ambiguous, adding to the story’s haunting impact.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

Literary Theory	Interpretation
Formalism	Formalism focuses on the intrinsic qualities of the text itself, such as its form, structure, language, and style, to derive meaning. In “A Horseman in the Sky,” Bierce’s meticulous attention to detail in describing the landscape, characters, and action contributes to the story’s atmosphere and impact. For instance, Bierce’s vivid imagery vividly captures the rugged terrain of western Virginia and enhances the story’s sense of tension and isolation.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Psychoanalytic criticism examines characters’ motivations, unconscious desires, and psychological conflicts. In the story, Carter Druse’s internal struggle reflects his subconscious battle between duty and familial loyalty. Druse’s decision to join the Union army, despite his father’s disapproval, suggests underlying psychological tensions and a desire for independence or validation. Similarly, his hesitation to shoot upon realizing the identity of the horseman may stem from deeper emotional conflicts.
Historical Criticism	Historical criticism considers the historical context and events that influence the text. “A Horseman in the Sky” is set during the American Civil War, a tumultuous period of conflict and division in the United States. The tensions between Union and Confederate allegiances play a significant role in shaping Druse’s identity and decision-making. Moreover, the story reflects broader themes of patriotism, sacrifice, and the human cost of war that resonate with the historical realities of the Civil War era.
Marxist Criticism	Marxist criticism examines power dynamics, social class, and economic factors within the text. In “A Horseman in the Sky,” Druse’s decision to join the Union army despite his wealthy family’s opposition can be analyzed through a Marxist lens. His choice to align himself with the Union cause may reflect underlying socioeconomic factors, such as a desire for social mobility or a belief in the values of equality and justice. Additionally, the story’s portrayal of the conflict between Union and Confederate forces can be seen as a reflection of broader societal tensions related to class and power.
Reader-Response Criticism	Reader-response criticism emphasizes the reader’s interpretation and interaction with the text. Each reader may interpret “A Horseman in the Sky” differently based on their own experiences, values, and beliefs. Some readers may sympathize with Druse’s internal struggle and moral dilemma, while others may focus on broader themes of duty, sacrifice, and the brutality of war. The story’s ambiguous ending leaves room for interpretation and invites readers to reflect on the complexities of human nature and the consequences of our choices.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
War and Morality	How does the story depict the moral complexities of war?	The brutality of war forces soldiers like Carter Druse to make agonizing choices that shatter their sense of right and wrong, highlighting the devastating impact of armed conflict on human morality.
Perception vs. Reality	How does the story explore the disconnect between perception and reality?	The story utilizes Carter Druse’s internal struggle and the reactions of other soldiers to showcase how war distorts perception, creating a chasm between how events unfold and how they are interpreted.
The Psychology of War	How does Bierce portray the psychological effects of war on soldiers?	Through Carter Druse’s mental deterioration and ultimate breakdown, the story emphasizes the severe psychological toll war takes on soldiers, pushing them to the brink of sanity and self-destruction.
Irony and Symbolism	How do irony and symbolism contribute to the story’s meaning?	Bierce’s use of situational irony, particularly the revelation of the hanged figure’s identity, and symbolic elements like the blood-red sky, create a sense of tragic absurdity and emphasize the destructive power of war.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

• Who is the protagonist of the story, and what is his internal conflict?
• Answer: The protagonist is Carter Druse, a young Union soldier. He grapples with conflicting loyalties – his duty to the Union and his love for his family, particularly his father, a Confederate officer. This internal struggle intensifies under the harsh realities of war, leading to his emotional breakdown.
• Example: “He was but a boy in years… he had never thought to feel toward his father anything but love and reverence.” This quote highlights Druse’s youthful idealism and his struggle to reconcile it with the war’s brutality.
• How does the story depict the physical and mental toll of war on soldiers?
• Answer: Bierce portrays the war’s toll through Druse’s experiences. Descriptions of the “cold gray light” of dawn and Druse’s “great weariness” establish the harshness of the environment. Phrases like “strange, half-defined feeling” hint at his growing fear and mental exhaustion.
• Example: “His nerves were on edge; the constant strain had told on him.” This line directly addresses the impact of war on Druse’s mental state, foreshadowing his eventual breakdown.
• What is the significance of the blood-red sky in the story?
• Answer: The blood-red sky is a powerful symbol with multiple interpretations. It can represent the bloodshed and violence inherent in war. It can also symbolize the distorted reality Druse experiences as his mental state deteriorates.
• Example: “The sky was like a red sea… a vast hemorrhage.” The visceral imagery of a blood-red sky foreshadows the violence to come and contributes to the story’s atmosphere of unease.
• What is the ending of the story, and how does it contribute to the overall theme?
• Answer: The ending is ambiguous. We see Druse hanging from a tree, but it’s unclear if he was captured or committed suicide. This ambiguity reinforces the story’s theme of the war’s destructive power. It leaves the reader questioning the cost of war on the human psyche.

