Day: September 23, 2024

Introduction: “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

“The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1967 in the journal New Blackfriars, is considered a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton argues that liberalism, while valuable in promoting individual rights and freedoms, ultimately fails to address the underlying social and economic inequalities that perpetuate injustice. He critiques liberalism’s emphasis on formal equality and its neglect of the structural power imbalances that shape society. This essay helped to establish Eagleton as a leading figure in Marxist literary criticism and continues to be widely discussed and debated in academic circles.

Summary of “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

• The Focus on Liberal Christian Tradition
  Terry Eagleton critiques Rosemary Haughton’s book as a significant contribution to liberal Christian thought. It successfully connects psychological, literary, and Christian insights to explore themes like love, freedom, and maturity in personal relationships. However, Eagleton argues that the book is deeply embedded in the liberal tradition, focusing on personal experience and neglecting broader societal structures, politics, and history.
• The Limits of Individualism and Personal Experience
  Eagleton notes that Haughton’s focus is primarily on individual experience and the psychological dimensions of human relationships. This leads to a narrow interpretation of what it means to be human. While the personal aspects are sensitively handled, the exclusion of political and historical struggles, collective actions, and broader social commitments weakens the analysis of humanity.
• Critique of Christian Liberalism’s Inward Focus
  According to Eagleton, Christian liberalism, as represented in Haughton’s work, emphasizes an inward spiritual experience over external social realities. This creates a dualism between the personal and societal, where external actions and institutions are seen as mere aids to personal spiritual growth, rather than integral components of human experience. Eagleton argues that Christianity should integrate personal and political dimensions rather than treating them separately.
• The Problem of Liberalism’s Open-Endedness
  Eagleton critiques the liberal emphasis on openness and exploration without commitment to specific truths or actions. He draws parallels to Mill, Arnold, and Leavis in this regard, suggesting that Haughton’s perspective prioritizes openness and self-exploration over firm commitment to political or religious truths. This results in a version of Christianity that lacks depth and fails to address real social change.
• The Dualism of Flesh and Spirit
  Haughton’s approach reinforces a Cartesian dualism between flesh and spirit, where the body and social institutions are necessary but secondary to the spiritual life. Eagleton challenges this view, asserting that Christian and political radicalism involve transforming the “flesh” or material reality into a language through which the spirit is expressed. This holistic view contrasts with the liberal tendency to separate the inward and external aspects of life.
• Inadequate Integration of the Social and Political
  Eagleton contends that liberal Christianity, as portrayed in Haughton’s book, alienates political and social behaviors from the authentic self. He argues that political and social structures are not external constraints but integral parts of human experience and freedom. By relegating politics to the external, liberalism fails to engage with the full complexity of human life.
• The Role of Rules and Culture
  Eagleton praises Haughton’s metaphor of learning the rules of perspective in art, suggesting that this is an insightful description of how human culture works. Humans internalize rules and conventions that make their experiences meaningful. However, Eagleton believes Haughton undercuts this insight by treating rules as superficial scaffolding rather than essential structures for human life and relationships.
• The Need for Radical Transformation
  In conclusion, Eagleton calls for a more radical approach that surpasses the limits of liberalism. He argues that a true Christian and political radicalism must integrate personal experience with social and political realities, rather than treating them as separate or in opposition. Until this integration is achieved, liberalism will remain limited in its ability to effect meaningful social change.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in “The Limits of Liberalism”
Liberalism	A political and philosophical ideology emphasizing individual freedom, personal rights, and open inquiry.	Eagleton critiques the liberal Christian tradition, which emphasizes personal experience over broader political and social realities.
Dualism	The division of two opposing forces or concepts, such as body vs. spirit or individual vs. society.	Eagleton highlights the dualism in Haughton’s work between inward spiritual life and external social structures.
Christian Liberalism	A strand of Christianity that emphasizes personal spirituality and exploration, often at the expense of dogma.	Eagleton critiques this focus for its lack of engagement with political and social action.
Dogma	A principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true.	Eagleton contrasts liberalism’s open-endedness with the commitment and exclusivity often associated with Christian dogma.
Individualism	The focus on the individual’s self-expression and autonomy, often in contrast to collective or societal norms.	Eagleton critiques Haughton for prioritizing individual spiritual growth over social or political engagement.
Sacrament	A religious ceremony regarded as an outward and visible sign of inward and spiritual divine grace.	Eagleton discusses how Haughton downplays the role of material and social structures in favor of inward spiritual authenticity.
Romanticism	A literary and cultural movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature.	Eagleton references Romanticism when critiquing Haughton’s view of personal spiritual freedom as opposed to broader social institutions.
Political Radicalism	A belief in fundamental societal change, often through revolutionary or profound structural transformation.	Eagleton contrasts Christian liberalism’s personal focus with political radicalism, which seeks to transform society as a whole.
Cartesian Dualism	A philosophical term referring to Descartes’ division between mind (spirit) and body (flesh).	Eagleton critiques the dualism in Haughton’s work that separates the flesh (social reality) from the spirit (authentic inner life).
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities beyond the literal meaning.	Eagleton discusses how external actions and social institutions can be seen as symbols through which spiritual life is expressed.
Situational Ethics	The idea that ethical decisions should be based on the context of a situation rather than fixed moral rules.	Eagleton identifies this approach in Haughton’s work, where external actions and moral codes are considered secondary to inward authenticity.
Cultural Alienation	The feeling of being estranged from the dominant values or norms of society.	Eagleton argues that Haughton’s liberalism leads to a political alienation where personal authenticity is separated from social engagement.

Contribution of “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

This excerpt from Eagleton’s “The Limits of Liberalism” critiques Rosemary Haughton’s book “Trying to be Human.” Here are some key points of Eagleton’s argument, focusing on specific theories from the text:

• Limited Scope: Eagleton argues Haughton focuses too narrowly on the personal and psychological aspects of Christianity, neglecting the social, political, and historical context (p. 353). He suggests a more complete picture requires considering collective action and social struggles (p. 353).
• Liberal Oversimplification: Eagleton criticizes Haughton’s portrayal of Christianity as solely promoting openness, exploration, and self-discovery. He argues Christianity also has a history, doctrines, and commitments that define it (p. 354).
• Individual vs. Societal: Eagleton finds fault with Haughton’s view of Christianity opposing social structures and institutions. He argues that authentic human relationships and communication exist within these structures, not entirely separate from them (p. 354-355).
• False Duality: Eagleton criticizes the book’s portrayal of a split between “spirit” and “flesh.” He argues that external structures like laws, customs, and institutions are not just limitations but also the language through which the spirit expresses itself (p. 354-356).
• Importance of Rules: Eagleton disagrees with the book’s suggestion that rules and codes are merely external constraints on authenticity. He argues that interiorizing them is essential for human culture and authentic living (p. 356-357).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique
Rosemary Haughton’s Trying to be Human	Overemphasis on the personal and psychological aspects of Christianity, neglecting the social, political, and historical context.
John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty	Liberal emphasis on individual rights and freedoms without considering the structural power imbalances that shape society.
Matthew Arnold’s Culture and Anarchy	Liberal belief in the power of culture to improve society without addressing underlying social and economic inequalities.
E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India	Liberal portrayal of the clash between East and West as a conflict between individual freedom and cultural tradition, neglecting the power dynamics of colonialism.

