September 23, 2024 - English Studies

“Power” by Audre Lorde: A Critical Analysis

“Power” by Audre Lorde, first appeared in 1978 in the collection A Soldier’s Blue, is characterized by its raw, passionate exploration of identity, power dynamics, and the interconnectedness of oppression.

Introduction: “Power” by Audre Lorde

“Power” by Audre Lorde, first appeared in 1978 in the collection A Soldier’s Blue, is characterized by its raw, passionate exploration of identity, power dynamics, and the interconnectedness of oppression. Lorde uses vivid imagery and powerful language to convey her experiences as a Black woman, challenging societal norms and demanding recognition of her marginalized voice. The central theme of the poem is the importance of reclaiming power as a marginalized individual, recognizing one’s own strength, and using that power to dismantle systems of oppression.

Text: “Power” by Audre Lorde

The difference between poetry and rhetoric

is being ready to kill

yourself

instead of your children.

I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds

and a dead child dragging his shattered black

face off the edge of my sleep

blood from his punctured cheeks and shoulders

is the only liquid for miles

and my stomach

churns at the imagined taste while

my mouth splits into dry lips

without loyalty or reason

thirsting for the wetness of his blood

as it sinks into the whiteness

of the desert where I am lost

without imagery or magic

trying to make power out of hatred and destruction

trying to heal my dying son with kisses

only the sun will bleach his bones quicker.

A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens

stood over the boy with his cop shoes in childish blood

and a voice said “Die you little motherfucker” and

there are tapes to prove it. At his trial

this policeman said in his own defense

“I didn’t notice the size nor nothing else

only the color”. And

there are tapes to prove that, too.

Today that 37 year old white man

with 13 years of police forcing

was set free

by eleven white men who said they were satisfied

justice had been done

and one Black Woman who said

“They convinced me” meaning

they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame

over the hot coals

of four centuries of white male approval

until she let go

the first real power she ever had

and lined her own womb with cement

to make a graveyard for our children.

I have not been able to touch the destruction

within me.

But unless I learn to use

the difference between poetry and rhetoric

my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold

or lie limp and useless as an unconnected wire

and one day I will take my teenaged plug

and connect it to the nearest socket

raping an 85 year old white woman

who is somebody’s mother

and as I beat her senseless and set a torch to her bed

a greek chorus will be singing in 3/4 time

“Poor thing. She never hurt a soul. What beasts they are.”