Literary Works Similar to “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

Literary Work	Author	Similar Themes and Elements
The Red Badge of Courage	Stephen Crane	– Psychological and moral struggles of a young soldier during the Civil War. – Exploration of fear, courage, and the realities of battle.
“An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge”	Ambrose Bierce	– Themes of war, death, and the illusory nature of time. – Harrowing experience of a Confederate sympathizer facing execution during the Civil War.
“The Things They Carried”	Tim O’Brien	– Visceral portrayal of soldiers’ experiences during the Vietnam War. – Examination of psychological burdens and moral dilemmas in combat.
All Quiet on the Western Front”	Erich Maria Remarque	– Poignant depiction of the horrors of World War I from the perspective of German soldiers. – Themes of camaraderie, loss, and dehumanization in war.
“Johnny Got His Gun”	Dalton Trumbo	– Story of a severely wounded American soldier who loses limbs and senses during World War I. – Exploration of the devastating toll of war on individuals.

Suggested Readings about/on “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

• Bierce, Ambrose. A much misunderstood man: Selected letters of Ambrose Bierce. Ohio State University Press, 2003.
• Bierce, Ambrose. The Collected Works of Ambrose Bierce... Vol. 2. Neale Publishing Company, 1909.
• Bierce, Ambrose. The devil’s dictionary. Wordsworth Editions, 1996.
• Morris, Roy. Ambrose Bierce: Alone in Bad Company. Oxford University Press, USA, 1998.
• Bierce, Ambrose, and Deaver Brown. A Horseman in the Sky. Simply Magazine, 2012.
• Ambrose, Bierce, and Civil War Stories. “A Horseman in the Sky.” (1994): 27-32.
• https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/ambrose-bierce
• https://americanliterature.com/author/ambrose-bierce
• https://donswaim.com/

Representative Quotations from “A Horseman in the Sky” by Ambrose Bierce

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“But for the somewhat methodical disposition of his limbs and a slight rhythmic movement of the cartridge-box at the back of his belt he might have been thought to be dead.”	The soldier, Carter Druse, is described as asleep at his post of duty, a crime punishable by death. This sets the scene and establishes the tension of the story as the reader wonders if he will be caught.	This quotation highlights the precarious situation of the soldier and introduces the theme of duty versus personal morality.
“His first feeling was a keen artistic delight.”	After awakening, Carter Druse sees a horseman on a cliff, initially mistaking him for a statue.	This reflects Druse’s initial detachment from the reality of his situation, emphasizing his artistic appreciation of the scene before him.
“Is it then so terrible to kill an enemy in war—an enemy who has surprised a secret vital to the safety of one’s self and comrades?”	Druse grapples with the moral implications of killing the enemy soldier.	This quotation raises questions about the morality of killing in war and explores the internal conflict experienced by soldiers facing life-and-death decisions.
“His hand fell away from his weapon, his head slowly dropped until his face rested on the leaves in which he lay.”	Druse’s emotional turmoil causes him to momentarily falter in his decision to shoot the enemy soldier.	This moment of vulnerability humanizes Druse and underscores the psychological toll of war on individuals.
“Duty had conquered; the spirit had said to the body: ‘Peace, be still.'”	Despite his initial hesitation, Druse ultimately decides to fulfill his duty and shoot the enemy soldier.	This quotation encapsulates Druse’s internal struggle and the triumph of duty over personal conscience.
“The officer rose to his feet, trembling.”	An officer witnesses the surreal sight of a horseman riding down into the valley through the air.	This quotation highlights the officer’s shock and disbelief at witnessing the seemingly impossible, adding an element of mystery to the story.
“Pulling himself together he ran obliquely away from the cliff to a point distant from its foot.”	The officer, shaken by what he has seen, retreats from the cliff in fear and confusion.	This reaction underscores the disorienting effect of the supernatural event on the officer and adds to the story’s atmosphere of suspense.
“This officer was a wise man; he knew better than to tell an incredible truth.”	Despite witnessing the extraordinary event, the officer chooses not to reveal what he saw to avoid being disbelieved or ridiculed.	This quotation reflects the theme of disbelief and the tension between truth and perception.
“Druse neither turned his head nor looked at him, but lay without motion or sign of recognition.”	Private Druse maintains his composure and refuses to engage with the sergeant who questions him about the shot fired.	This reflects Druse’s determination to uphold his duty and keep his actions secret, adding to the suspense of the story.
“My father.”	Druse’s revelation to the sergeant that he shot his own father, who was the enemy soldier.	This shocking revelation adds a tragic twist to the story and deepens the moral complexity of Druse’s actions.