Criticism Against “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

• Narrow Focus on Personal Experience
  Eagleton is criticized for placing too much emphasis on the personal, psychological, and individual dimensions of Christianity, neglecting broader societal, political, and historical perspectives.
• Overemphasis on Dualism
  Eagleton’s critique of liberalism often hinges on a dualistic view of personal versus societal, or flesh versus spirit, which some critics argue oversimplifies the relationship between individual and collective experience.
• Lack of Engagement with the Positive Aspects of Liberalism
  Critics might argue that Eagleton fails to acknowledge the strengths of liberalism, such as its emphasis on personal freedom, individual rights, and openness to multiple viewpoints, which can be seen as vital in a pluralistic society.
• Dismissal of Exploration and Openness
  Eagleton’s critique of liberalism’s emphasis on openness, exploration, and personal honesty may be seen as too harsh, especially since these values are often considered crucial for intellectual and spiritual growth.
• Insufficient Consideration of Modern Liberal Thought
  Eagleton’s critique largely focuses on traditional liberalism without sufficiently addressing the evolution of liberal thought, especially its more recent attempts to incorporate social justice, political activism, and institutional change.
• Heavy Reliance on Christian Radicalism
  Some critics may argue that Eagleton’s call for a more radical, politicized version of Christianity is overly idealistic and may not resonate with the practical realities of contemporary faith communities.
• Tendency to Romanticize Radicalism
  Eagleton’s preference for political radicalism over the more gradual, reformist tendencies of liberalism might be criticized for romanticizing revolutionary change without fully accounting for the complexities and risks involved.
• Overgeneralization of Liberalism’s Limitations
  Eagleton’s blanket critique of liberalism as being disconnected from real social change might overlook the fact that liberal values have played a significant role in progressive reforms and political movements throughout history.

Representative Quotations from “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The liberal tradition is not the only one in modern Christianity, and when it stands alone, as it does here, it demonstrates at once its strengths and failures.”	Eagleton acknowledges both the strengths and weaknesses of the liberal Christian tradition, indicating that its focus on individual experience can be valuable, but insufficient without addressing broader societal issues.
“The meaning of the human, the book implicitly suggests, is precisely in this deeper entry into an understanding of felt relationship.”	Eagleton critiques Haughton’s narrow focus on personal relationships as the core of humanity, ignoring the political and collective dimensions that shape human experience.
“The Christian life is characterized as a search, an exploration… But like radical politics, it unites this openness with a closedness.”	Eagleton points out that while exploration is important in Christianity, it must be coupled with commitment to certain truths or actions, a balance lacking in liberalism’s constant openness.
“The liberal, unending openness, objectified to a goal— a dogma— by an English liberal tradition…is no more satisfying in itself than the closed and killing dogmatism of the English Communist Party.”	Eagleton critiques liberalism’s tendency toward indefinite openness without firm commitments, comparing it to the opposite extreme of rigid dogmatism, which is equally unsatisfactory.
“The second, major defect of Christian liberalism is an option for the inward against the external, the personal against society.”	This quote captures Eagleton’s central criticism of liberalism’s inward focus on personal spirituality at the expense of engaging with external social and political realities.
“The fact that these are not scaffolding, but the structure of the spirit, the ways in which human life becomes real and formulable, is then blurred over.”	Eagleton argues that external structures like social institutions are not mere aids to spirituality but essential elements that give form and meaning to human life, a nuance overlooked in Haughton’s liberal view.
“Politics…deals with the outside aspects of humanity, the personal-authentic-psychological with the real inwardness.”	This reflects Eagleton’s critique of liberalism’s separation of politics from personal authenticity, suggesting that political behavior is as integral to human identity as inward spiritual experience.
“Human beings live by actively interiorizing rules, codes, conventions…which make that experience humanly possible.”	Eagleton emphasizes the importance of social conventions and rules in shaping human experience, countering the liberal preference for spontaneous, unstructured personal freedom.
“Christians are virtuous not by rejecting rules and codes…but by coming to act spontaneously in accordance with them.”	Eagleton highlights the Christian ideal of internalizing moral and social rules, aligning them with personal virtue, contrasting this with liberalism’s tendency to reject external rules.
“When rules are set against authenticity, a whole set of dualisms follow: law against spontaneity, politics against the individual, flesh against spirit.”	This quote summarizes Eagleton’s critique of the false dualisms created by liberalism, where rules and societal structures are seen as opposed to personal authenticity and spiritual freedom.

Suggested Readings: “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. “The Limits of Liberalism.” New Blackfriars, vol. 52, no. 613, 1971, pp. 353-357. Wiley Online Library, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-2005.1971.tb06692.x.
2. Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty. Longmans, Green, Reader, and Dyer, 1869.
3. Arnold, Matthew. Culture and Anarchy. Smith, Elder & Co., 1869.
4. Fromm, Erich. The Sane Society. Rinehart, 1955.
5. Leavis, F. R. The Great Tradition: George Eliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad. Chatto & Windus, 1948.
6. Forster, E. M. Two Cheers for Democracy. Edward Arnold & Co., 1951.

Introduction: “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

“The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1983 in the New Literary History journal, has been instrumental in shaping the landscape of literary theory. His exploration of the role of criticism in society and its relationship to power has had a profound impact on scholars and students alike. The book’s second edition, reprinted by Verso in 1984, solidified its status as a foundational text in literary studies.