Annotations: “Power” by Audre Lorde

Lines	Annotation
The difference between poetry and rhetoric	A comparison of two forms of communication: poetry, often associated with emotion and imagination, and rhetoric, often associated with persuasion and logic.
is being ready to kill	Suggests a fundamental difference between the two: poetry often involves personal sacrifice and vulnerability, while rhetoric can be used for manipulation or control.
yourself	Implies a willingness to confront one’s own pain and limitations.
instead of your children.	Highlights the destructive nature of violence and the importance of protecting the next generation.
I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds	Metaphorical representation of the traumatic experiences faced by marginalized communities.
and a dead child dragging his shattered black	Emphasizes the devastating impact of violence on children, particularly those from marginalized backgrounds.
face off the edge of my sleep	Suggests the haunting nature of trauma, which can intrude even into dreams.
blood from his punctured cheeks and shoulders	A graphic depiction of the violence inflicted on the child.
is the only liquid for miles	Highlights the isolation and desolation experienced in the face of trauma.
and my stomach	Suggests the physical and emotional toll of witnessing such violence.
churns at the imagined taste	Implies a perverse desire for revenge or retribution.
while	Contrasts the desire for revenge with the speaker’s own vulnerability and pain.
my mouth splits into dry lips	A physical manifestation of emotional distress and a loss of compassion.
without loyalty or reason	Indicates a state of desperation and a willingness to abandon moral principles.
thirsting for the wetness of his blood	A disturbing image that suggests a desire for violence and a loss of humanity.
as it sinks into the whiteness	Highlights the racial dynamics of the situation and the contrast between the victim’s dark skin and the desolate landscape.
of the desert where I am lost	Symbolizes the speaker’s feeling of being adrift and without direction in a world marked by injustice.
without imagery or magic	Suggests a loss of hope and a reliance on more primal instincts.
trying to make power out of hatred and destruction	Acknowledges the destructive nature of seeking power through violence and hatred.
trying to heal my dying son with kisses	A futile attempt to alleviate suffering and a reminder of the limitations of love in the face of overwhelming violence.
only the sun will bleach his bones quicker.	A bleak outlook on the future and a recognition of the inevitability of death.
A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens	Introduces a real-world example of police brutality and racial injustice.
stood over the boy with his cop shoes in childish blood	A graphic image that highlights the callousness and cruelty of the perpetrator.
and a voice said “Die you little motherfucker” and	A shocking example of the hatred and contempt displayed by the police officer.
there are tapes to prove it.	Emphasizes the evidence supporting the accusations against the police officer.
At his trial	Introduces the legal proceedings related to the incident.
this policeman said in his own defense	Highlights the perpetrator’s attempt to justify his actions.
“I didn’t notice the size nor nothing else	Reveals the police officer’s racist indifference and his inability to recognize the humanity of the child.
only the color”. And	Further emphasizes the racial bias underlying the crime.
there are tapes to prove that, too.	Reinforces the evidence against the police officer.
Today that 37 year old white man	Introduces the outcome of the trial.
with 13 years of police forcing	Highlights the perpetrator’s history of violence and abuse of power.
was set free	Indicates the unjust nature of the verdict.
by eleven white men who said they were satisfied	Reveals the racial bias of the jury and their failure to uphold justice.
justice had been done	A sarcastic statement that highlights the injustice of the verdict.
and one Black Woman who said	Introduces a dissenting voice among the jurors.
“They convinced me” meaning	Explains the Black woman’s capitulation to societal pressures and her internalized racism.
they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame	A metaphor for the psychological and emotional pressure exerted on the Black woman.
over the hot coals	Represents the historical and systemic racism that has shaped her worldview.
of four centuries of white male approval	Highlights the oppressive nature of white patriarchal power.
until she let go	Suggests a moment of surrender and a loss of agency.
the first real power she ever had	Ironically, the Black woman’s “power” is ultimately revealed to be a self-destructive force.
and lined her own womb with cement	A disturbing image that symbolizes the speaker’s loss of hope for the future and her willingness to sacrifice her own fertility.
to make a graveyard for our children.	A bleak outlook on the future and a recognition of the devastating consequences of systemic injustice.
I have not been able to touch the destruction	Acknowledges the speaker’s own internalized pain and the difficulty of confronting it.
within me.	Emphasizes the personal nature of trauma and its impact on the individual.
But unless I learn to use	Suggests the need for personal transformation and a new approach to dealing with injustice.
the difference between poetry and rhetoric	Returns to the central theme of the poem and emphasizes the importance of using language and communication in a constructive and empowering way.
my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold	Warns of the dangers of unchecked power and the potential for it to become destructive.
or lie limp and useless as an unconnected wire	Suggests the need for agency and action to effect change.
and one day I will take my teenaged plug	A disturbing image that suggests a potential for violence and self-destruction.
and connect it to the nearest socket	A metaphor for the speaker’s desire to lash out and inflict pain on others.
raping an 85 year old white woman	A shocking and disturbing image that highlights the potential for violence to be cyclical and indiscriminate.
who is somebody’s mother	Emphasizes the humanity of the victim and the devastating impact of violence on families.
and as I beat her senseless and set a torch to her bed	A graphic depiction of the violence that the speaker imagines committing.
a greek chorus will be singing in 3/4 time	A satirical reference to the hypocrisy and complacency of society.
“Poor thing. She never hurt a soul. What beasts they are.”	Quotes the likely response of society, which would condemn the violence while ignoring the underlying causes.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Power” by Audre Lorde

