“Sonnet 86” William Shakespeare, first published in 1609 as part of the renowned collection “Shakespeare’s Sonnets”, exemplifies the traditional Shakespearean sonnet structure.
Introduction: “Sonnet 86” by William Shakespeare
“Sonnet 86” William Shakespeare, first published in 1609 as part of the renowned collection “Shakespeare’s Sonnets”, exemplifies the traditional Shakespearean sonnet structure. Comprising 14 lines, the poem adheres to the rhyme scheme of ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. In Sonnet 86, Shakespeare explores the theme of rival poets, with the speaker expressing admiration for his beloved’s beauty, which surpasses the poetic descriptions of others. Through masterful wordplay, rich imagery, and an introspective tone, Shakespeare showcases his command of poetic form and language, cementing Sonnet 86 as a celebrated work of literary art. Notably, this sonnet is often interpreted as a response to rival poets, with Shakespeare asserting the superiority of his own poetic voice.
Text: “Sonnet 86” by William Shakespeare
Was it the proud full sail of his great verse, Bound for the prize of all too precious you, That did my ripe thoughts in my brain inhearse, Making their tomb the womb wherein they grew? Was it his spirit, by spirits taught to write Above a mortal pitch, that struck me dead? No, neither he, nor his compeers by night Giving him aid, my verse astonished. He, nor that affable familiar ghost Which nightly gulls him with intelligence, As victors of my silence cannot boast; I was not sick of any fear from thence: But when your countenance filled up his line, Then lacked I matter; that enfeebled mine.
The speaker questions whether it was the impressive and confident expression of the other poet’s work that overwhelmed him.
2
Bound for the prize of all too precious you,
The poet suggests that the other poet’s verses were aimed at winning the favor of the beloved, who is described as “all too precious.”
3
That did my ripe thoughts in my brain inhearse,
The speaker implies that his own thoughts were buried or entombed in his mind by the powerful impact of the other poet’s words.
4
Making their tomb the womb wherein they grew?
The poet metaphorically describes his mind as both a tomb and a womb, suggesting that his thoughts were both buried and nurtured by the influence of the other poet’s verse.
5
Was it his spirit, by spirits taught to write
The speaker considers whether the other poet’s inspiration came from supernatural sources, suggesting a divine or otherworldly influence on his writing.
6
Above a mortal pitch, that struck me dead?
The poet wonders if the other poet’s skill, surpassing mortal ability, figuratively “killed” his own creative spirit, leaving him in awe or unable to compete.
7
No, neither he, nor his compeers by night
The speaker denies that either the poet or his peers, who may have collaborated or inspired him, are responsible for the impact on his own writing.
8
Giving him aid, my verse astonished.
Despite any assistance the other poet received, it is the effect of his verse on the speaker’s own writing that surprises or astonishes him.
9
He, nor that affable familiar ghost
The speaker dismisses the idea that the other poet is aided by a friendly or familiar spirit (perhaps a muse or inspiration) that visits him at night.
10
Which nightly gulls him with intelligence,
The poet describes this ghostly presence as one that deceives or tricks the other poet with intelligence or knowledge, possibly suggesting that his inspiration is not entirely genuine.
11
As victors of my silence cannot boast;
Despite the other poet’s apparent success, he cannot claim victory over the speaker’s silence, implying that the speaker’s own thoughts and feelings remain his own.
12
I was not sick of any fear from thence:
The speaker asserts that he was not weakened or influenced by any fear of supernatural beings or their influence on the other poet’s work.
13
But when your countenance filled up his line,
The turning point of the sonnet, where the speaker reveals that it is the beloved’s presence or appearance that inspires the other poet’s verses, not supernatural forces.
14
Then lacked I matter; that enfeebled mine.
The speaker suggests that when the other poet’s lines are filled with descriptions of the beloved, it diminishes the subject matter available for his own poetry, weakening his verse.
Literary and Poetic Devices: “Sonnet 86” by William Shakespeare
The use of language to convey the opposite of what is expected, highlighting the speaker’s refusal to be silenced despite the power of the beloved’s presence.
Comparison between the beloved’s appearance and the filling of a line of verse, suggesting the overwhelming influence of the beloved on the poet’s creativity.
Giving human characteristics to abstract concepts or inanimate objects, in this case, attributing the ability to “fill up” a line to the beloved’s appearance.
The attitude of the speaker towards the subject, which may shift from admiration to frustration, reflecting the complexities of the speaker’s emotions.
Playful or clever use of words, here possibly playing on the dual meanings of “sail” as a ship’s sail and as something
Themes: “Sonnet 86” by William Shakespeare
Theme 1: The Power of Great Writing The sonnet explores the idea that great writing can be overwhelming and even debilitating. The speaker suggests that the “proud full sail of his great verse” (l. 1) and the “spirit, by spirits taught to write / Above a mortal pitch” (ll. 5-6) have left them feeling astonished and lacking in creative power. This theme is evident in the lines “Making their tomb the womb wherein they grew” (l. 3) and “Then lacked I matter; that enfeebled mine” (l. 14).
Theme 2: The Influence of Others The sonnet touches on the idea that others can have a profound impact on our own creativity and work. The speaker references the poet’s “compeers by night / Giving him aid” (ll. 7-8) and the “affable familiar ghost / Which nightly gulls him with intelligence” (ll. 9-10), suggesting that even great writers are not alone in their creative process. This theme is evident in the lines “Was it his spirit, by spirits taught to write / Above a mortal pitch, that struck me dead?” (ll. 5-6).
Theme 3: The Limits of Creativity The sonnet explores the idea that there are limits to our creativity and that sometimes we can be left feeling drained and uninspired. The speaker describes how the poet’s work has left them feeling “not sick of any fear from thence” (l. 12), but rather lacking in matter and inspiration. This theme is evident in the lines “But when your countenance filled up his line, / Then lacked I matter; that enfeebled mine” (ll. 13-14).
Theme 4: The Intimidating Presence of Greatness Finally, the sonnet touches on the idea that greatness can be intimidating and even debilitating. The speaker describes how the poet’s work has left them feeling overwhelmed and lacking in creative power, suggesting that the presence of greatness can be a hindrance to our own creative endeavors. This theme is evident in the lines “Was it the proud full sail of his great verse, / Bound for the prize of all too precious you” (ll. 1-2).
Literary Theories and “Sonnet 86” by William Shakespeare
Formalist criticism focuses on the form and structure of the text, analyzing elements such as meter, rhyme scheme, and imagery to understand their aesthetic impact.
Marxist theory examines social and economic contexts, interpreting the poem as a reflection of class struggle or the commodification of love and art in Renaissance society.
Psychoanalytic criticism delves into the unconscious mind of the author or characters, interpreting symbols and language as manifestations of hidden desires or conflicts.
Feminist theory explores gender dynamics and power structures, analyzing how the portrayal of women in the poem reflects or challenges patriarchal norms and values.
Postcolonial theory examines how literature reflects colonial legacies and power dynamics, interpreting the poem in light of Shakespeare’s cultural context and imperialism.
Queer theory explores non-normative sexualities and identities, analyzing how the poem may subvert or reinforce traditional gender roles and heteronormative expectations.
Reader-response theory focuses on the role of the reader in interpreting the text, suggesting that each reader’s response to the poem is subjective and influenced by personal experiences.
Deconstruction challenges binary oppositions and fixed meanings, interpreting the poem as a site of linguistic play where meanings are destabilized and subverted.
New Historicism examines literature within its historical context, interpreting the poem as a product of Shakespeare’s time and culture, shaped by contemporary social, political, and cultural forces.
Ecocriticism analyzes the relationship between literature and the environment, interpreting the poem’s imagery and themes in terms of nature, growth, and ecological consciousness.
Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements: “Sonnet 86” by William Shakespeare
How does Shakespeare’s sonnet portray the impact of great writing on the creative process?