Summary of “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

9. Criticism’s Future:

• Eagleton envisions a future where criticism plays a central role in fostering creative activity by developing a rich intellectual atmosphere. While criticism itself may not offer the same fulfillment as creative work, it lays the foundation for future generations of artists and thinkers.
• Reference: Criticism prepares the groundwork for a “promised land” of creative activity, even if the critic does not directly participate in it (p. 49).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Eagleton’s Text
Criticism	The analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of literary works.	Eagleton argues that criticism involves seeing “the object as in itself it really is” and establishing a current of true ideas that influence creative work. He sees it as a crucial precursor to creation, forming the intellectual environment in which creative genius can flourish.
Creative Power	The ability to produce original literary or artistic work, considered the highest form of human intellectual activity.	Eagleton recognizes that the creative power is superior to criticism but asserts that criticism is necessary for the creative power to have the intellectual materials (ideas) it needs to work with effectively.
Disinterestedness	A critical approach that is free from political, practical, or personal bias.	Eagleton insists that criticism should remain disinterested, meaning that it should not serve practical or political interests. Instead, it should focus purely on the intellectual task of understanding and spreading the best knowledge and ideas.
Intellectual Atmosphere	The environment of ideas and knowledge within which creative works are produced.	According to Eagleton, great creative epochs arise when there is a rich intellectual atmosphere. Criticism helps build this atmosphere by developing and circulating ideas that can inspire and nourish creativity.
Epoch of Creation	A period in history marked by significant and original creative activity.	Eagleton argues that epochs of creative power are rare and often rely on the intellectual work done in preceding times of criticism. He refers to past creative periods like those of Aeschylus and Shakespeare as examples of times when criticism had already prepared the necessary intellectual climate.
Synthesis	The combination of ideas to form a cohesive and comprehensive whole.	Eagleton describes the role of creative genius as one of synthesis, meaning that it works by combining existing ideas in new and effective ways, rather than by discovering new ideas (which is more the work of philosophers).
Intellectual Progress	The advancement of knowledge, understanding, and the quality of ideas within a culture or society.	Eagleton sees criticism as central to intellectual progress, helping society move beyond narrow or outdated ideas by critically engaging with the best ideas available, regardless of their practical or political consequences.
The Practical Spirit	A mindset focused on the utility and application of ideas in everyday, political, or economic life.	Eagleton criticizes the “practical spirit” of English society, which prioritizes practical outcomes over intellectual exploration. He argues that criticism must avoid becoming entangled with this spirit in order to truly contribute to intellectual and cultural progress.
Free Play of the Mind	The unrestrained exploration of ideas for their own sake, without concern for practical applications.	Eagleton champions the “free play of the mind” as essential to criticism. He argues that criticism should value ideas in themselves, seeking to understand them without regard to whether they serve practical, political, or economic interests.
Creative Epochs	Periods in history when literature and art flourish, producing great works.	Eagleton asserts that such epochs require a rich intellectual environment prepared by criticism. He contrasts epochs of creation with epochs of intellectual stagnation, where criticism has failed to establish the necessary intellectual atmosphere for creativity.
Intellectual and Spiritual Expansion	A period where thought and culture grow dynamically, embracing new ideas and perspectives.	Eagleton contrasts this with periods of concentration, where society turns inward and intellectual stagnation occurs. He suggests that criticism should aim to foster intellectual and spiritual expansion by engaging with ideas disinterestedly and promoting fresh, true ideas.
Philistinism	A derogatory term for the rejection or undervaluing of culture, intellectual pursuits, and the arts.	Eagleton uses “Philistinism” to describe the tendency in English society to prioritize practical concerns over intellectual and cultural activities, a mindset that he argues criticism should actively work to counter.

Contribution of “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory/Theory	Eagleton’s Contribution	Reference from “The Function of Criticism”
New Historicism	Eagleton’s emphasis on the intellectual and historical context shaping literary creation aligns with New Historicism, which views literature as a product of its historical circumstances. He highlights how literature cannot exist in a vacuum and requires a rich intellectual atmosphere shaped by criticism.	Eagleton discusses how great literary epochs depend on the “power of the moment” and the intellectual conditions surrounding them (p. 29).
Marxist Literary Theory	Eagleton contributes to Marxist theory by discussing the material and intellectual conditions necessary for great creative works to emerge. He argues that criticism plays a role in establishing an intellectual climate, which in turn allows for the flourishing of literature, suggesting a dialectical relationship between society and art.	“The critical power… tends to establish an order of ideas” and enables the creation of literature by ensuring the best ideas of the time are available (p. 28).
Cultural Materialism	Eagleton’s insistence on the importance of cultural and intellectual forces in shaping literary production resonates with Cultural Materialism. He critiques English society’s fixation on practical concerns, arguing that criticism must remain disinterested and independent from political or economic interests.	Eagleton critiques the “practical spirit” of English society and emphasizes the importance of criticism being independent of practical concerns (p. 36).
Poststructuralism	Eagleton critiques the hierarchical relationship between creative and critical power, which challenges traditional notions of authority in literature. He argues that criticism is not subordinate to creation but essential to enabling the conditions for creation, which resonates with poststructuralist decentering of authority.	Eagleton challenges the idea that “the critical power is of lower rank than the creative” and argues for the value of criticism in enabling creation (p. 27).
Reader-Response Theory	Although Eagleton does not directly engage with Reader-Response Theory, his emphasis on criticism shaping intellectual climates implies that critics influence how texts are understood. By establishing currents of true ideas, criticism affects how readers and future critics interpret and engage with literary works.	Eagleton discusses how criticism helps create “a current of true and fresh ideas,” which impacts the way literary works are received and understood by readers and critics (p. 37).
Romanticism vs. Enlightenment Debate	Eagleton contrasts Romanticism’s focus on creativity with Enlightenment ideals of reason and critical inquiry. He criticizes Romantic thinkers like Wordsworth for undervaluing criticism, suggesting that Enlightenment-style critical effort is essential for sustained creativity, thus engaging with the Romanticism-Enlightenment debate.	Wordsworth’s view of criticism as inferior to creative activity is critiqued, as Eagleton argues that the critical effort is necessary to produce substantial and long-lasting creative work (p. 27).
Humanism	Eagleton contributes to the humanist tradition by emphasizing the role of criticism in fostering intellectual growth and human perfection. He suggests that criticism helps individuals and societies to move beyond self-satisfaction and toward a more profound understanding of ideas and culture, a key tenet of humanist thought.	Eagleton states that criticism should “lead man towards perfection” by engaging with the best ideas and fostering an intellectual climate that values excellence (p. 37).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Example of Critique Using Eagleton’s “The Function of Criticism”
William Wordsworth’s “The Prelude”	Critique would focus on how Wordsworth’s poetry could have benefited from a richer intellectual atmosphere. Eagleton suggests that Wordsworth, despite his creative genius, lacked a broader engagement with literature, especially German thinkers like Goethe, which limited the philosophical depth and variety of his poetic thought.
Lord Byron’s “Don Juan”	Eagleton would critique Byron’s work for its lack of critical foundation, arguing that while Byron possessed strong creative power, his poetry lacks the intellectual rigor and knowledge of life and the world that would sustain it. The absence of a strong critical environment left Byron’s work comparatively “empty of matter.”
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s “Faust”	Eagleton praises Goethe as an example of how strong critical engagement enriches creative output. Goethe’s work, particularly “Faust,” would be seen as nourished by his intellectual engagement with life, literature, and criticism. Goethe’s wide-ranging learning and synthesis of ideas serve as a model for how criticism fosters enduring creativity.
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Prometheus Unbound”	Shelley’s poetry, like Byron’s, would be critiqued for its incoherence, which Eagleton might attribute to a lack of sufficient critical foundation. Although rich in passion and energy, Shelley’s work suffers from an intellectual environment that failed to fully engage with the complexities of modern thought, making his poetry less coherent and less enduring.