Literary Device	Definition	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.	“bleach his bones”	The repetition of the “b” sound creates a harsh tone, emphasizing the brutality of the situation.
Allusion	Reference to a well-known person, place, or event.	“a greek chorus will be singing”	Alludes to Greek tragedy, highlighting the collective societal judgment and commentary on violence.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines.	“And there are tapes to prove it”	This repetition emphasizes the stark reality and the irrefutable evidence of racism and injustice.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“cop shoes in childish blood”	The repetition of the “o” sound creates a somber, reflective tone.
Caesura	A pause or break within a line of poetry.	“I have not been able to touch the destruction within me.”	The pause adds emotional weight, showing the speaker’s struggle to confront inner turmoil.
Connotation	The implied or associative meaning of a word beyond its literal definition.	“justice had been done”	The word “justice” is used ironically, as the outcome is far from just.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line.	“without loyalty or reason / thirsting for the wetness of his blood”	The enjambment reflects the speaker’s relentless flow of thoughts, enhancing tension.
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements for effect.	“my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold”	The exaggeration highlights the speaker’s fear of her own potential for destructive power.
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.	“blood from his punctured cheeks and shoulders”	The vivid, graphic imagery immerses the reader in the physical and emotional violence of the scene.
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.	“justice had been done”	The statement is ironic because justice has clearly not been served, reflecting systemic racism.
Juxtaposition	Placing two elements close together for contrasting effect.	“A policeman who shot down a ten year old” vs. “a greek chorus will be singing”	The contrast between modern violence and ancient tragedy highlights the timelessness of injustice.
Metaphor	A direct comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“my mouth splits into dry lips without loyalty or reason”	The speaker’s mouth is metaphorically “splitting,” suggesting a loss of control and coherence.
Metonymy	A figure of speech where a related concept represents something else.	“whiteness of the desert”	“Whiteness” symbolizes both the literal desert and systemic oppression.
Oxymoron	A figure of speech in which contradictory terms appear together.	“dry lips thirsting”	The contrast between “dry” and “thirsting” intensifies the speaker’s desperation and need.
Personification	Attributing human qualities to non-human entities.	“the sun will bleach his bones quicker”	The sun is personified, as if it actively speeds up the process of death and decay.
Repetition	The intentional reuse of a word or phrase for emphasis.	“And there are tapes to prove it.”	Repetition here reinforces the undeniable evidence of police violence and racism.
Simile	A comparison using “like” or “as.”	“my power too will run corrupt as poisonous mold”	The comparison of power to mold suggests it can become dangerous if not controlled.
Symbolism	Use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	“lined her own womb with cement”	The “cement” symbolizes emotional and spiritual numbness, illustrating the woman’s surrender.
Synecdoche	A figure of speech in which a part represents the whole.	“cop shoes in childish blood”	“Cop shoes” represent the entire oppressive police force, focusing on the object as a symbol of authority.
Tone	The attitude or feeling expressed in the poem.	Overall tone: angry, mournful, and accusatory	The tone expresses anger toward injustice, sorrow for lost lives, and accusation against systemic oppression.

Themes: “Power” by Audre Lorde

Racial Injustice and Systemic Oppression: The poem highlights the pervasive nature of racial injustice, particularly through the example of a white policeman killing a young Black boy. The line, “only the color” refers to the officer’s defense, revealing the deep-seated racism that leads to the boy’s death. The trial scene, where “eleven white men” declare justice while a single Black woman is coerced into agreeing, underscores how the legal system is built to protect white power and maintain racial oppression.
The Corruption of Power: Power, in the poem, is portrayed as a corrupting force. The speaker expresses fear that without understanding “the difference between poetry and rhetoric,” her own power may “run corrupt as poisonous mold.” This metaphor suggests that unchecked power, especially when fueled by anger and hatred, can become dangerous and destructive, not only for individuals but for society as a whole. Lorde explores how power, if misused, can lead to violence and moral decay.
The Trauma of Violence: The poem vividly illustrates the emotional and psychological impact of violence, particularly on Black bodies and communities. The haunting image of “a dead child dragging his shattered black face off the edge of my sleep” conveys the ongoing trauma of witnessing or experiencing racial violence. This recurring nightmare reveals how violence leaves deep scars on the psyche, symbolizing the collective trauma of Black people in a world that dehumanizes and brutalizes them.

Moral Dilemma and Personal Responsibility: Lorde presents a complex moral struggle, particularly in the speaker’s contemplation of how to channel her anger and power. The speaker fears becoming consumed by hatred, as seen in the disturbing hypothetical scenario where she imagines committing violence against an innocent white woman. This moment reflects the internal conflict between retaliating against the systemic forces of oppression and preserving one’s humanity. The poem wrestles with the question of how to use power responsibly in the face of profound injustice.