“In Sonnet 86, Shakespeare explores the idea that great writing can be overwhelming and even debilitating, as it sets a high standard that can stifle one’s own creativity.”
The Influence of Others
What role do others play in the creative process, according to Shakespeare’s sonnet?
“In Sonnet 86, Shakespeare suggests that others, including fellow writers and even supernatural forces, can have a profound impact on one’s own writing and creativity.”
The Limits of Creativity
How does Shakespeare’s sonnet address the idea of creative limitation and inspiration?
“In Sonnet 86, Shakespeare portrays the limits of creativity, suggesting that even the most skilled writers can experience a lack of inspiration and creative exhaustion.”
The Intimidating Presence of Greatness
How does Shakespeare’s sonnet depict the relationship between greatness and creativity?
“In Sonnet 86, Shakespeare reveals how the presence of greatness can be both inspiring and intimidating, highlighting the tension between admiration and competition in the creative
Short Questions/Answers about “Sonnet 86” by William Shakespeare
Question 1: What is the theme of Sonnet 86? Sonnet 86 by William Shakespeare is one of those sonnets which have made a rival poet the subject of its verses. It presents questions about the speaker’s impotence in demonstrating his writing ability due to the existence of a rival. The speaker asks some rhetorical questions, saying that it could be the power of the creativity of the rival poet that has won his fair youth or that the dead writers have impacted his new rival poet to write better than him, that now the speaker is becoming silent.
Question 2: What are the major literary devices used in Sonnet 86? William Shakespeare used various literary devices to enhance the intended impact of his poem. Some of the major literary devices in this poem are as follows: Assonance, Alliteration, Consonance, Imagery, Metaphor, Personification, Rhetorical Question and Symbolism.
Question 3: What is the rhyme scheme of Sonnet 86? Sonnet 86 follows the ABABCDECD rhyme scheme in octave and EFEFGG in its sestet.
Question 4: What is the tone of Sonnet 86? The poem shows a loving, romantic, and dedicated tone. The poet states that love breeds the best poetry, but he adds he is getting sterile in the case of his poetic talent, which could be due to the presence of some rival poet. However, this rivalry wins boosting when the fair youth does not pay attention to the poetry of the speaker.
Literary Works Similar to “Sonnet 86” by William Shakespeare
Like “Sonnet 86,” Marvell’s poem explores themes of desire and the passage of time. It addresses the urgency of love and the fleeting nature of life, urging the speaker’s beloved to seize the moment.
“The Canonization” by John Donne:
Donne’s poem, like Shakespeare’s sonnet, delves into the complexities of love and devotion. It celebrates the lovers’ bond and critiques societal norms, similar to the exploration of the beloved’s influence in “Sonnet 86.”
“The Flea” by John Donne:
Another poem by Donne, “The Flea,” employs wit and clever argumentation to persuade the beloved to embrace physical intimacy. It shares the theme of desire and the use of inventive metaphors to convey the speaker’s emotions.
“How Do I Love Thee? (Sonnet 43)” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning:
Browning’s sonnet, like Shakespeare’s, is a testament to the power of love. It explores the depths of affection and devotion, expressing the speaker’s boundless love for their beloved, reminiscent of the intense emotions conveyed in “Sonnet 86.”
“A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” by John Donne:
Donne’s poem explores the theme of separation and the enduring nature of love. Like “Sonnet 86,” it delves into the spiritual connection between lovers and the idea of love transcending physical boundaries.
Suggested Readings for Further Analysis of “Sonnet 86” by William Shakespeare
Shakespeare, William. The sonnets. Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Shakespeare, William. The sonnets of Shakespeare. Ginn, 1904.
Landry, Hilton. Interpretations in Shakespeare’s sonnets. Vol. 14. Univ of California Press, 1963.
Landry, Hilton. Interpretations in Shakespeare’s sonnets. Vol. 14. Univ of California Press, 1963.
The speaker questions whether the poet’s impressive and ambitious verses were the cause of his own lack of inspiration.
The quotation reflects the speaker’s introspection and self-doubt regarding the potency of the poet’s words and their impact on his creative abilities, suggesting a sense of inadequacy or intimidation in the face of formidable literary talent.
“Making their tomb the womb wherein they grew?”
The speaker metaphorically describes how his own thoughts, once alive and flourishing, are now entombed within his mind.
This quotation explores the theme of stagnation and the internal struggle of the speaker’s creative process. It suggests that the overwhelming presence of the beloved has stifled the speaker’s creativity, imprisoning his thoughts within his own mind.
“That struck me dead?”
The speaker questions whether the poet’s spirit, elevated beyond mortal capabilities, has metaphorically “struck him dead” with its extraordinary skill.
This quotation alludes to the notion of artistic inspiration as a divine or transcendent force. The speaker contemplates whether the poet’s genius has rendered him incapable of producing meaningful verse, highlighting the transformative power of artistic influence.
“But when your countenance filled up his line,”
The speaker reveals that it is the beloved’s presence, rather than the poet’s skill, that has rendered him unable to write.
This quotation underscores the profound impact of the beloved on the speaker’s creativity, suggesting that the mere sight of the beloved overwhelms and eclipses all other sources of inspiration. It emphasizes the theme of love as a dominant force in shaping artistic expression.
“Then lacked I matter; that enfeebled mine.”
The speaker confesses that in the presence of the beloved, his own creative substance diminishes, leaving him devoid of material to write.
This quotation encapsulates the speaker’s sense of vulnerability and dependence on the beloved for inspiration. It highlights the delicate balance between love and creativity, illustrating how the absence of the beloved’s influence can weaken the speaker’s artistic endeavors.
“Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Glück, first published in 1975 in her collection The House on Marshland, explores the lingering effects of trauma through the lens of the classic fairy tale “Hansel and Gretel.”
Introduction: “Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Gluck Gretel
“Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Glück, first published in 1975 in her collection The House on Marshland, explores the lingering effects of trauma through the lens of the classic fairy tale “Hansel and Gretel.” The poem presents the psychological aftermath of Gretel’s experiences, revealing a character haunted by the memories of her past, specifically the witch she murdered to rescue her brother.
Text: “Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Gluck Gretel
This is the world we wanted. All who would have seen us dead are dead. I hear the witch’s cry break in the moonlight through a sheet of sugar: God rewards. Her tongue shrivels into gas . . .
Now, far from women’s arms and memory of women, in our father’s hut we sleep, are never hungry. Why do I not forget? My father bars the door, bars harm from this house, and it is years.
No one remembers. Even you, my brother, summer afternoons you look at me as though you meant to leave, as though it never happened. But I killed for you. I see armed firs, the spires of that gleaming kiln–
Nights I turn to you to hold me but you are not there. Am I alone? Spies hiss in the stillness, Hansel, we are there still and it is real, real, that black forest and the fire in earnest.
Annotations: “Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Gluck Gretel
Stanza
Text
Interpretation
1
This is the world we wanted. All who would have seen us dead are dead.
The speaker reflects on a world where their enemies are vanquished.
I hear the witch’s cry break in the moonlight through a sheet of sugar: God rewards.
Despite their victory, the memory of the witch’s cry haunts them, suggesting a lingering fear or trauma.
Her tongue shrivels into gas . . .
The witch, a source of terror, is now powerless and decaying.
2
Now, far from women’s arms and memory of women, in our father’s hut we sleep, are never hungry.
The siblings are isolated from nurturing and feminine influences, finding refuge in their father’s protection, yet there’s an eerie absence of hunger.
Why do I not forget?
The speaker questions their inability to forget past traumas, indicating the persistent impact of their experiences.
My father bars the door, bars harm from this house, and it is years.
The father’s protective measures create a sense of safety, but time passes without the wounds of the past fully healing.
3
No one remembers. Even you, my brother, summer afternoons you look at me as though
Despite the passage of time, the memories haunt the speaker, even affecting their relationship with their brother.
you meant to leave, as though it never happened.
The brother’s demeanor suggests a desire to distance himself from the past, to pretend it never occurred.