Criticism Against “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Ideas: Critics argue that Eagleton’s focus on ideas and intellectual atmosphere is excessive, neglecting the importance of other factors such as social, cultural, and historical contexts in shaping literary production.
2. Underestimation of Creative Intuition: Some contend that Eagleton downplays the role of intuition and creative genius in literary creation. They argue that great works of art often emerge from subconscious impulses rather than conscious intellectual effort.
3. Historical Specificity: Critics have questioned the generalizability of Eagleton’s claims. They argue that his observations about the relationship between criticism and creativity may not hold true in all historical and cultural contexts.
4. Limited Definition of Criticism: Eagleton’s definition of criticism as “the free play of the mind on all subjects” has been criticized as overly narrow. Some argue that criticism can also involve other forms of engagement, such as interpretation, evaluation, and social commentary.
5. Neglect of Power Dynamics: Critics have suggested that Eagleton’s focus on ideas and intellectual atmosphere overlooks the power dynamics that shape literary production and reception. They argue that factors such as class, race, and gender can significantly influence the production and consumption of literature.
6. Overemphasis on Western Canon: Some critics have accused Eagleton of privileging Western literature and Western intellectual traditions. They argue that his analysis does not adequately account for the diverse literary traditions and critical practices found around the world.

Representative Quotations from “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The critical power is of lower rank than the creative. True; but…men may have the sense of exercising this free creative activity in other ways than in producing great works of literature or art.”	Eagleton acknowledges that creative work is often valued more than criticism but argues that critical activity also involves creativity, as it engages with intellectual ideas and helps shape the conditions for future creativity.
“Criticism must maintain its independence of the practical spirit and its aims.”	Eagleton stresses that criticism should remain detached from political, practical, and material interests. This disinterestedness allows criticism to focus purely on intellectual growth and avoid being manipulated by external pressures or interests.
“Its business is to do this with inflexible honesty, with due ability; but its business is to do no more.”	Criticism’s primary role is to disseminate and understand the best knowledge and ideas available. Eagleton suggests that it must stay within its own domain and not become involved in broader political or practical applications.
“It is the business of the critical power…to see the object as in itself it really is.”	This statement reflects Eagleton’s belief that criticism should strive to understand works of literature and art in their purest form, without distorting them to fit preconceived notions, ideologies, or practical agendas.
“The exercise of creative power in the production of great works of literature…is not at all epochs and under all conditions possible.”	Eagleton argues that not all historical moments are ripe for great creative works. The conditions necessary for such works—such as the intellectual atmosphere and critical foundation—must be in place, and these are shaped by criticism.
“Criticism first; a time of true creative activity, perhaps…when criticism has done its work.”	Eagleton asserts that criticism often precedes periods of creative flourishing. The critical analysis and circulation of ideas help to build the intellectual climate that fosters the production of great literary works.
“The grand work of literary genius is a work of synthesis and exposition, not of analysis and discovery.”	Here, Eagleton defines the role of literary creation as combining and presenting ideas rather than discovering new ideas, which he views as more of a philosophical endeavor. Critics help by making those ideas available for synthesis by creative geniuses.
“A free play of the mind upon all subjects, being an essential provider of elements, without which a nation’s spirit must, in the long run, die of inanition.”	Eagleton emphasizes that the intellectual freedom to explore ideas is crucial for the health of a society’s culture and spirit. Without such freedom, both the creative and critical faculties will stagnate.
“Men may have the sense of exercising free creative activity in criticising.”	Eagleton reframes the role of criticism by suggesting that, although it is often seen as secondary to creation, it too is a form of creative engagement. Critics can exercise their intellectual faculties in meaningful and innovative ways.
“Disinterestedness…means simply keeping aloof from what is called ‘the practical view of things.'”	Eagleton stresses the need for criticism to be objective and detached, focused solely on the intellectual and artistic value of works rather than their practical applications or immediate societal benefits. This helps criticism remain pure in its purpose.

Suggested Readings: “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Arnold, Matthew. The Function of Criticism at the Present Time. Cambridge University Press, 2005. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511802072.006.
2. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
   https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/literary-theory
3. Habermas, Jürgen. The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society. MIT Press, 1989.
   https://mitpress.mit.edu/9780262581080/the-structural-transformation-of-the-public-sphere/
4. Belsey, Catherine. Critical Practice. Methuen, 1980.
   https://www.routledge.com/Critical-Practice/Belsey/p/book/9780415329266
5. Williams, Raymond. Culture and Society, 1780-1950. Columbia University Press, 1983.
   https://cup.columbia.edu/book/culture-and-society/9780231057011
6. Said, Edward W. The World, the Text, and the Critic. Harvard University Press, 1983.
   https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674961876
7. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
   https://www.cornellpress.cornell.edu/book/9780801492228/the-political-unconscious/

Introduction: “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

“The End of English” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1986 in the Journal of Literary Studies, is considered a pivotal moment in the evolution of literary theory, marking a shift away from traditional approaches and embracing a more politically conscious and interdisciplinary perspective. Eagleton’s essay challenges the notion of English literature as a unified and timeless body of work, instead arguing that it is a socially constructed discourse shaped by historical, political, and economic forces. This groundbreaking insight has had a profound impact on the field of literary studies, inspiring scholars to examine literature within broader cultural and ideological contexts.