Literary Theories and “Power” by Audre Lorde

Literary Theory	Application to “Power”	References
Feminist Theory	Lorde’s poem addresses issues of gender, race, and class oppression. It critiques patriarchal structures and the ways in which women, particularly Black women, are marginalized and denied power.	“I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds” (lines 5-6), “A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens” (lines 19-20), “Today that 37 year old white man…was set free by eleven white men” (lines 23-25)
Postcolonial Theory	The poem explores the lasting effects of colonialism and imperialism on marginalized communities. It highlights the violence and exploitation experienced by people of color, particularly those living in the diaspora.	“A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens” (lines 19-20), “they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame over the hot coals of four centuries of white male approval” (lines 33-34)
Queer Theory	While not explicitly queer, the poem can be interpreted through a queer lens, as it challenges traditional notions of gender and sexuality. Lorde’s exploration of identity and power can be seen as a critique of heteronormative and patriarchal structures.	“The difference between poetry and rhetoric” (lines 1-2), “I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds” (lines 5-6)

Critical Questions about “Power” by Audre Lorde

· How does Lorde use imagery and symbolism to convey the devastating impact of violence and oppression on marginalized communities?

Lorde employs powerful imagery and symbolism throughout “Power” to depict the devastating effects of violence and oppression on marginalized communities. She compares her experiences to a “desert of raw gunshot wounds” (lines 5-6), symbolizing the barren and desolate landscape created by trauma. The image of a “dead child dragging his shattered black face off the edge of my sleep” (lines 6-7) is particularly haunting, suggesting the persistent nature of trauma and its intrusion into even the most intimate moments of rest. These vivid images serve to highlight the emotional and psychological toll of violence on individuals and communities.

· How does Lorde explore the relationship between power, race, and gender in the poem?

Lorde’s poem interrogates the complex interplay between power, race, and gender. She demonstrates how these factors intersect to create systemic oppression and marginalization. The poem highlights the ways in which white men wield power to control and exploit women of color. For example, the trial of the policeman who shot the ten-year-old boy reveals the racial bias of the justice system, as the white man is acquitted despite overwhelming evidence. Additionally, the Black woman juror’s capitulation to societal pressures underscores the internalized racism that can limit the agency and power of marginalized individuals.

· What is the significance of the speaker’s exploration of her own internalized violence and the potential for self-destruction?

The speaker’s exploration of her own internalized violence and the potential for self-destruction is a crucial element of the poem. By acknowledging her own capacity for cruelty and aggression, Lorde highlights the ways in which trauma can lead to a cycle of violence. This self-reflection serves as a warning against the destructive nature of unchecked anger and hatred. It also suggests the importance of healing and addressing internalized trauma in order to break free from the cycle of violence.

· How does Lorde’s use of language and poetic form contribute to the overall impact of the poem?

Lorde’s use of language and poetic form is integral to the poem’s power and impact. Her language is direct, raw, and emotionally charged, reflecting the intensity of the experiences she describes. The poem’s free verse form allows for a flexible and expressive structure, enabling Lorde to shift between narrative, reflection, and emotional outbursts. This combination of direct language and poetic form creates a powerful and visceral experience for the reader, immersing them in the world of the poem and highlighting the urgency of the issues addressed.

Literary Works Similar to “Power” by Audre Lorde

“The Ballad of Birmingham” by Dudley Randall: Both poems address racial violence and the senseless killing of Black children, with Randall focusing on the bombing of a church in Birmingham, Alabama, during the Civil Rights Movement.
“We Real Cool” by Gwendolyn Brooks: Like Power, this poem reflects on the struggles of Black youth and the dangers they face in a society that marginalizes them, capturing the fragility of Black lives.
“A Small Needful Fact” by Ross Gay: Gay’s poem, similar to Lorde’s, confronts the killing of Black men, using the story of Eric Garner to explore themes of racial injustice and the dehumanization of Black bodies.

“Incident” by Countee Cullen: This poem, like Lorde’s, addresses a racially charged incident that has a lasting emotional impact, depicting how a simple act of racism can leave a deep scar on a child’s psyche.
“Strange Fruit” by Abel Meeropol (popularized by Billie Holiday): Both poems use powerful imagery to depict racial violence and lynching in America, focusing on the brutality inflicted on Black bodies and the legacy of hatred in society.