Introduction: “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

“A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane first appeared in print in March of 1901 within the pages of Cosmopolitan magazine. While the surface narrative presents a seemingly straightforward encounter between a young boy and a stray dog, critical analysis reveals a deeper meaning. Published during the Reconstruction era, a time marked by both the promise of racial equality and the persistence of deep-seated prejudice in the American South, Crane’s tale transcends the anecdotal. The characters themselves become allegorical figures: the hopeful, lost dog representing the newly freed Black population, and the child embodying a younger generation grappling with the complexities of a society still wrestling with its past. Through this subtle yet powerful lens, Crane delivers a poignant critique of the challenges that lay on the path towards true social and racial justice.

Main Events in “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

1. Chance Encounter: Child and dog meet on the street. The child, idly kicking gravel, notices a small dark-brown dog with a trailing rope and initiates contact.
2. Initial Bonding: Child and dog form a friendly connection. Despite the child’s initial strike, they share moments of playful interaction, with the dog eagerly seeking approval and the child gradually warming up to him.
3. Betrayal: Child strikes the dog, causing emotional distress. The child’s sudden act of aggression bewilders the dog, leading to a moment of deep hurt and confusion.
4. Persistent Pursuit: Dog continues to follow the child despite mistreatment. Despite being beaten and ignored, the dog persists in following the child, displaying unwavering loyalty.
5. Adoption: Child takes the dog home, despite family objections. The child, recognizing the dog’s value, insists on bringing him into the household despite opposition from family members.
6. Family Conflict: Family members object to the dog’s presence. The family’s scorn and objections lead to tension and conflict within the household regarding the dog’s place in the family.
7. Devotion: Dog becomes fiercely loyal to the child, enduring mistreatment. Despite ongoing mistreatment from family members, the dog remains devoted to the child, offering comfort and companionship.
8. Protective Relationship: Child defends the dog against family members. The child fiercely defends the dog against mistreatment from family members, showing a deep bond and sense of loyalty.
9. Tragic Ending: Father drunkenly abuses and throws the dog out of a window. In a moment of drunken cruelty, the father violently throws the dog out of a window, leading to a tragic and sudden end to their companionship.
10. Grief and Mourning: Child mourns the loss of his beloved dog. The child’s grief is palpable as he sits by the lifeless body of his beloved companion, symbolizing the loss of innocence and the cruelty of the world.