Summary of “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

• Colonial Modernism as a Literary Revolt
  Eagleton explores how Irish and American writers like James Joyce and T.S. Eliot used their outsider status to challenge and transform English literary traditions. These writers, free from the emotional ties to England, “objectify and appropriate” its traditions to their own ends, positioning themselves both “inside and outside” the dominant discourse. This allowed for a “profoundly dialogical” form of modernism, where peripheral figures like Joyce and Synge exploited English conventions while subtly mocking them. As Eagleton notes, modernist writers “revealingly inhabit English culture” but maintain a critical distance from it.
• English Literary Tradition as Imperialist and Nationalist
  The Victorian era’s English literature reflected the anxieties of the imperial middle class, attempting to establish a unified national identity. However, this identity was challenged by three interrelated events: World War I, modernism, and shifts in capitalist production. Eagleton argues that modern English literature “was violently assailed” by these global forces, creating a tension between national cultural formations and a rising internationalism. This led to English literary criticism adopting a regressive stance, turning back toward an “imaginary past” rather than engaging with the radical modernist movement.
• Modernism vs. Englishness
  Eagleton discusses how modernism, rooted in cosmopolitanism and transgression, collided with English nationalism. He draws a distinction between modernism’s borderless, international vision and the insular, reactionary nature of the English literary establishment, represented by figures like F.R. Leavis. The struggle of modernism to find acceptance in England is explained by the nation’s “resistance to subversive cultural forms” and its focus on maintaining national identity through literary realism and liberal empiricism. This resulted in modernism being seen as a foreign aberration and pushed to the margins of English culture.
• The Decline of Empire and the Collapse of “Englishness”
  Eagleton posits that English literature’s global significance was buttressed by the reach of the British Empire, which allowed the English language to “subsume all regional particularities” and position itself as a universal medium. However, with the decline of empire, English literature began to lose its global guarantee. Eagleton refers to this as the “pathetic farce” of Commonwealth Literature, marking the diminishing global relevance of English literature. The “loss of empire” marked a significant blow to the cultural ideology of Englishness.
• Postmodernism and the Erosion of Liberal Humanism
  Eagleton highlights how postmodernism has further threatened the ideology of “Englishness.” He identifies the audio-visual dominance of contemporary culture as symptomatic of this threat, noting that while postmodernism deconstructs traditional literary forms, it also exposes the “increasing irrelevance” of English literary discourse. Eagleton notes the irony that postmodern theories of cultural relativism and intertextuality have arisen at a time when Englishness is “culturally speaking, pretty much like North America,” stripped of its unique identity and authenticity.
• Theory as the New Battleground
  In the absence of a vibrant national literature, Eagleton argues that critical theory has become the new space for contesting cultural and political ideas. He draws a parallel between the earlier struggles of modernism and contemporary theory, suggesting that the debates over “high modernism” are being re-enacted within literary criticism today. The rise of theory represents a shift away from traditional Englishness and towards a more international, politically charged discourse.

Quotations:

1. “It is the colonised and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth.”
2. “English literature was violently assailed by three phenomena: the Great War, the explosion of modernism, and the mutation of the capitalist mode of production.”
3. “Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Eagleton’s Context
Modernism	A movement in literature and the arts characterized by a break with traditional forms.	Eagleton examines how modernist writers like Joyce and Eliot, positioned outside the English tradition, challenged and subverted its conventions, bringing in international and cosmopolitan elements.
Colonialism	The practice of acquiring political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.	Eagleton connects the rise of English literature with British imperialism and shows how colonized writers used the English language to critique and subvert imperial culture.
Liberal Humanism	An ideology that emphasizes the autonomy of the individual, moral values, and universal truths.	Eagleton argues that the English literary tradition is steeped in liberal humanism, which is increasingly irrelevant in the postmodern and post-colonial world.
Postmodernism	A cultural, artistic, and literary movement characterized by a rejection of traditional narratives, embracing relativism and fragmentation.	Postmodernism, according to Eagleton, poses a significant threat to the ideology of “Englishness,” especially as it undermines fixed narratives and notions of cultural stability.
Cosmopolitanism	The ideology that all human beings belong to a single community based on shared morality.	Eagleton highlights the cosmopolitan nature of modernist writers, who transcended national boundaries and engaged with diverse literary traditions.
Parody	A work created to imitate, make fun of, or comment on an original work, often as a form of critique.	Eagleton describes how modernist writers like Joyce parodied English literary conventions, using them as tools to both inhabit and critique English culture.
Imperialism	A policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means.	Eagleton links the rise of English literature and its academic study to the British Empire’s desire to create a cohesive national identity, now challenged by post-colonial and global developments.
Hegemony	The dominance of one group over others, culturally, politically, or ideologically.	Eagleton sees the English literary tradition as an expression of bourgeois, imperial hegemony, which is now being undermined by modernist and postmodernist forces.
Avant-garde	Works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, particularly in art and literature.	Eagleton discusses how modernist writers, operating from the margins, adopted avant-garde techniques to break away from bourgeois and imperialist literary traditions.
Nativism	A policy or belief that favors the interests of native inhabitants over those of immigrants or colonizers.	Eagleton refers to the conservative reaction of English critics who sought to defend “native” Englishness against the perceived threats of modernist cosmopolitanism and colonial influence.
Discourse	Written or spoken communication, often associated with power structures and ideologies.	Eagleton examines the “discourse” of English literature as a form of cultural power, historically used to support imperialism and liberal humanism.
Cultural Relativism	The idea that a person’s beliefs and practices should be understood based on that person’s own culture, rather than judged against the criteria of another.	Postmodernism, according to Eagleton, embraces cultural relativism, challenging the universalizing tendencies of liberal humanism and the English literary tradition.
Realism	A literary movement aimed at representing everyday experiences and conditions as they are, without idealization or romanticism.	Eagleton argues that English literature’s traditional attachment to realism was a defense against the disruptive forces of modernism and the declining empire.
Internationalism	The principle of cooperation and understanding between nations.	Eagleton identifies modernism’s internationalism as opposed to the insular nature of the English literary tradition, which sought to preserve a national cultural identity.
Aesthetic Elitism	The belief that certain art forms, styles, or cultural products are inherently superior to others.	Eagleton critiques how modernist and colonial writers often became isolated due to their aesthetic elitism, resulting from their marginalized cultural positions.

Contribution of “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through “The End of English”	Key Concepts from Eagleton’s Text
Ulysses by James Joyce	Eagleton would view Ulysses as a quintessential example of a colonial modernist work, where Joyce, a peripheral Irish writer, subverts and appropriates the English language. Joyce’s complex narrative form challenges imperialist traditions of language and identity.	– Modernism – Colonial Modernism – Subversion of English Literary Tradition
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Eliot’s The Waste Land embodies the modernist breakdown of national and cultural boundaries. Eagleton might critique Eliot’s cosmopolitan approach, where fragments of different cultures are appropriated and integrated, reflecting the collapse of English cultural hegemony.	– Cosmopolitanism – Breakdown of National Formations – Modernism’s Challenge to “Englishness”
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett	Eagleton might argue that Waiting for Godot exemplifies the post-colonial condition of alienation from one’s own language. Beckett, an Irish writer, writes in French, signaling the dislocation of identity and language central to modernism and post-colonialism.	– Disinheritance from Mother Tongue – Post-Colonial Alienation – Modernist Deracination
Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf	Through Eagleton’s lens, Mrs Dalloway can be critiqued for its bourgeois liberal humanism, focusing on the internal consciousness of individuals. Eagleton would argue that Woolf’s modernist technique remains anchored in the subjective experience of the imperial center.	– Liberal Humanism – Bourgeois Consciousness – Resistance to Radical Modernist Subversion of Imperial Norms