But I killed for you.
The speaker reveals a profound sacrifice made for their brother’s survival, possibly referring to the death of the witch.
I see armed firs, the spires of that gleaming kiln–
Vivid imagery evokes memories of the dark forest and the witch’s house, symbols of danger and trauma.
4
Nights I turn to you to hold me but you are not there.
The speaker seeks comfort from their brother, but finds themselves alone, highlighting a sense of abandonment or betrayal.
Am I alone? Spies hiss in the stillness, Hansel, we are there still and it is real, real,
The speaker questions their reality, feeling the presence of danger and past traumas despite their physical surroundings.
that black forest and the fire in earnest.
The haunting memories of the forest and the witch’s fire remain vivid and threatening, despite the passage of time.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Gluck Gretel
The repetition of the “s” sound creates a sinister atmosphere, echoing the whispers of spies and enhancing the tension in the scene.
“moonlight through a sheet of sugar”
The repetition of the “s” sound enhances the imagery of moonlight filtering through a sheet of sugar, adding to the surreal and dreamlike quality of the setting.
“bars the door, bars harm”
The repetition of the “b” sound emphasizes the father’s protective actions, creating a sense of security while also highlighting the confinement and restriction within the house.
The repetition of the “ee” sound in “see” and “armed” creates a sense of unease and tension, mirroring the threatening presence of the forest and the danger it represents.
“summer afternoons you look at me”
The repetition of the “oo” sound in “afternoons,” “you,” and “look” adds a melancholic tone to the speaker’s memories, emphasizing the weight of their brother’s gaze and its lingering impact.
This vivid image evokes a surreal and otherworldly atmosphere, painting a picture of moonlight filtering through a delicate, translucent barrier, enhancing the dreamlike quality of the scene.
“the spires of that gleaming kiln”
The imagery of “spires” and a “gleaming kiln” conjures a vivid image of the witch’s house, emphasizing its ominous and menacing presence in the speaker’s memory.
The personification of the witch’s tongue imbues it with a sense of decay and dissolution, adding to the macabre imagery and emphasizing the witch’s demise and powerlessness.
The repetition of “real” emphasizes the speaker’s conviction and insistence on the vividness and authenticity of their memories, underscoring the enduring impact of past traumas on their psyche.
“that black forest and the fire in earnest”
Repetition of “real” and “black forest” emphasizes the speaker’s sense of being trapped in the haunting reality of their past experiences, reinforcing the lasting effect of the trauma.
The forest symbolizes danger, darkness, and the unknown, serving as a metaphor for the traumas and fears that haunt the speaker.
“sheet of sugar”
The sheet of sugar symbolizes a fragile barrier between the speaker and the haunting memories of the witch, adding to the surreal and dreamlike quality of the imagery.
Themes: “Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Gluck Gretel
Theme 1: Trauma and Memory: The poem explores the lasting impact of traumatic experiences on the individual, particularly Gretel’s memories of killing the witch. The speaker’s mind is haunted by the witch’s cry and the image of her tongue shriveling into gas, demonstrating how traumatic events can become etched in one’s memory. The lines “Why do I not forget?” and “Hansel, / we are there still and it is real, real” highlight the persistence of traumatic memories.
Theme 2: Guilt and Responsibility: Gretel’s actions in the past continue to weigh on her conscience, as seen in the lines “I killed for you” and “But I killed for you. I see armed firs, / the spires of that gleaming kiln.” The poem suggests that taking a life, even in self-defense, can lead to feelings of guilt and responsibility that linger long after the event. Gretel’s sense of accountability for her brother’s well-being is also evident in her address to him throughout the poem.
Theme 3: Isolation and Loneliness: The poem conveys a sense of isolation and loneliness, as Gretel feels disconnected from others, including her brother and father. The lines “Now, far from women’s arms / and memory of women, in our father’s hut / we sleep, are never hungry” suggest a physical and emotional distance from nurturing relationships. Gretel’s cry “Am I alone?” and her desire for her brother’s comfort (“Nights I turn to you to hold me / but you are not there”) emphasize her feelings of solitude.
Theme 4: Reality and Denial: The poem explores the tension between facing reality and denying the past. Gretel’s brother seems to have forgotten or suppressed the traumatic events, as indicated by the lines “No one remembers. Even you, my brother, / summer afternoons you look at me as though / you meant to leave, / as though it never happened.” In contrast, Gretel is unable to escape the reality of their experiences, insisting “Hansel, / we are there still and it is real, real, / that black forest and the fire in earnest.”
Literary Theories and “Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Gluck Gretel
“Why do I not forget? / My father bars the door, bars harm / from this house, and it is years.”
Gretel’s inability to forget the traumatic event and her father’s attempts to shield her from harm suggest a psychological repression of memories, a key concept in psychoanalytic theory.
“Now, far from women’s arms / and memory of women, in our father’s hut / we sleep, are never hungry.”
The speaker’s distance from women’s nurturing and the patriarchal dominance of the father’s hut highlight the gender dynamics and power structures critiqued in feminist theory.
“I hear the witch’s cry / break in the moonlight through a sheet / of sugar: God rewards. / Her tongue shrivels into gas . . .”
The vivid and haunting imagery of the witch’s cry and tongue shriveling into gas exemplifies the traumatic flashback, a common phenomenon in trauma theory, where the past event is relived in the present.
Critical Questions about “Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Gluck Gretel
How does the poem explore the lingering psychological effects of trauma?
The poem delves into the psychological aftermath of trauma through Gretel’s introspective narration. Despite their physical safety and the passage of time, Gretel is haunted by memories of their harrowing experiences with the witch. For instance, Gretel’s inability to forget is evident in the line, “Why do I not forget?” The repetition of the phrase “real, real,” emphasizes the persistent and vivid nature of these haunting memories, indicating the lasting impact of the trauma. Additionally, Gretel’s sense of abandonment and loneliness, expressed through lines like “Nights I turn to you to hold me but you are not there,” reflects the emotional toll of their past experiences on their relationships and sense of security.
How does the poem depict the theme of familial bonds and sacrifice?
Louise Gluck portrays the complex dynamics of familial bonds and sacrifice through Gretel’s reflections on her relationship with her brother, Hansel. Despite their shared trauma, Gretel feels a profound connection and sense of duty towards her brother, as seen in the line, “But I killed for you.” This sacrifice underscores the lengths to which Gretel is willing to go to ensure Hansel’s survival, highlighting the unconditional love and protection inherent in familial relationships. However, there is also a sense of betrayal and abandonment as Gretel yearns for her brother’s presence in moments of vulnerability, only to find herself alone. This duality reflects the complexities of familial bonds, encompassing both selflessness and the burden of responsibility.
How does the poem use imagery to evoke a sense of darkness and foreboding?
Gluck employs vivid and evocative imagery throughout the poem to create an atmosphere of darkness and foreboding. The imagery of the “black forest” symbolizes danger and the unknown, serving as a recurring motif that underscores the pervasive sense of threat and fear. Additionally, the description of the moonlight filtering “through a sheet of sugar” conjures a surreal and eerie image, enhancing the dreamlike quality of the setting while also hinting at the deceptive nature of appearances. Furthermore, the imagery of the “gleaming kiln” and “armed firs” evokes a sense of menace and impending danger, reinforcing the ominous atmosphere of the poem and the lasting impact of Gretel’s traumatic experiences.
How does the poem challenge traditional fairy tale narratives?
Gluck’s poem subverts traditional fairy tale narratives by offering a darker and more introspective perspective on the story of Hansel and Gretel. Unlike the conventional portrayal of fairy tale heroines as passive victims or eventual beneficiaries of rescue, Gretel emerges as a complex and psychologically scarred protagonist. Instead of a happily-ever-after ending, the poem delves into the aftermath of trauma, challenging simplistic notions of resolution and closure. By exploring themes of memory, trauma, and familial bonds, Gluck’s poem invites readers to reconsider the traditional fairy tale narrative and confront the darker realities that lie beneath its surface.