Literary Devices in “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

Literary Device	Definition	Example	Explanation
Allegory	A story, poem, or picture that can be interpreted to reveal a hidden meaning, often a moral or political one.	The story can be seen as an allegory for the innocence of childhood and the cruelty of society.	The relationship between the child and the dog symbolizes broader themes such as innocence, friendship, and cruelty.
Alliteration	The repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words.	“lazy summer wind raised yellow dust”	The repeated “s” sounds create a soothing, languid effect, emphasizing the lazy nature of the wind and the calmness of the scene.
Characterization	The process of creating and developing characters in a story.	The child’s protective nature towards the dog reveals his compassionate character.	Through their actions and interactions, the author vividly portrays the personalities of the child, the dog, and the family members.
Conflict	The struggle between opposing forces, which drives the plot of a story.	The conflict between the child’s love for the dog and the family’s disdain for it drives the narrative.	The tension between the child’s affection and the family’s mistreatment of the dog creates conflict, driving the story forward.
Dialogue	Conversation between characters in a story.	The dialogues between the child and the dog reveal their emotional bond.	Through dialogue, the author reveals the thoughts, feelings, and motivations of the characters, deepening the reader’s understanding of their relationships.
Flashback	A scene in a story that interrupts the present action to depict events that happened earlier.	The story briefly mentions the child’s past protection of the dog from mistreatment by the family.	The flashback provides context for the child’s strong attachment to the dog and foreshadows the tragic events that unfold later in the story.
Foreshadowing	Hints or clues about events that will occur later in the story.	The father’s drunken behavior foreshadows the tragic event of him harming the dog.	The author subtly suggests future events, creating suspense and anticipation for the reader.
Imagery	Vivid descriptions that appeal to the senses and create a mental picture for the reader.	Descriptions of “lazy summer wind” and “yellow dust” evoke a tranquil, summery scene.	Through vivid imagery, the author paints a detailed picture of the setting, enhancing the reader’s immersion in the story.
Irony	A literary device where the intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words used.	The irony of the child’s fierce defense of the dog contrasted with the family’s mistreatment of it.	The ironic situation highlights the discrepancy between the child’s innocence and the family’s cruelty, adding depth to the story’s themes.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that makes a comparison between two unlike things, without using “like” or “as.”	The dog’s devotion to the child is metaphorically described as a “sublime thing.”	The metaphor emphasizes the depth and intensity of the dog’s loyalty and affection for the child.
Mood	The atmosphere or feeling created by a literary work, often through descriptions and setting.	The author creates a somber and melancholic mood, especially in the tragic ending of the story.	Through the mood, the author sets the emotional tone of the story, evoking specific feelings and responses from the reader.
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities, such as animals or objects.	The dog’s actions, such as “praying” and “wailing,” are described in human terms.	Personification adds depth to the dog’s character, highlighting its emotions and inner life.
Plot Twist	An unexpected turn of events in a story that changes the direction of the plot.	The sudden violence of the father towards the dog serves as a plot twist.	Plot twists add excitement and suspense to the narrative, keeping the reader engaged and interested in the story’s outcome.
Point of View	The perspective from which a story is told.	The story is narrated from an omniscient third-person perspective.	The omniscient narrator provides insight into the thoughts and feelings of multiple characters, offering a comprehensive view of the story’s events.
Repetition	The recurrence of words, phrases, or elements in a narrative, which emphasizes their significance.	The repetition of the child’s mistreatment of the dog reinforces the theme of innocence lost.	Repetition reinforces key themes or ideas, enhancing their impact and resonance with the reader.
Setting	The time and place in which a story takes place.	The urban setting, with its bustling streets and crowded tenements, serves as a backdrop for the story.	The setting provides context for the characters’ actions and experiences, shaping the events of the narrative and influencing its themes.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or concepts in a story.	The dog symbolizes innocence and loyalty, while the family represents societal norms and cruelty.	Symbols add depth and layers of meaning to a story, allowing for interpretation beyond the literal events described.
Theme	The central idea or message conveyed by a literary work.	Themes of innocence, loyalty, cruelty, and the loss of childhood innocence are explored throughout the story.	Themes provide insight into the deeper meaning of the narrative and resonate with universal human experiences.
Tone	The attitude of the author towards the subject matter or audience, conveyed through language and style.	The author’s tone is empathetic towards the child and the dog, while also critical of the family’s mistreatment.	The tone sets the overall mood of the story, influencing how the reader interprets and responds to the events and characters depicted.

Characterization in “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

Character	Description (with Examples from the Story)
Child	* Impulsive and Playful: The child starts by playfully hitting the dog after an initial friendly exchange (“.Whereupon the child lifted his hand and struck the dog a blow upon the head“). * Protective and Loyal: He defends the dog from the family’s abuse, even crying and getting hit himself (“Ever after, the family were careful how they threw things at the dog… The child, crying softly, took his friend off to a retired part of the room…”). * Inconsistent: He can be cruel to the dog himself at times (“Sometimes, too, the child himself used to beat the dog, although it is not known that he ever had what could be truly called a just cause”).
Dark Brown Dog	* Submissive and Accepting: The dog takes the child’s punishments without fighting back (“He sank down in despair at the child’s feet… He received the blows with deep humility“). * Affectionate and Devoted: The dog shows its love through playful gestures and physical touch (“He became more enthusiastic with each moment of the interview, until with his gleeful caperings he threatened to overturn the child… His devotion to the child grew until it was a sublime thing. He wagged at his approach; he sank down in despair at his departure“). * Resilient: Endures abuse from the family but never gives up on the child (“He rolled over on his back and held his paws in a peculiar manner… He [apparently] gave up all hope of escape“).
Father	* Abusive and Temperamental: The father throws objects and kicks the dog (“The head of the family…knocked the dog down with a heavy coffee-pot…A second blow of the coffee-pot laid him upon the floor“). * Uncaring and Disrespectful: He disregards the child’s pleas and throws the dog out the window even when the child is trying to protect it (“The father of the family paid no attention to these calls of the child… He [the father] reached down and grabbing the animal by a leg, lifted him, squirming, up“).
Family (excluding Father and Child)	* Disapproving and Cruel: They view the dog as a nuisance and participate in mistreating it (“When the child’s family appeared, they made a great row. The dog was examined and commented upon and called names…They used to gain a certain satisfaction in underfeeding him“). * Inconsistent: They may or may not feed the dog (“but finally his friend the child grew to watch the matter with some care, and when he forgot it, the dog was often successful in secret for himself“).