Criticism Against “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

1. Overemphasis on Political Ideology:Critics argue that Eagleton focuses too heavily on the political and ideological implications of literature, often overshadowing aesthetic and literary qualities. This Marxist approach reduces literature to merely a tool for class struggle and imperialist critique, ignoring the artistic innovations and individual expressions in the works he critiques.
2. Reductionist View of English Literature: Eagleton’s argument that English literature is primarily a product of Victorian imperialism and bourgeois ideology is seen as reductionist by some scholars. They claim that this perspective overlooks the diversity of English literary traditions, which include dissenting voices and works critical of empire and nationalism.
3. Limited Engagement with Postcolonial Voices: While Eagleton discusses postcolonialism and the subversion of the English literary tradition, some critics suggest that he doesn’t fully engage with postcolonial writers from non-Western regions. His focus remains on Irish, American, and European modernists, neglecting voices from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean.
4. Neglect of Feminist Perspectives: Eagleton’s critique largely overlooks feminist perspectives in literature, failing to engage with how gender intersects with imperialism and modernism. Scholars argue that his analysis of works like Mrs. Dalloway underplays the role of gender in shaping narratives of identity and alienation within English literature.
5. Postmodernism Critique Oversimplified: Some critics claim that Eagleton’s dismissal of postmodernism as a threat to “Englishness” lacks nuance. They argue that postmodernism is more than just a critique of national identity; it offers valuable insights into fragmentation, plurality, and the complexities of cultural production in a globalized world.
6. Binary Between National and Cosmopolitan Literature: Eagleton establishes a rigid binary between English national literature and modernist cosmopolitanism. Critics argue that this dichotomy oversimplifies the relationship between local and global influences in literature, failing to recognize how even English writers were shaped by cosmopolitan movements and global exchanges.
7. Nostalgic for Marxist Criticism: Some critics view Eagleton’s critique as overly nostalgic for the Marxist critical tradition, particularly his longing for the kind of politically engaged criticism associated with movements like Scrutiny. This focus on a specific type of Marxist literary criticism is seen as outdated in a more pluralistic academic environment.

Representative Quotations from “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“It is the colonized and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth.”	Eagleton argues that writers from colonized or peripheral nations, such as Ireland and America, have taken over the English literary tradition, challenging the imperial center by appropriating and subverting its language and conventions.
“English literature was the product of a Victorian imperial middle class, anxious to crystallize its spiritual identity in a material corpus of writing.”	Eagleton critiques how English literature, as a discipline, emerged from imperialist and bourgeois concerns, particularly in the Victorian era, where it was used to forge a cohesive national identity and justify colonial domination.
“Modernism’s bold dissolution of national formations, that heady transgression of frontiers between both art-forms and political states…”	This highlights how modernist writers broke down traditional boundaries, not just in literary form but in cultural and political spheres, moving away from the rigid nationalisms that defined English literary tradition and embracing cosmopolitanism.
“Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”	Eagleton argues that the British Empire allowed English literature to resist modernism’s destabilizing forces. The global reach of the English language enabled the country to maintain its cultural hegemony even as modernist and internationalist movements threatened national boundaries.
“Post-modernism, whether it knows it or not, is the appropriate coding of this real historical situation.”	Eagleton suggests that postmodernism reflects the current historical condition, particularly the disintegration of national and imperial identities, and the global commodification of culture. It captures the fragmented, decentered nature of contemporary capitalism.
“Liberal humanism, already in the process of being historically superseded, remains the major subjacent ideology of English studies.”	He critiques how liberal humanism—focused on universal values and individual morality—continues to dominate English literary studies, even though it has become irrelevant in the face of modern and postmodern cultural shifts.
“The contradiction of such a system is that in order to secure the political and ideological conditions for the international circulation of commodities, it needs to exploit exactly the national allegiances and identities which its economic activities constantly undermine.”	This emphasizes the paradox of capitalism, where national identities are manipulated to maintain political control, while global economic activities erode those very identities, creating a tension within capitalist societies.
“The final discrediting of ‘native Englishness’ in a post-modernist epoch at least clarifies the issues at stake.”	Eagleton points out that in the postmodern age, the concept of “native Englishness” is no longer tenable, and this collapse clarifies the cultural and ideological conflicts between global capitalism and its political opponents.
“Criticism confronts the unenviable destiny of becoming its own avant-garde, doubly estranged from its contemporary cultural moment.”	Eagleton argues that English literary criticism has become increasingly disconnected from contemporary cultural production. In trying to preserve past traditions while opposing modernism, criticism has become an avant-garde movement of its own, detached from the realities of current culture.
“The experiences of both modernism and colonialism were kept at bay, but in the latest historical irony now offer to repossess the metropolitan culture from inside in the shape of post-modernism.”	Eagleton identifies a historical irony: while English literature resisted both modernism and colonialism, these forces have now returned in the form of postmodernism to challenge and undermine the core ideologies of English culture from within.

Suggested Readings: “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction. University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
2. ___ After Theory. Basic Books, 2004.
3. ___ Culture and the Death of God. Yale University Press, 2014.
4. ___ The Event of Literature. Yale University Press, 2012.
5. ___ The Function of Criticism. Verso, 2005.
6. ___ The Ideology of the Aesthetic. Blackwell, 1990.
7. ___ Why Marx Was Right. Yale University Press, 2011.
   
   

Introduction: “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

“Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1998 in the journal Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies. This article holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its critical examination of the term “postcolonialism” itself. Eagleton challenges the assumptions and limitations of the concept, arguing that it often obscures rather than illuminates the complex realities of postcolonial experiences. His essay has sparked important debates and continues to influence discussions on postcolonial theory and its applications.  