Literary Works Similar to “Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Gluck Gretel
“Daddy” by Sylvia Plath – This iconic poem delves into the complex relationship between the speaker and her father, exploring themes of trauma, identity, and the lingering effects of parental influence.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot – This modernist poem reflects on themes of isolation, anxiety, and existential dread, as the protagonist grapples with his own inner turmoil and the passage of time.
“Lady Lazarus” by Sylvia Plath – Another poem by Sylvia Plath, “Lady Lazarus” explores themes of death, resurrection, and the cyclical nature of trauma and recovery. Like “Gretel in Darkness,” it offers a powerful examination of personal struggle and resilience.
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot – A seminal work of modernist poetry, “The Waste Land” explores themes of fragmentation, disillusionment, and the search for meaning in a fragmented and chaotic world. Its rich imagery and layered symbolism invite readers to delve deep into the complexities of human experience.
“Diving into the Wreck” by Adrienne Rich – This poem explores themes of self-discovery, identity, and the journey towards empowerment. Like “Gretel in Darkness,” it delves into the depths of personal experience and the process of reclaiming agency in the face of adversity.
Suggested Readings: “Gretel in Darkness” by Louise Gluck Gretel
Gluck, Louise. “Gretel in Darkness.” Disenchantments: An Anthology of Modern Fairy Tale Poetry (1985): 59-72.
Weiss, Lea. ““Gretel in Darkness”: Persistence of the Coded Subtext in the Simulated.” State University of New York at New Paltz New Paltz, New York (2009): 51.
“This is the world we wanted. All who would have seen us dead are dead.”
Gretel reflects on the desired outcome of their ordeal with the witch, where their enemies are vanquished.
Post-Traumatic Growth: Despite the trauma they endured, the speaker finds a sense of empowerment and satisfaction in overcoming their adversaries, suggesting a form of growth or resilience emerging from adversity.
“Why do I not forget?”
Despite the passage of time and their physical safety, Gretel wrestles with the inability to forget their traumatic experiences.
Freudian Repression: The speaker’s inability to forget suggests the presence of repressed memories and unresolved psychological conflicts, reflecting Freud’s theory of repression, where distressing memories are pushed into the unconscious mind.
“But I killed for you.”
Gretel reveals a profound sacrifice made for her brother’s survival, emphasizing the unconditional love and protection inherent in familial relationships.
Sacrifice and Love: The quotation underscores the theme of sacrifice for familial bonds, highlighting the lengths to which individuals are willing to go to protect and care for their loved ones, aligning with theories of attachment and altruism.
“Nights I turn to you to hold me but you are not there.”
Gretel seeks comfort and reassurance from her brother, but feels abandoned and alone in her vulnerability.
Attachment Theory: The speaker’s longing for her brother’s presence reflects attachment needs, emphasizing the importance of secure attachments in providing emotional support and stability, echoing attachment theory concepts proposed by Bowlby.
“that black forest and the fire in earnest.”
The repetition of “real” emphasizes the speaker’s conviction about the vividness and authenticity of their memories, underscoring the lasting impact of the trauma.
Reality Testing: The speaker questions the reality of their experiences, suggesting a struggle to differentiate between past traumas and present reality, reflecting the concept of reality testing in psychoanalytic theory, particularly in relation to trauma.
“No one remembers. Even you, my brother…” / “as though it never happened.” / “Am I alone?”
The speaker feels isolated in their memories and experiences, questioning the validity of their own reality.
Alienation and Existentialism: These quotations reflect themes of alienation and existential angst, where the individual grapples with feelings of isolation and a sense of absurdity in their existence, echoing existentialist concepts proposed by thinkers like Sartre and Camus.
The Dash” by Linda Ellis, first published in 1996 in her collection titled Live Your Dash, encapsulates the essence of a person’s life, emphasizing the significance of the dash on a tombstone between the date of birth and the date of death.
Introduction: “The Dash” by Linda Ellis
The Dash” by Linda Ellis, first published in 1996 in her collection titled Live Your Dash, encapsulates the essence of a person’s life, emphasizing the significance of the dash on a tombstone between the date of birth and the date of death. Ellis urges readers to contemplate the meaning of their own “dash” — the time they spend living — and to consider how they want to be remembered. The poem serves as a reminder to live a purposeful life, filled with kindness, love, and meaningful connections with others. It encourages individuals to make the most of their time on Earth and leave behind a legacy that positively impacts the world.
Text: “The Dash” by Linda Ellis
I read of a man who stood to speak At the funeral of a friend He referred to the dates on the tombstone From the beginning…to the end
He noted that first came the date of birth And spoke the following date with tears, But he said what mattered most of all Was the dash between those years
For that dash represents all the time That they spent alive on earth. And now only those who loved them Know what that little line is worth
For it matters not, how much we own, The cars…the house…the cash. What matters is how we live and love And how we spend our dash.
So, think about this long and hard. Are there things you’d like to change? For you never know how much time is left That can still be rearranged.
If we could just slow down enough To consider what’s true and real And always try to understand The way other people feel.
And be less quick to anger And show appreciation more And love the people in our lives Like we’ve never loved before.
If we treat each other with respect And more often wear a smile, Remembering this special dash Might only last a little while
So, when your eulogy is being read With your life’s actions to rehash… Would you be proud of the things they say About how you spent YOUR dash?
I read of a man who stood to speak / At the funeral of a friend / He referred to the dates on the tombstone / From the beginning…to the end
The speaker recounts a story of a man speaking at a friend’s funeral who noted the dates of birth and death on the tombstone.
2
He noted that first came the date of birth / And spoke the following date with tears, / But he said what mattered most of all / Was the dash between those years
The man at the funeral emphasized the significance of the dash between the dates of birth and death, suggesting that it represents the entirety of the person’s life and is the most important aspect.
3
For that dash represents all the time / That they spent alive on earth. / And now only those who loved them / Know what that little line is worth
The dash symbolizes all the time the person spent living on Earth, and only those who loved them truly understand its value.
4
For it matters not, how much we own, / The cars…the house…the cash. / What matters is how we live and love / And how we spend our dash.
Material possessions are insignificant compared to how we live and love during our lives. The focus should be on making the most of our time and relationships.
5
So, think about this long and hard. / Are there things you’d like to change? / For you never know how much time is left / That can still be rearranged.
Reflecting on our lives and considering changes is crucial because we never know how much time we have left to make those changes.
6
If we could just slow down enough / To consider what’s true and real / And always try to understand / The way other people feel.
Slowing down and being mindful of what truly matters and empathizing with others’ emotions can lead to a more fulfilling life.
7
And be less quick to anger / And show appreciation more / And love the people in our lives / Like we’ve never loved before.
Advocates for managing anger, expressing gratitude, and loving deeply and wholeheartedly.
8
If we treat each other with respect / And more often wear a smile, / Remembering this special dash / Might only last a little while
Treating others with respect and kindness, and cherishing the time we have can make a significant impact, as life is fleeting.
9
So, when your eulogy is being read / With your life’s actions to rehash… / Would you be proud of the things they say / About how you spent YOUR dash?
Encourages introspection and consideration of how we want to be remembered and whether our actions during our life would make us proud in hindsight.
Simile: The comparison of “how we love” to how we’ve never loved before.
Contrast: Contrasting the physical aspects of life (cars, house, cash) with emotional and relational aspects.
Themes: “The Dash” by Linda Ellis
Fleeting Nature of Time and Intentional Living: “The Dash” by Linda Ellis emphasizes the finite nature of life and the importance of living with purpose. The poem prompts readers to reflect on the significance of the dash between birth and death dates on a tombstone, symbolizing the entirety of one’s life. Lines like “For that dash represents all the time/That they spent alive on earth” underscore the fleeting nature of time and the necessity of making the most of it by living intentionally.