Major Themes in “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

• Power Dynamics and Abuse: The story starkly portrays the power imbalance between the child and the dog, reflecting broader societal issues. The child, despite his small size, wields power over the dog, striking it and dragging it home against its will. This dominance parallels the treatment of marginalized groups by those in power. The family’s treatment of the dog, with the father as the main abuser, further highlights the cycle of violence and the normalization of cruelty within a domestic setting. (“Whereupon the child lifted his hand and struck the dog a blow upon the head… The head of the family…knocked the dog down with a heavy coffee-pot“)
• Unconditional Love and Loyalty: In contrast to the harsh power dynamics, the bond between the child and the dog showcases unwavering loyalty and affection. Despite the child’s cruelty, the dog remains submissive and ever-loving, offering “a small prayer” and showing its devotion through playful gestures and physical touch. This unwavering loyalty, even in the face of abuse, emphasizes the power of love and companionship that can transcend harsh circumstances. (“He [the dog] sank down in despair at the child’s feet… His devotion to the child grew until it was a sublime thing. He wagged at his approach; he sank down in despair at his departure“)
• Loss of Innocence: The child’s initial playful cruelty towards the dog gradually escalates, reflecting a loss of innocence. His initial amusement at the dog’s submissive behavior hardens into a more callous disregard for its suffering. This mirrors the potential for cruelty within us all, and the way seemingly innocent acts can pave the way for deeper forms of abuse. (“This thing seemed to overpower and astonish the little dark-brown dog, and wounded him to the heart… Sometimes, too, the child himself used to beat the dog“)
• Hope and Resilience: Despite the bleakness, the story offers a glimmer of hope. The dog’s unwavering devotion and the child’s moments of protectiveness suggest the possibility for connection and compassion. Even in the face of overwhelming hardship, the story suggests, the human spirit’s capacity for love and hope can endure. (“The child, crying softly, took his friend off to a retired part of the room… He [the dog] developed a large bark, which came wondrously from such a small rug of a dog. He ceased to howl persistently at night“)

Writing Style in “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

1. Objectivity and Minimalism: Crane employs a detached, almost journalistic style. He avoids excessive emotional descriptions and focuses on presenting actions and observations. This allows the reader to draw their own conclusions about the characters and events, creating a powerful emotional impact through understatement. (“A Child was standing on a street-corner… The dog made willing efforts, but he could not hobble very skilfully up the stairs…”)
2. Vivid Imagery: Despite the minimalist approach, Crane uses evocative details to create clear pictures in the reader’s mind. Descriptive language paints a picture of the dusty street corner, the clanging trucks, and the “little dark-brown dog” himself. (“Sunshine beat upon the cobbles, and a lazy summer wind raised yellow dust which trailed in clouds down the avenue… The dog hesitated for a moment, but presently he made some little advances with his tail.”)
3. Figurative Language: While not excessive, Crane employs select metaphors and similes to enhance the emotional depth. The dog’s “peculiar prayer” with its “paws held in a peculiar manner” becomes a poignant symbol of submission and vulnerability. (“He turned over upon his back, and held his paws in a peculiar manner. At the same time with his ears and his eyes he offered a small prayer.”)
4. Focus on Dialogue: Crane uses concise dialogue to reveal character traits and motivations. The child’s proclamation that the dog is “an unimportant dog, with no value save for a moment” exposes his developing sense of power and cruelty. (“On the way to his home the child turned many times and beat the dog, proclaiming with childish gestures that he held him in contempt as an unimportant dog, with no value save for a moment.”)