Summary of “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

1. Critique of the Term “Postcolonialism”:
   • Eagleton opens by emphasizing how postcolonial theorists often start by questioning the very concept of postcolonialism. The term is viewed as oversimplified, falsely homogeneous, and problematic in addressing ongoing forms of colonization, both direct and indirect.
   • He asserts that postcolonialism is criticized for presenting a chronological issue where the colonial condition still persists. It “suggests a confident posteriority to a condition which still prevails in transformed guise” (Eagleton, 1998).
2. Distinction Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
   • Eagleton differentiates between two forms of postcolonialism: the political-economic reality of former colonies and the academic, theoretical construct labeled ‘postcolonialism’.
   • The latter has its roots in Western intellectual history and operates within the scope of modern theoretical concepts. “‘Postcolonialism’ is a way of analysing a true state of affairs in terms of certain currently rather modish western theoretical concepts” (Eagleton, 1998).
3. Hostility Toward Essentialism:
   • A major aspect of ‘postcolonialism’ is its hostility to essentialism, which includes the rejection of a universal human nature. Postcolonialists reject liberal humanist ideals that generalize human experiences, preferring to focus on cultural differences.
   • Eagleton challenges this approach by pointing out its inherent contradictions, such as replacing one form of essentialism with another when cultural difference is emphasized over universal humanity.
4. Criticism of Key ‘Postcolonial’ Concepts:
   • Concepts such as hybridity, non-exclusivity, and openness to the Other are integral to ‘postcolonialism’. However, Eagleton argues that such ideals can be hypocritical because they implicitly assume the value of a common humanity, a notion they outwardly reject.
   • Furthermore, Eagleton notes that not all forms of hybridity or difference are positive, citing examples such as exclusionary nationalist movements (Mussolini vs. Mozambique).
5. Rejection of Totalities:
   • Eagleton critiques postcolonial theorists for their rejection of systematic thinking and totalities. He points out that, in the real world, social and economic systems are interconnected and can have widespread consequences (e.g., a crisis in Asia affecting the West).
   • He criticizes postcolonialism for ignoring this reality, stating that the dismissal of totalities is a weakness in the face of global economic and political interconnectedness.
6. Suppression of Class Struggle:
   • Eagleton accuses ‘postcolonialism’ of sidelining class struggle in favor of cultural identity politics. He notes that postcolonial discourse has played a role in displacing socialist ideas and class-based political movements.
   • The focus on cultural identity, he argues, has emerged partly due to the difficulty of addressing more significant political conflicts in the West.
7. Culturalism and Political Ethic:
   • Eagleton views ‘postcolonialism’ as a form of culturalism that inflates the importance of cultural factors in global politics. He critiques the tendency to focus on identity and marginality rather than on economic issues such as trade agreements and military alliances.
   • He suggests that the acknowledgment of cultural difference, while necessary, should not overshadow the broader ethical imperative of human solidarity and reciprocity.
8. Conclusion – The Conflict Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
   • Eagleton concludes by calling for a conflict between postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism’, arguing that while openness, dialogue, and hybridization are important, ‘postcolonialism’—as the theoretical construct—should ultimately “lose out.”
   • He emphasizes that solidarity and coherence in political action are necessary for addressing real-world inequalities, implying that the academic focus on cultural hybridity is insufficient.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Postcolonialism	Refers to the political, cultural, and economic conditions of former colonies after they gained independence, often addressing the lingering effects of colonialism.	“There is obviously a lot of the globe which used to be colonized directly and is now colonized by other means…” (Eagleton, 1998)
‘Postcolonialism’	A theoretical framework, rooted in Western intellectual history, that critically examines postcolonial conditions using contemporary concepts such as hybridity, identity, and cultural difference. This version is more abstract and controversial.	“At the same time, there is a particular theoretical agenda known as ‘postcolonialism’…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Essentialism	The belief in an intrinsic, unchanging human nature or characteristics. In postcolonial theory, it is rejected as a means of suppressing cultural difference and homogenizing identities.	“Postcolonialism usually entails… a fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism’.” (Eagleton, 1998)
Hybridity	A key concept in postcolonial theory, hybridity refers to the mixing of cultures, identities, and ideas resulting from colonial encounters. Postcolonialists often view this as positive, but Eagleton questions its universal virtue.	“Or take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of hybridity, non-exclusivity, multiplicity…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Non-exclusivity	The idea that identities or cultures are not rigidly defined and can be open to multiple influences. This concept is aligned with the postcolonial emphasis on fluidity and rejection of fixed categories.	“Non-exclusivity… openness to the Other, the dissemination of difference…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Multiplicity	Refers to the postcolonial idea that identities and realities are plural, diverse, and cannot be reduced to singular narratives.	“Multiplicity… openness to the Other, the dissemination of difference…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Transgressiveness	A postcolonial term denoting the act of crossing cultural, social, or political boundaries, often associated with resistance to established norms and power structures.	“Take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of… transgressiveness…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Culturalism	A concept Eagleton critiques, where cultural factors are given disproportionate importance in explaining global inequalities, often sidelining economic and political dimensions.	“‘Postcolonialism’, like postmodernism in general, is among other things a brand of culturalism, which inflates the significance of cultural factors in human affairs.” (Eagleton, 1998)
Anti-Essentialism	The rejection of the idea of a universal human nature or essence. Postcolonialists often argue that this view allows for the recognition of cultural difference without resorting to generalizations.	“A fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism’… means rejecting the idea of a general common humanity, or human nature, as a liberal humanist stratagem for suppressing cultural difference.” (1998)

Contribution of “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

• Critiques the Term “Postcolonialism”:
  • It oversimplifies diverse situations (Bullet point 1).
  • It suggests a false sense of “post” – colonialism still exists in new forms (Bullet point 2).
  • It focuses on trendy Western theories instead of the realities of postcolonial societies (Bullet point 3).
• Distinguishes Between “Postcolonialism” and “‘Postcolonialism'”:
  • “Postcolonialism” refers to the actual state of former colonies (exploitation by new means) (Bullet point 1).
  • “‘Postcolonialism'” refers to a specific theoretical approach with limitations (Bullet point 3).
• Highlights Issues with “‘Postcolonialist'” Theory:
  • Overemphasis on cultural factors and identity over economic realities (Bullet points 4 & 5).
  • Disdain for class struggle as a concept (Bullet point 6).
  • Neglect of global power structures like the IMF (Bullet point 5).
  • Preference for celebrating difference over human solidarity (Bullet point 5).

Overall Argument:

Eagleton argues that “‘postcolonialism'” theory, while well-intentioned, suffers from limitations. It prioritizes trendy Western ideas and cultural factors over the harsh realities of ongoing economic exploitation faced by former colonies. He suggests a more nuanced approach that acknowledges both cultural complexities and the importance of class struggle and global economic structures.