Value of Relationships and Love Over Material Possessions: Throughout the poem, there is a contrast drawn between tangible possessions like cars, houses, and cash, and the intangible qualities of how we live and love. “The Dash” emphasizes the importance of cherishing meaningful connections and experiences over material wealth. Lines such as “What matters is how we live and love/And how we spend our dash” highlight the significance of nurturing relationships and fostering love.
Self-Reflection and Personal Growth: Ellis encourages readers to engage in introspection and consider what changes they would like to make in their lives. The poem prompts individuals to be mindful of their impact on others and to strive for personal betterment. Lines like “Are there things you’d like to change?/For you never know how much time is left/That can still be rearranged” inspire reflection and the pursuit of growth.
Legacy and Remembrance: “The Dash” prompts contemplation about the legacy we are leaving behind and how we will be remembered. It challenges readers to consider whether they would be proud of the way they spent their time when their eulogy is read. The closing lines, “Would you be proud of the things they say/About how you spent YOUR dash?” serve as a reminder of the impact our actions have on the world and the importance of leaving a positive legacy.
Literary Theories and “The Dash” by Linda Ellis
1. Existentialism Existentialist theory emphasizes individual freedom and choice, and the poem exemplifies this philosophy through the speaker’s reflection on the significance of the “dash” between birth and death dates. The poem encourages the reader to take responsibility for making the most of their time on earth, as evident in lines like “What matters is how we live and love / And how we spend our dash” (emphasis added).
2. Humanism Humanist theory prioritizes human experience, emotions, and relationships. The poem’s focus on the importance of loving and appreciating others, as seen in lines like “Love the people in our lives / Like we’ve never loved before” and “Remembering this special dash / Might only last a little while,” demonstrates a humanist perspective.
3. Symbolism Symbolist theory interprets objects or images as representing abstract ideas or concepts. In the poem, the “dash” between the birth and death dates serves as a symbol for the time spent alive on earth, representing the entirety of a person’s life experiences, relationships, and accomplishments. The speaker emphasizes the significance of this “little line” in lines like “But he said what mattered most of all / Was the dash between those years” and “For that dash represents all the time / That they spent alive on earth.”
Critical Questions about “The Dash” by Linda Ellis
Question
Answers
How does “The Dash” challenge conventional notions of success and legacy?
“The Dash” challenges conventional ideas of success by emphasizing the significance of how one lives their life rather than focusing solely on material wealth or achievements. The poem suggests that true success is measured by the impact one has on others and the depth of their relationships, rather than possessions or accomplishments. For example, lines such as “For it matters not, how much we own,/The cars…the house…the cash” contrast material possessions with the importance of living and loving well.
In what ways does “The Dash” provoke individuals to reflect on their own mortality and the legacy they are creating?
“The Dash” prompts readers to confront their mortality and consider the legacy they are leaving behind. By highlighting the finite nature of life and the dash symbolizing one’s time on Earth, the poem urges individuals to reflect on how they are spending their time and the impact they are making. For instance, lines like “So, when your eulogy is being read/With your life’s actions to rehash…” encourage introspection about whether one’s actions align with their values and aspirations.
How does “The Dash” advocate for a shift in priorities towards a more meaningful and fulfilling life?
“The Dash” advocates for a shift in priorities by emphasizing the importance of meaningful relationships, personal growth, and intentional living. The poem encourages readers to prioritize love, kindness, and understanding over material possessions or superficial pursuits. For example, lines such as “And be less quick to anger/And show appreciation more/And love the people in our lives/Like we’ve never loved before” urge individuals to prioritize emotional connections and genuine expressions of love over fleeting desires or ambitions.
Literary Works Similar to “The Dash” by Linda Ellis
“Thanatopsis” by William Cullen Bryant: This poem reflects on death and the afterlife, encouraging readers to find solace in nature and to contemplate the inevitability of death as a natural part of life.
“Do Not Stand at My Grave and Weep” by Mary Elizabeth Frye: Like “The Dash,” this poem offers comfort and reflection on death, reassuring loved ones that the departed live on in memories and the beauty of nature.
“When I Am Dead, My Dearest” by Christina Rossetti: Rossetti’s poem reflects on the impermanence of life and the importance of cherishing moments and connections while we are alive, echoing the sentiment of making the most of the “dash.”
“O Captain! My Captain!” by Walt Whitman: While different in form, this poem similarly reflects on the passing of time and the impact of a life well-lived. It mourns the death of Abraham Lincoln while celebrating his accomplishments and legacy.
“Because I could not stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson: Dickinson’s poem explores the journey of life and death, presenting death as a gentle carriage ride that leads to eternity. It encourages readers to contemplate the passage of time and the meaning of existence.
Suggested Readings: “The Dash” by Linda Ellis
Ellis, Linda. Live Your Dash: Make Every Moment Matter. Simple Truths, 2011.
“Dreams” by Langston Hughes first appearing in The World Tomorrow magazine in 1923, establishes a unique thematic strand that would echo throughout his future works.
Introduction: “Dreams” by Langston Hughes
“Dreams” by Langston Hughes first appearing in The World Tomorrow magazine in 1923, establishes a unique thematic strand that would echo throughout his future works. This powerful eight-line poem uses vivid metaphors to capture the essential qualities of dreams. Hughes compares dreams to birds and barren fields, emphasizing the importance of holding onto them for a life filled with possibility and flight, rather than one devoid of hope and inspiration.
Text: “Dreams” by Langston Hughes
Hold fast to dreams For if dreams die Life is a broken-winged bird That cannot fly.
Hold fast to dreams For when dreams go Life is a barren field Frozen with snow.
Repeating the phrase emphasizes the importance of dreams and reinforces the central message of the poem.
Themes: “Dreams” by Langston Hughes
Hope and Resilience: The poem opens with the powerful command “Hold fast to dreams.” This urgency highlights the importance of clinging to aspirations even when faced with challenges. The metaphor of “life is a broken-winged bird / That cannot fly” emphasizes the loss of hope and potential that comes with letting dreams die. The poem serves as a rallying cry to nurture hope and keep striving for a better future.
Importance of Aspiration: The poem contrasts the state of having dreams with the bleak image of a “barren field / Frozen with snow.” This comparison underscores the vital role dreams play in bringing life and purpose to our existence. Dreams act as seeds that can blossom into a flourishing future, whereas their absence leaves us with a barren and desolate landscape.
Racial Subtext (potential): While the poem doesn’t explicitly mention race, Langston Hughes, the author, was a prominent figure during the Harlem Renaissance, a time of social and artistic awakening for African Americans. Considering this context, the “broken-winged bird” could symbolize a life limited by racial prejudice. The “dreams” then become aspirations for achieving equality and overcoming societal barriers. The poem becomes an anthem for African Americans to hold onto their dreams for a future filled with opportunity.
The Journey Matters: The poem’s repetitive structure, “Hold fast to dreams,” emphasizes the ongoing nature of pursuing dreams. It’s not just about achieving a final goal, but the continuous act of hoping and striving. The journey itself is valuable, providing motivation, growth, and a sense of purpose. Even if the “dreams” aren’t fully realized, the process of chasing them can lead to a richer and more fulfilling life.
Literary Theories and “Dreams” by Langston Hughes
Feminist Literary Theory: Langston Hughes’s “Dreams” can be interpreted through a feminist lens to explore themes of empowerment, agency, and resistance. In the poem, the repeated imperative “Hold fast to dreams” can be seen as a call to action, urging individuals, including women, to pursue their aspirations despite societal constraints. The metaphorical comparison of life to a “broken-winged bird” and a “barren field frozen with snow” reflects the limitations and obstacles that marginalized groups, including women, face in realizing their dreams. By asserting the importance of dreams and encouraging resilience in the face of adversity, Hughes’s poem advocates for the empowerment and liberation of all individuals, regardless of gender.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory: Through a psychoanalytic lens, “Dreams” can be interpreted as an exploration of the subconscious mind and the psychological significance of dreams. The poem’s repetition of the phrase “Hold fast to dreams” suggests a preoccupation with the unconscious desires and aspirations that shape one’s identity and motivations. The metaphor of life as a “broken-winged bird” and a “barren field frozen with snow” may symbolize the inner conflicts and emotional turmoil that individuals experience when their dreams are thwarted or repressed. By acknowledging the importance of dreams and their role in shaping one’s sense of self, Hughes’s poem invites readers to delve into the depths of their subconscious and confront the unconscious forces that influence their thoughts and actions.