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

Theory	Explanation	Example from the Story
Allegory	A story that serves as a metaphor for a broader idea or concept.	The dark brown dog itself is the allegory. It represents recently freed African Americans navigating a society with lingering prejudice. The rope around the dog’s neck symbolizes the limitations on their newfound freedom.
Realism	Focuses on portraying everyday life and social issues in a truthful and objective manner.	The story describes the dog’s struggles for food and safety with a bleak and unsentimental tone, reflecting the harsh realities faced by many after the Civil War.
Naturalism	A subgenre of realism that emphasizes the influence of heredity and environment on human behavior.	The dog’s timid nature could be seen as a result of past abuse, reflecting the potential lasting impact of slavery on future generations.
Critical Race Theory (CRT)	Examines how race and racism are embedded in legal systems and social structures.	The story can be seen through a CRT lens, where the dog’s restricted movements represent the Jim Crow laws and societal barriers that limited the freedom of African Americans after emancipation.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Analyzes the story through the lens of unconscious desires and psychological conflicts.	The child’s initial desire to protect the dog could represent a subconscious wish to challenge the established social order, while the father’s cruelty might reflect a fear of social change.
Feminist Theory	Analyzes how gender roles and power dynamics influence society.	While not the main focus, the story can be analyzed through a feminist lens. The silence of the women in the household could symbolize the marginalization of women’s voices during this era.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Race Relations in Reconstruction Era	How does the story depict the challenges faced by African Americans after the Civil War?	“A Dark Brown Dog” utilizes the image of a stray dog to symbolize the struggles of freedmen during Reconstruction, facing limited freedom and societal obstacles.
Symbolism and Allegory	What is the significance of the dog in the story?	The short rope tied to the neck of the little brown dog in “A Dark Brown Dog” is a powerful allegory for the lingering constraints placed on African Americans despite emancipation.
The Role of Children in Societal Change	How does the child in the story represent the potential for future progress?	The child’s initial openness to the dog in “A Dark Brown Dog” suggests a flicker of hope for a more just society, but the ending leaves the possibility of future prejudice uncertain.
The Power Dynamics of Freedom	How does the story portray the limitations placed on freedom, even after it is achieved?	“A Dark Brown Dog” explores the complexities of freedom through the dog’s restricted movements, highlighting the ongoing limitations faced by newly freed African Americans.

Short Questions/Answers about/on “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

1. What is the central theme of “A Dark Brown Dog”? The central theme of “A Dark Brown Dog” is the cruel reality of abuse and the capacity for kindness in human nature. The story portrays the innocence and vulnerability of the dog, which becomes a symbol of suffering and resilience. For example, the dog endures mistreatment from its owner but still seeks affection and companionship, highlighting the contrast between cruelty and compassion.
2. How does the dog symbolize innocence? The dog symbolizes innocence through its unconditional love and trust despite facing abuse. In the story, the dog approaches the child with a wagging tail, seeking friendship and warmth. Its innocence is evident in its playful nature and desire for affection, reflecting the purity of its intentions amidst a harsh and unforgiving environment.
3. What role does the child play in the story? The child serves as a catalyst for change and empathy in the narrative. Initially indifferent to the dog’s suffering, the child gradually forms a bond with the animal, showing compassion and understanding. For instance, the child defends the dog against his abusive father and becomes a source of solace and protection for the vulnerable creature, signifying the potential for kindness and empathy to transcend societal cruelty.
4. How does the story depict the complexity of human emotions? “A Dark Brown Dog” illustrates the conflicting emotions of love and cruelty within human relationships. Despite the father’s abusive behavior towards the dog, moments of tenderness and affection are also portrayed, complicating the narrative. For example, the father momentarily shows kindness by allowing the dog to sleep in the child’s bed. This juxtaposition highlights the intricate layers of human nature, where acts of both cruelty and compassion coexist, shaping the dynamics of the story.