Examples of Critiques Through “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Using Eagleton’s Concepts	Relevant Concept
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Eagleton’s critique would focus on the way Conrad presents a Eurocentric perspective of Africa, where colonial subjects are either marginalized or dehumanized. While postcolonialism addresses this imbalance, ‘postcolonialism’ might analyze it through modern theoretical constructs like hybridity and cultural difference.	Eurocentrism, Hybridity
Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys	Eagleton would likely praise the novel for exposing the consequences of colonialism, particularly its psychological impact on the colonized, while critiquing ‘postcolonialism’ for overly theoretical discussions on identity politics and hybridity that may overshadow material concerns like class and economic exploitation.	Culturalism vs. Class Struggle
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Eagleton would acknowledge Achebe’s exploration of colonial disruption in traditional African society but might critique ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing too heavily on cultural identity, potentially overlooking the broader economic systems of exploitation highlighted in the novel.	Cultural Identity, Class Struggle
A Passage to India by E.M. Forster	Eagleton might critique Forster’s novel for presenting cultural encounters between British and Indian characters through a lens of essentialism and cultural difference. While postcolonialism addresses this, ‘postcolonialism’ may overly focus on hybridity and dialogue, downplaying the material inequalities of the British Empire.	Essentialism, Hybridity vs. Materialism

Criticism Against “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

1. Oversimplification of Postcolonialism:
   • Critics argue that Eagleton oversimplifies the vast and complex field of postcolonial theory by reducing it to a binary between postcolonial reality and ‘postcolonial’ theoretical abstraction.
2. Dismissal of Cultural Identity Politics:
   • Eagleton’s critique of postcolonialism as a form of “culturalism” is seen as dismissive of the significance of cultural identity in postcolonial struggles. Critics contend that he undermines the importance of recognizing marginalized identities and their fight against cultural hegemony.
3. Excessive Focus on Class Struggle:
   • Eagleton’s emphasis on class struggle as the primary lens for analyzing postcolonial societies is criticized for being overly Marxist, neglecting the specificities of race, ethnicity, and culture, which are central to postcolonial analysis.
4. Inadequate Engagement with Postcolonial Theorists:
   • Some critics suggest that Eagleton does not engage deeply enough with key postcolonial theorists like Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, or Homi Bhabha, whose works are foundational in shaping the field of postcolonial studies.
5. Undervaluation of Hybridity and Difference:
   • Eagleton’s skepticism toward concepts like hybridity, multiplicity, and transgressiveness is seen by some as reactionary. Postcolonial theorists argue that these ideas are crucial for understanding the fluid, dynamic identities and conditions of postcolonial societies.
6. Neglect of Global Economic and Political Systems:
   • Although Eagleton criticizes ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing on cultural factors, some critics point out that his essay itself lacks substantive analysis of the global economic and political systems that sustain neocolonialism.
7. Elitism and Overly Theoretical Approach:
   • Eagleton’s language and critique are sometimes viewed as elitist, catering more to an academic audience and lacking practical relevance for real-world postcolonial struggles and movements.
8. Binary Opposition Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
   • Critics argue that the binary opposition between postcolonialism (as reality) and ‘postcolonialism’ (as theory) in Eagleton’s essay is artificial, as both aspects are interrelated and influence each other.
9. Minimization of the Role of Cultural Studies:
   • Eagleton’s critique downplays the role of cultural studies in postcolonialism, which has been instrumental in exploring how colonial power is exercised not just politically and economically but also through culture, media, and representation.

Representative Quotations from “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“There must surely be in existence somewhere a secret handbook for aspiring postcolonial theorists…”	Eagleton humorously critiques the formulaic nature of postcolonial writing, where theorists begin by questioning the legitimacy of the term “postcolonialism.”
“The term ‘postcolonialism’ won’t do because it falsely homogenizes a set of diverse conditions…”	Eagleton points out the flaws in the term “postcolonialism,” arguing that it simplifies and generalizes complex historical and cultural situations.
“There is something called postcolonialism and … something called ‘postcolonialism’ too.”	He makes a distinction between the real political-economic conditions of postcolonial societies and the theoretical, intellectual construct labeled ‘postcolonialism.’
“‘Postcolonialism’ is a way of analysing a true state of affairs in terms of certain currently rather modish concepts.”	Eagleton critiques ‘postcolonialism’ for relying heavily on trendy Western theoretical concepts rather than focusing on concrete material conditions.
“Postcolonialism usually entails… a fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism.'”	This highlights the postcolonial rejection of universal human nature and emphasis on cultural difference, a key critique Eagleton engages with.
“Or take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of hybridity, non-exclusivity, multiplicity, transgressiveness…”	Eagleton challenges the overuse of concepts like hybridity and multiplicity in ‘postcolonialism,’ arguing that they are often applied without critical examination of their actual value in specific contexts.
“Not all differences are positive, not all exclusions are pathological.”	Eagleton warns that the celebration of difference in postcolonial theory can be simplistic, and some exclusions, such as rejecting harmful ideologies, can be necessary.
“‘Postcolonialism’, like postmodernism in general, is among other things a brand of culturalism…”	He critiques ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing too much on cultural identity and symbolism while neglecting larger material and economic realities, which he views as more pressing in global power dynamics.
“Class struggle is now embarrassingly passé, whereas the affirmation of cultural identity is not.”	Eagleton points out that ‘postcolonialism’ has shifted attention away from class-based political struggles to cultural identity, which he believes is a less urgent political focus in many postcolonial contexts.
“It would be enheartening… to see this welcome new journal staging a conflict between postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism’.”	Eagleton encourages a critical dialogue between the real conditions of postcolonialism and the theoretical concerns of ‘postcolonialism,’ calling for a more grounded approach to addressing global inequalities.

Suggested Readings: “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

1. Ashcroft, Bill, Gareth Griffiths, and Helen Tiffin. The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures. Routledge, 1989.
   https://www.routledge.com/The-Empire-Writes-Back-Theory-and-Practice-in-Post-Colonial-Literatures/Ashcroft-Griffiths-Tiffin/p/book/9780415280204
2. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
   https://www.routledge.com/The-Location-of-Culture/Bhabha/p/book/9780415336390
3. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Pantheon Books, 1978.
   https://archive.org/details/orientalism00said
4. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard University Press, 1999.
   https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674177642
5. Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. Routledge, 1998.
   https://www.routledge.com/ColonialismPostcolonialism/Loomba/p/book/9780415350648
6. Young, Robert J. C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.
   https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Postcolonialism%3A+An+Historical+Introduction-p-9780631200693
7. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963.
   https://archive.org/details/wretchedofearth00fanorich
8. “Postcolonial Studies @ Emory.” Emory University.
   http://postcolonialstudies.emory.edu/
9. “Postcolonial Web.” National University of Singapore.
   http://www.postcolonialweb.org/
10. Huggan, Graham. The Postcolonial Exotic: Marketing the Margins. Routledge, 2001.
    https://www.routledge.com/The-Postcolonial-Exotic-Marketing-the-Margins/Huggan/p/book/9780415207270