Representative Quotations of “Power” by Audre Lorde

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“The difference between poetry and rhetoric is being ready to kill yourself instead of your children.”	The speaker compares poetry and rhetoric, suggesting that poetry involves personal sacrifice and vulnerability, while rhetoric can be used for manipulation or control.	Feminist Theory: This quotation highlights the importance of personal empowerment and the dangers of using power to oppress others.
“I am trapped on a desert of raw gunshot wounds and a dead child dragging his shattered black face off the edge of my sleep”	The speaker describes the traumatic experiences faced by marginalized communities.	Postcolonial Theory: This quotation reflects the violence and exploitation experienced by people of color, particularly those living in the diaspora.
“trying to make power out of hatred and destruction”	The speaker acknowledges the destructive nature of seeking power through violence and hatred.	Feminist Theory: This quotation critiques the ways in which power is often achieved through oppressive means.
“A policeman who shot down a ten year old in Queens”	The poem introduces a real-world example of police brutality and racial injustice.	Postcolonial Theory: This quotation highlights the systemic racism and violence faced by marginalized communities.
““I didn’t notice the size nor nothing else only the color””	The police officer’s statement reveals his racist indifference and his inability to recognize the humanity of the child.	Queer Theory: This quotation challenges traditional notions of gender and sexuality, as it suggests that the police officer’s violence was motivated by a narrow and discriminatory view of masculinity.
“Today that 37 year old white man…was set free by eleven white men who said they were satisfied justice had been done”	The poem highlights the racial bias of the justice system and the failure to uphold justice.	Feminist Theory: This quotation critiques the ways in which patriarchal structures perpetuate inequality and injustice.
“they had dragged her 4’10” black Woman’s frame over the hot coals of four centuries of white male approval”	The speaker describes the psychological and emotional pressure exerted on the Black woman.	Postcolonial Theory: This quotation highlights the historical and systemic racism that has shaped the experiences of marginalized communities.
“I have not been able to touch the destruction within me”	The speaker acknowledges the internalized pain and trauma experienced by marginalized individuals.	Feminist Theory: This quotation explores the ways in which oppression can lead to self-destructive tendencies.
“But unless I learn to use the difference between poetry and rhetoric”	The speaker suggests the need for personal transformation and a new approach to dealing with injustice.	Queer Theory: This quotation challenges traditional notions of communication and suggests the importance of using language in a way that is inclusive and empowering.
“and one day I will take my teenaged plug and connect it to the nearest socket”	The speaker’s disturbing image suggests a potential for violence and self-destruction.	Feminist Theory: This quotation highlights the ways in which trauma can lead to a cycle of violence.

“O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks: A Critical Analysis

“O Little Town of Bethlehem,” a beloved Christmas carol, was penned by Phillips Brooks in 1867, and included in his collection of hymns, “Carols for Christmastide.”

Introduction: “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

“O Little Town of Bethlehem,” a beloved Christmas carol, was penned by Phillips Brooks in 1867, and included in his collection of hymns, “Carols for Christmastide.” The poem’s simple yet evocative imagery and heartfelt sentiment have made it a timeless classic. The main idea of the carol is to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and the hope and peace that his coming brings to the world. The poem’s qualities include its use of vivid imagery, such as “street lamps gleaming,” to create a sense of wonder and awe. Additionally, the carol’s repetition of the refrain “O holy night” reinforces its message of reverence and devotion.

Text: “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

O little town of Bethlehem, how still we see thee lie!
Above thy deep and dreamless sleep the silent stars go by.
Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light;
The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight.
For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above,
While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch of wond’ring love.
O morning stars, together proclaim the holy birth,
And praises sing to God the King, and peace to men on earth!

How silently, how silently, the wondrous Gift is giv’n;
So God imparts to human hearts the blessings of His Heav’n.
No ear may hear His coming, but in this world of sin,
Where meek souls will receive Him still, the dear Christ enters in.
Where children pure and happy pray to the blessed Child,
Where misery cries out to Thee, Son of the mother mild;
Where charity stands watching and faith holds wide the door,
The dark night wakes, the glory breaks, and Christmas comes once more.
O holy Child of Bethlehem, descend to us, we pray;
Cast out our sin, and enter in, be born in us today.
We hear the Christmas angels the great glad tidings tell;
Oh, come to us, abide with us, our Lord Emmanuel!