Marxist Literary Theory: From a Marxist perspective, “Dreams” can be interpreted as a critique of socioeconomic inequality and the capitalist system’s impact on individual agency and fulfillment. The metaphorical comparison of life to a “broken-winged bird” and a “barren field frozen with snow” reflects the deprivation and stagnation that result from economic exploitation and social oppression. The imperative to “Hold fast to dreams” can be seen as a rallying cry for resistance against systemic injustice and the pursuit of a more equitable society where all individuals have the opportunity to realize their aspirations. By foregrounding the importance of dreams as a form of resistance and envisioning a world free from oppression, Hughes’s poem aligns with Marxist principles of social transformation and collective liberation.
Critical Questions about “Dreams” by Langston Hughes
Theme 1: The Importance of Dreams
The poem emphasizes the significance of holding onto dreams, as they are essential for a fulfilling life. The first line, “Hold fast to dreams,” sets the tone for the rest of the poem, urging the reader to cling to their dreams. The comparison of life without dreams to a “broken-winged bird / That cannot fly” (lines 3-4) highlights the crippling effect of losing one’s dreams.
Theme 2: The Consequences of Losing Dreams
The poem also explores the consequences of letting go of dreams. The lines “For when dreams go / Life is a barren field / Frozen with snow” (lines 5-7) paint a bleak picture of a life without dreams, where hope and joy are frozen and life is empty and desolate.
Theme 3: The Power of Hope
The poem suggests that dreams provide hope and motivation for a better future. The repetition of “Hold fast to dreams” (lines 1 and 5) serves as a reminder to keep holding onto hope, even in the face of adversity. The image of a bird flying, though broken-winged, implies that even in difficult circumstances, there is still a chance for freedom and empowerment.
Theme 4: The African American Experience
The poem can also be seen as a reflection of the African American experience, where dreams and hope are essential for survival. The image of a barren field frozen with snow may symbolize the harsh realities of racism and oppression, while the emphasis on holding onto dreams represents the resilience and determination of African Americans in the face of adversity.
Literary Works Similar to “Dreams” by Langston Hughes
Like “Dreams,” “I, Too” by Langston Hughes explores themes of resilience, hope, and empowerment in the face of adversity. It celebrates the speaker’s determination to overcome racial discrimination and assert their identity and humanity.
“Mother to Son” by Langston Hughes:
Hughes’s poem “Mother to Son” conveys similar themes of perseverance and resilience. Through the metaphor of a staircase, the poem illustrates the struggles and challenges faced by African Americans and the importance of perseverance in overcoming obstacles.
“Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou:
Angelou’s poem “Still I Rise” shares thematic similarities with “Dreams” in its celebration of resilience, empowerment, and self-affirmation. It speaks to the enduring strength and dignity of marginalized communities in the face of oppression and adversity.
“Harlem” by Langston Hughes:
Also known as “Dream Deferred,” Hughes’s poem “Harlem” explores the consequences of unfulfilled dreams and aspirations. It raises questions about the impact of deferred dreams on individual lives and the broader society, echoing the thematic concerns of “Dreams.”
“If We Must Die” by Claude McKay:
McKay’s poem “If We Must Die” shares thematic parallels with “Dreams” in its exploration of resilience, defiance, and the struggle for dignity and freedom. It speaks to the courage and determination of marginalized communities facing persecution and oppression.
Suggested Readings: “Dreams” by Langston Hughes
Bloom, Harold. “Langston Hughes and the American Blues.” The American Poetry Review, vol. 17, no. 4, 1988, pp. 37-43.
Hughes, Langston. The Collected Poems of Langston Hughes. Alfred A. Knopf, 1994.
Arnold Rampersad. “Langston Hughes’s Fine Clothes to The Jew.” Callaloo, no. 26, 1986, pp. 144–58. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2931083. Accessed 2 May 2024.
“Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, first published in 1858 in the collection Birds of Passage, is popular for its serene and contemplative tone, exploring the themes of love, memory, and the comforting presence of loved ones who have passed away.
Introduction: “Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
“Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, first published in 1858 in the collection Birds of Passage, is popular for its serene and contemplative tone, exploring the themes of love, memory, and the comforting presence of loved ones who have passed away. The poem’s gentle rhythm and soothing imagery evoke a sense of peace and reassurance, while its exploration of the human experience makes it a timeless and relatable work of literature. The qualities of the poem that have made it enduringly popular include its accessible language, rich symbolism, and the poet’s masterful use of meter and rhyme to create a sense of musicality and flow.
Text: “Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
When the hours of Day are numbered, And the voices of the Night Wake the better soul, that slumbered, To a holy, calm delight;
Ere the evening lamps are lighted, And, like phantoms grim and tall, Shadows from the fitful firelight Dance upon the parlor wall;
Then the forms of the departed Enter at the open door; The beloved, the true-hearted, Come to visit me once more;
He, the young and strong, who cherished Noble longings for the strife, By the roadside fell and perished, Weary with the march of life!
They, the holy ones and weakly, Who the cross of suffering bore, Folded their pale hands so meekly, Spake with us on earth no more!
And with them the Being Beauteous, Who unto my youth was given, More than all things else to love me, And is now a saint in heaven.
With a slow and noiseless footstep Comes that messenger divine, Takes the vacant chair beside me, Lays her gentle hand in mine.
And she sits and gazes at me With those deep and tender eyes, Like the stars, so still and saint-like, Looking downward from the skies.
Uttered not, yet comprehended, Is the spirit’s voiceless prayer, Soft rebukes, in blessings ended, Breathing from her lips of air.
Oh, though oft depressed and lonely, All my fears are laid aside, If I but remember only Such as these have lived and died!
Annotations: “Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Stanza
Content
1
Describes the transition from Day to Night, where the voices of the night awaken the soul.
2
Depicts the setting of the evening, with the anticipation of lamps being lit and shadows dancing.
3
Reflects on the presence of departed loved ones entering through an open door.
4
Mourns the loss of individuals who faced struggles and hardships in life.
5
Mentions the presence of someone cherished in youth who is now a saint in heaven.
6
Describes the arrival of a divine messenger who sits beside the speaker in silence.
7
Portrays the messenger’s gaze as deep and saint-like, conveying unspoken understanding.
8
Implies the communication of the spirit through silent prayers and blessings.
9
Concludes with a sense of comfort and reassurance in the remembrance of departed loved ones.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Contradictory terms placed together for emphasis, suggesting a peaceful yet sacred joy.
Themes: “Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Mortality and Transcendence: Longfellow explores the themes of mortality and the transcendence of the human spirit beyond physical existence. The poem reflects on the passage of time and the inevitability of death, yet it also suggests that the souls of departed loved ones continue to exist in a realm beyond the earthly. For instance, the stanza “He, the young and strong, who cherished / Noble longings for the strife, / By the roadside fell and perished” speaks to the mortality of youth and the suddenness of death. Despite this, the presence of the departed, such as the “Being Beauteous,” suggests a belief in the enduring nature of the soul and its journey beyond life.
Memory and Remembrance: Another prominent theme is memory and the act of remembrance. The speaker finds solace in recalling the presence and impact of those who have passed away. Lines like “Folded their pale hands so meekly, / Spake with us on earth no more!” evoke the gentle memory of loved ones and their mannerisms. The poem emphasizes the importance of keeping the memory of the departed alive, as seen in the lines “If I but remember only / Such as these have lived and died!” Memory becomes a source of comfort and connection with the past, allowing the speaker to feel less alone in their grief.