Literary Works Similar to “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

Books/Articles

• Weatherford, Richard M. Stephen Crane. Routledge, 2013.
• Ben Khalifa, Taher. “Structuring Racist Ideologies in Stephen Crane’s “A Dark Brown Dog”: A Critical Discourse Analysis.” Journal of Applied Linguistics and Applied Literature: Dynamics and Advances 5.2 (2017): 15-46.
• Kaser, Joyce S. “A study of the world of the child in the short fiction of Stephen Crane.” (1967).
• Bassan, Maurice. “Stephen Crane and” The Eternal Mystery of Social Condition”.” Nineteenth-Century Fiction 19.4 (1965): 387-394.
• Snow, Sandra C. Stephen Crane’s New York City stories: a vision of hell. Central Michigan University, 1989.

Websites

• Stephen Crane Society: https://stephencranesociety.com/ This website, maintained by the Stephen Crane Society, offers a wealth of resources on Crane’s life and works, including critical essays and bibliographies. Explore the website for entries related to “A Dark Brown Dog.”

Suggested Readings about/on “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

1. “The Call of the Wild” by Jack London: Like “A Dark Brown Dog,” London’s novel explores the theme of the bond between humans and animals amidst harsh conditions. It follows the journey of a domesticated dog, Buck, as he adapts to the wild and learns to survive in the rugged landscapes of the Yukon.
2. “Of Mice and Men” by John Steinbeck: Steinbeck’s novella delves into the companionship between two drifters, George and Lennie, during the Great Depression. It examines themes of loneliness, friendship, and the fragility of dreams, paralleling the emotional complexity found in “A Dark Brown Dog.”
3. “Black Beauty” by Anna Sewell: Sewell’s classic novel is narrated from the perspective of a horse named Black Beauty, depicting his life journey through various owners and experiences. It addresses themes of empathy, animal welfare, and the bond between humans and animals, similar to the emotional depth explored in Crane’s story.
4. “White Fang” by Jack London: Another work by London, “White Fang” tells the story of a wild wolf-dog hybrid and his struggles for survival in the wilderness of the Yukon. Like “A Dark Brown Dog,” it examines themes of brutality, resilience, and the innate desire for companionship and connection.
5. “The Road” by Cormac McCarthy: McCarthy’s novel portrays the journey of a father and son through a post-apocalyptic landscape, exploring themes of survival, despair, and the enduring love between parent and child. While the setting and context differ, the emotional resonance and examination of human-animal relationships echo elements found in “A Dark Brown Dog.”

Representative Quotations from “A Dark Brown Dog” by Stephen Crane

Quotation	Context	Theorization
“He sank down in despair at the child’s feet.”	The dog, after receiving a blow from the child, expresses deep sorrow and dejection, symbolizing the pain inflicted upon him by someone he trusted.	This line highlights the dog’s vulnerability and the impact of human cruelty on innocent beings. It reflects themes of betrayal and abandonment, as well as the disparity between the dog’s unconditional love and the child’s callousness.
“He began to wiggle his head frantically and to brace his legs.”	The dog, feeling panic-stricken as the child drags him home, attempts to resist and escape, fearing the unknown fate awaiting him.	This line illustrates the dog’s instinctual response to fear and captivity, emphasizing its desperate struggle for autonomy and survival. It symbolizes the inherent tension between freedom and control, echoing broader themes of oppression and resistance.
“The child sat down on the step and the two had another interview.”	After the child drags the dog home, they have another interaction, during which the dog tries earnestly to please the child and win his affection.	This quotation underscores the evolving dynamics of their relationship, depicting the dog’s unwavering loyalty and the child’s gradual recognition of the dog’s worth. It symbolizes the transformative power of empathy and companionship, transcending initial misunderstandings and conflicts.
“He could force three or four people armed with brooms, sticks and handfuls of coal, to use all their ingenuity to get in a blow.”	The dog displays remarkable agility and cunning in avoiding harm when confronted by hostile family members, showcasing his resilience and resourcefulness.	This line highlights the dog’s adaptive behavior in the face of adversity, emphasizing its determination to survive despite the odds. It symbolizes the struggle for autonomy and dignity in the midst of oppression, echoing themes of resilience and defiance.
“At night, when he was asleep, his dark-brown friend would raise from some black corner a wild, wailful cry, a song of infinite lowliness and despair.”	The dog’s mournful howling at night reflects its loneliness and anguish, contrasting sharply with its daytime interactions with the child.	This quotation evokes a sense of melancholy and isolation, symbolizing the dog’s longing for companionship and understanding. It underscores the theme of alienation and the yearning for connection, resonating with the universal human experience of longing for acceptance and belonging.