Divine Presence and Comfort: “Footsteps of Angels” also explores the theme of divine presence and comfort in times of sorrow. The poem portrays the arrival of a “messenger divine” who sits beside the speaker, offering solace and understanding. Through imagery such as “With those deep and tender eyes, / Like the stars, so still and saint-like,” the poem conveys a sense of divine grace and compassion. The presence of the messenger symbolizes the belief in spiritual guidance and support, providing reassurance amid moments of loneliness and despair.
Existential Reflection and Acceptance: Longfellow’s poem delves into existential reflection and acceptance of life’s mysteries and uncertainties. The speaker contemplates the fleeting nature of existence and the complexities of human experience. Lines like “Uttered not, yet comprehended, / Is the spirit’s voiceless prayer” suggest a deep understanding that transcends verbal communication. The poem acknowledges the struggles and challenges of life, yet ultimately finds peace and acceptance in the presence of divine and eternal truths. Through introspection and contemplation, the speaker grapples with existential questions and finds solace in the enduring legacy of love and memory.
Literary Theories and “Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
“the evening lamps”, “phantoms grim and tall”, “the cross of suffering”
Longfellow uses symbols to convey deeper meanings. Lamps represent guidance, phantoms represent fears, and the cross represents suffering and redemption.
“holy, calm delight”, “Being Beauteous”, “tender eyes”, “saint in heaven”
The poem exhibits Romantic qualities through its focus on emotion, beauty, and the spiritual. The use of words like “holy”, “Beauteous”, and “saint” emphasizes the poet’s reverence for the divine.
Grief and Mourning
“the forms of the departed”, “the beloved, the true-hearted”, “Weary with the march of life”
The poem explores the themes of grief, mourning, and remembrance. Longfellow reflects on the passing of loved ones and finds comfort in their memory and spiritual presence.
Critical Questions about “Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Question 1: How does Longfellow use imagery to evoke a sense of comfort and peace in the poem?
Longfellow employs soothing imagery to create a tranquil atmosphere, comforting the reader and the speaker. For instance, the “evening lamps” and “holy, calm delight” evoke a sense of serenity, while the “gentle hand” and “tender eyes” of the beloved deceased bring solace. The “slow and noiseless footstep” of the messenger divine adds to the peaceful ambiance, creating a sense of reassurance. This imagery helps the speaker and reader find comfort in the memory of loved ones who have passed away.
Question 2: How does the poem explore the theme of grief and remembrance, and what message does it convey about coping with loss?
The poem explores the theme of grief and remembrance by depicting the speaker’s longing for departed loved ones. Longfellow conveys that remembering and honoring the dead can bring comfort and solace. The speaker finds peace in the thought that the deceased continue to exist spiritually, offering guidance and support. The poem suggests that cherishing memories and acknowledging the impact of the deceased on our lives can help us cope with loss. The lines “If I but remember only / Such as these have lived and died” emphasize the importance of remembrance in finding closure and moving forward.
Question 3: How does the poem’s use of symbolism and metaphor contribute to its exploration of the relationship between the living and the dead?
The poem’s symbolism and metaphor enrich its exploration of the connection between the living and the dead. The “footsteps of angels” symbolize the gentle, comforting presence of the deceased in the speaker’s life. The “Being Beauteous” represents the idealized, divine nature of the beloved, while the “messenger divine” embodies the spiritual guidance offered by the dead. The “open door” and “vacant chair” metaphors signify the speaker’s willingness to accept and engage with the spiritual presence of the deceased. These symbols and metaphors illustrate the poem’s central idea that the living can find comfort and guidance in the memory and spiritual presence of the dead.
Literary Works Similar to “Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
“Thanatopsis” by William Cullen Bryant: This poem, like “Footsteps of Angels,” explores themes of death, mortality, and the continuity of life beyond the physical realm. Bryant’s contemplation of death and the interconnectedness of nature resonates with Longfellow’s exploration of the transcendence of the human spirit.
“Crossing the Bar” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson: Tennyson’s poem reflects on the journey from life to death and the anticipation of crossing into the afterlife. Similar to “Footsteps of Angels,” it conveys a sense of acceptance and peace in the face of mortality, as well as the belief in a spiritual existence beyond death.
“Because I could not stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson: Dickinson’s poem offers a meditative exploration of death and the passage of time. Like Longfellow’s work, it contemplates the nature of existence and the transition from life to death, while also suggesting a sense of continuity and immortality.
“When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats: Keats’ sonnet reflects on the fear of mortality and the desire for artistic immortality. Similar to “Footsteps of Angels,” it grapples with existential questions and the search for meaning in the face of human frailty and impermanence.
“Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” by Thomas Gray: Gray’s elegy reflects on the lives and deaths of ordinary people buried in a rural churchyard. Like Longfellow’s poem, it explores themes of mortality, memory, and the enduring legacy of those who have passed away. Both works contemplate the significance of life and the inevitability of death in a contemplative and reverent tone.
Suggested Readings: “Footsteps of Angels” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: Poems & Other Writings (LOA# 118). Vol. 118. Library of America, 2000.
“When the hours of Day are numbered, And the voices of the Night”
The poem begins with the transition from day to night, symbolizing the passage of time and the onset of reflection.
Time perception and symbolism of day and night.
“Then the forms of the departed Enter at the open door”
This line describes the arrival of departed loved ones, suggesting a belief in the continued presence of spirits.
Spiritualism and the afterlife.
“He, the young and strong, who cherished Noble longings for the strife”
The speaker reminisces about a young person who died prematurely, highlighting the fleeting nature of life’s aspirations.
Existentialism and the contemplation of mortality.
“Folded their pale hands so meekly, Spake with us on earth no more”
Reflects on the humility and resignation of those who have passed away, emphasizing their absence from earthly interactions.
Symbolism of gestures and absence in grief studies.
“And with them the Being Beauteous, Who unto my youth was given”
The speaker recalls a beloved figure from their youth who has now passed away, evoking nostalgia and reverence.
Nostalgia and the influence of memory on perception.
“With a slow and noiseless footstep Comes that messenger divine”
Describes the arrival of a divine messenger, suggesting spiritual guidance and comfort in times of solitude.
The presence of divine figures in literature and their role in providing solace and enlightenment.
“Uttered not, yet comprehended, Is the spirit’s voiceless prayer”
The poem ends with the recognition of unspoken communication between the speaker and the divine messenger, conveying a sense of understanding and connection.
Communication theories and the significance of non-verbal cues in conveying meaning and emotion.
“Barter” by Sara Teasdale was published in her 1918 collection, “Love Songs,” which later went on to win the Pulitzer Prize.
Introduction: “Barter” by Sara Teasdale
“Barter” by Sara Teasdale was published in her 1918 collection, “Love Songs,” which later went on to win the Pulitzer Prize. The poem utilizes vivid imagery to capture the multifaceted beauty of life, encompassing natural wonders like crashing waves and crackling fires alongside the intimacy found within another’s gaze. However, Teasdale doesn’t shy away from the cost. The speaker proposes a complete surrender, a relinquishment of “all you have been, or could be,” suggesting the profound transformation required to fully embrace life’s profound depths.
Teasdale begins by presenting life’s offerings as valuable commodities that can be exchanged or bartered for. She describes nature’s beauty – the ocean waves crashing against cliffs, the warmth and movement of a fire, and the innocent wonder in children’s faces.
2
Continuing the theme of life’s offerings, Teasdale mentions additional forms of beauty: music, the refreshing scent of pine trees after rain, the comfort of loving gazes and embraces, and the uplifting power of spiritual thoughts.
3
In this stanza, Teasdale urges readers to invest everything they have in pursuit of loveliness. She suggests that the benefits of experiencing even a brief moment of peace or ecstasy far outweigh any sacrifices made to attain them.
The poem’s dominant foot is the trochee (stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one)
A metrical foot consisting of two syllables, with the first stressed and the second unstressed
Themes: “Barter” by Sara Teasdale
Theme 1: The Value of Beauty and Joy: The poem emphasizes the importance of prioritizing beauty and joy in life. Teasdale urges the reader to “Spend all you have for loveliness, / Buy it and never count the cost” (lines 13-14), suggesting that the value of beautiful experiences and emotions outweighs any material cost. The poem is filled with vivid descriptions of lovely things, such as “Blue waves whitened on a cliff, / Soaring fire that sways and sings” (lines 3-4), which illustrate the beauty and joy that life has to offer.
Theme 2: The Power of Imagination and Wonder: The poem celebrates the power of imagination and wonder in transforming our lives. Teasdale writes, “And children’s faces looking up / Holding wonder like a cup” (lines 5-6), highlighting the way that children’s imaginations and sense of wonder can enrich their experiences. The poem’s use of metaphor and imagery, such as “Music like a curve of gold” (line 9), also encourages the reader to imagine and appreciate the beauty in life.
Theme 3: The Importance of Living in the Present: The poem encourages the reader to live in the present moment and appreciate the beauty and joy that is available now. Teasdale writes, “For one white singing hour of peace / Count many a year of strife well lost” (lines 15-16), suggesting that even a brief moment of peace and happiness is worth more than a long period of struggle. The poem’s focus on the present moment is also evident in its use of sensory details, such as “Scent of pine trees in the rain” (line 11).
Theme 4: The Need to Prioritize Spiritual and Emotional Fulfillment:The poem suggests that spiritual and emotional fulfillment are essential for a happy and meaningful life. Teasdale writes, “And for your spirit’s still delight, / Holy thoughts that star the night” (lines 17-18), highlighting the importance of nurturing one’s spirit and finding comfort in thoughts and experiences that bring joy and peace. The poem’s emphasis on “loveliness” and “beauty” also suggests that prioritizing these aspects of life is essential for fulfillment.
Reader Response Theory focuses on the role of the reader in interpreting and creating meaning from a text. It suggests that meaning is not inherent within the text itself but is constructed by the reader’s interaction with the text.
In “Barter,” different readers may interpret the loveliness being sold by life differently based on their personal experiences and perspectives. For example, one reader might see the “blue waves whitened on a cliff” as a symbol of freedom, while another might see it as a symbol of isolation.
Feminist Literary Theory examines literature through the lens of gender dynamics, exploring how gender roles, power structures, and societal expectations influence the portrayal of characters and themes.
Teasdale’s portrayal of “children’s faces looking up” with “wonder like a cup” may reflect traditional gender roles, with the innocence and vulnerability of children often associated with femininity and nurturing qualities.
Ecocriticism focuses on the relationship between literature and the environment, analyzing how texts represent nature, ecological issues, and humanity’s connection to the natural world.
The imagery of nature in “Barter,” such as “blue waves whitened on a cliff” and the “scent of pine trees in the rain,” invites readers to reflect on their connection to the natural world and the importance of preserving its beauty.
Critical Questions about “Barter” by Sara Teasdale
Question 1: How does the poem’s use of imagery and metaphor contribute to its themes and tone?
The use of imagery and metaphor plays a significant role in conveying its themes and tone. Teasdale’s vivid descriptions of natural beauty, such as “Blue waves whitened on a cliff, / Soaring fire that sways and sings” (lines 3-4), create a sense of wonder and awe, emphasizing the beauty and joy that life has to offer. The metaphor “Music like a curve of gold” (line 9) compares music to a precious and valuable material, highlighting the value of beautiful experiences. The imagery and metaphors also contribute to the poem’s optimistic and encouraging tone, inviting the reader to appreciate and prioritize the loveliness in life.
Question 2: How does the poem’s structure and repetition reinforce its message and themes?
The poem’s structure and repetition reinforce its message and themes by creating a sense of urgency and emphasis. The repeated refrain “Life has loveliness to sell” (lines 1, 5, and 13) becomes a kind of mantra, driving home the idea that life is full of beauty and joy waiting to be appreciated. The short, simple sentences and consistent rhythm also create a sense of momentum, encouraging the reader to take action and prioritize the loveliness in life. The repetition of words like “loveliness” and “beauty” also emphasizes the importance of these concepts and reinforces the poem’s themes.
Question 3: How does the poem’s speaker engage with the reader, and what effect does this have on the poem’s impact?
The poem’s speaker engages with the reader in a direct and encouraging way, using imperative verbs like “Spend” (line 13) and “Buy” (line 14) to urge the reader to take action. This direct address creates a sense of intimacy and immediacy, making the reader feel like they are being personally advised to prioritize the loveliness in life. The speaker’s tone is also optimistic and encouraging, which has a positive effect on the reader, inspiring them to appreciate the beauty and joy in their own life. The speaker’s engagement with the reader also creates a sense of shared experience, making the poem feel more relatable and universal.
Literary Works Similar to “Barter” by Sara Teasdale
“The Lake Isle of Innisfree” by W.B. Yeats: This poem explores the speaker’s desire for a simple, idyllic life close to nature, emphasizing the beauty and tranquility of natural surroundings.
“A Bird Came Down the Walk” by Emily Dickinson: Dickinson’s poem captures the speaker’s intimate encounter with a bird, highlighting the beauty and wonder of the natural world in a brief moment of observation.
“The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost: While not explicitly about nature, Frost’s poem reflects on choices and the paths we take in life, echoing the theme of weighing options and making decisions found in “Barter.”
“I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” by William Wordsworth: Also known as “Daffodils,” this poem celebrates the beauty of nature and the joy it can bring, similar to the appreciation of loveliness in “Barter.”
“Leisure” by W.H. Davies: Davies’ poem questions the value of modern life’s busyness and calls for a return to simplicity and appreciation of life’s small pleasures, aligning with the theme of prioritizing loveliness over material concerns in “Barter.”
Suggested Readings: “Barter” by Sara Teasdale
Teasdale, Sara. Love Songs. The Macmillan Company, 1918.
“Life has loveliness to sell, All beautiful and splendid things”
Teasdale begins by presenting life’s offerings as valuable commodities that can be exchanged or bartered for. She emphasizes the abundance of beauty and wonder in the world.
Reader Response Theory: Readers may interpret the concept of “loveliness” differently based on their individual experiences and perspectives.
“And for your spirit’s still delight, Holy thoughts that star the night”
Teasdale suggests that spiritual fulfillment and inner peace are among the loveliness that life offers. These experiences bring solace and transcendence, enriching one’s existence beyond material possessions.
Feminist Literary Theory: The poem acknowledges the importance of inner peace and spiritual fulfillment, which can be seen as empowering for individuals, regardless of gender.
“Spend all you have for loveliness, Buy it and never count the cost”
This line encourages readers to prioritize seeking out and cherishing moments of beauty and joy, even if it means sacrificing material possessions or worldly concerns. It underscores the value of experiences over material wealth.
Ecocriticism: The emphasis on appreciating the beauty of life’s offerings aligns with ecocritical perspectives, which advocate for a deeper connection to and appreciation of nature.
“For one white singing hour of peace Count many a year of strife well lost”
Teasdale suggests that even a fleeting moment of peace or tranquility is worth sacrificing years of struggle or hardship. This highlights the transformative power of brief moments of beauty and serenity.
Psychoanalytic Criticism: The poem’s emphasis on finding peace and ecstasy may be interpreted as a reflection of unconscious desires for harmony and fulfillment within the psyche.
“And for a breath of ecstasy Give all you have been, or could be”
The final line underscores the idea of surrendering oneself entirely to experiences of ecstasy and joy, suggesting that such moments have the potential to redefine one’s identity and shape their future self.
Marxist Criticism: The notion of giving all one has for moments of ecstasy can be viewed through a Marxist lens, considering the socioeconomic implications of prioritizing spiritual and emotional fulfillment over material wealth.