Annotations: “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

Line	Annotation
O little town of Bethlehem, how still we see thee lie!	The speaker observes the quiet and peaceful nature of Bethlehem at night, suggesting a sense of calm and stillness.
Above thy deep and dreamless sleep the silent stars go by.	The town is in a deep, undisturbed sleep, with only the stars silently moving overhead, highlighting a tranquil scene.
Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light;	Despite the darkness of the streets, there is a spiritual light shining, representing the birth of Christ as the eternal source of hope.
The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight.	Bethlehem becomes a symbolic place where humanity’s long-held hopes and anxieties converge with the birth of Christ.
For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above,	The birth of Christ is highlighted, referencing the Virgin Mary and the heavenly realm’s attention to this momentous event.
While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch of wond’ring love.	While humans are unaware, angels are watching over this sacred event, filled with love and awe.
O morning stars, together proclaim the holy birth,	The stars, symbolizing celestial bodies or perhaps angels, are called upon to celebrate and announce Christ’s birth.
And praises sing to God the King, and peace to men on earth!	A joyful proclamation of praise is offered to God, with the hope of peace being brought to humanity through Christ.
How silently, how silently, the wondrous Gift is giv’n;	The birth of Christ, described as a “wondrous Gift,” is delivered quietly and without grandeur, emphasizing humility.
So God imparts to human hearts the blessings of His Heav’n.	God’s blessings are bestowed upon humanity through Christ, touching the hearts of individuals.
No ear may hear His coming, but in this world of sin,	The coming of Christ goes unnoticed by most, yet He enters a world darkened by sin.
Where meek souls will receive Him still, the dear Christ enters in.	Christ is welcomed into the hearts of those humble and open to His message, reinforcing themes of humility and acceptance.
Where children pure and happy pray to the blessed Child,	Children, innocent and joyful, pray to Christ, the “blessed Child,” portraying an image of purity and devotion.
Where misery cries out to Thee, Son of the mother mild;	Even in times of suffering and distress, people call out to Christ for comfort and salvation.
Where charity stands watching and faith holds wide the door,	Acts of love and faith prepare the way for Christ’s arrival, symbolizing readiness to receive Him.
The dark night wakes, the glory breaks, and Christmas comes once more.	The metaphorical “dark night” of sin and suffering gives way to the light and glory of Christ’s birth, marking the celebration of Christmas.
O holy Child of Bethlehem, descend to us, we pray;	The speaker prays for Christ, the holy child born in Bethlehem, to come to them personally, asking for His presence.
Cast out our sin, and enter in, be born in us today.	A plea for spiritual renewal, asking Christ to remove sin and dwell within the believer’s heart.
We hear the Christmas angels the great glad tidings tell;	The joyous news of Christ’s birth is proclaimed by angels, a familiar theme in the nativity story.
Oh, come to us, abide with us, our Lord Emmanuel!	A final prayer asking Christ (Emmanuel, meaning “God with us”) to dwell with the people and be present in their lives.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

Device	Definition	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	The repetition of initial consonant sounds.	“silent stars”	Emphasizes the quiet and peaceful atmosphere.
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.	“O little town of Bethlehem” (repeated at the beginning of each stanza)	Creates a sense of rhythm and emphasizes the central theme.
Assonance	The repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“deep and dreamless sleep”	Adds a musical quality and reinforces the theme of peace.
Contrast	The juxtaposition of opposing ideas or images.	“dark streets shineth the everlasting Light”	Highlights the significance of Christ’s birth amidst darkness.
Imagery	The use of vivid language to create mental images.	“silent stars go by”	Paints a picture of a peaceful night sky.
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight”	Suggests that Bethlehem symbolizes the meeting point of humanity’s hopes and fears.
Onomatopoeia	The use of words that imitate sounds.	“How silently, how silently”	Emphasizes the peaceful and quiet nature of Christ’s birth.
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things.	“O morning stars, together proclaim the holy birth”	The stars are portrayed as active participants in the celebration.
Repetition	The repeated use of words, phrases, or lines.	“O holy Child of Bethlehem” (repeated at the beginning of the final stanza)	Reinforces the central theme and creates a sense of urgency.
Rhyme	The correspondence of sounds at the end of words.	“above” and “love,” “giv’n” and “Heav’n”	Adds a musical quality and makes the poem easier to memorize.
Symbolism	The use of objects or images to represent something else.	Bethlehem represents the birthplace of Christ and a symbol of hope.
Syntax	The arrangement of words in a sentence.	“Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light”	The inverted sentence structure creates a sense of wonder and emphasis.
Tone	The author’s attitude toward the subject matter.	Reverent, peaceful, and hopeful	The tone reflects the sacredness of the event being described.
Verse Form	The pattern of lines and stanzas.	Four-line stanzas with an ABAB rhyme scheme	Provides a structure and rhythm for the poem.
Word Choice	The selection of specific words to convey meaning and evoke emotions.	“everlasting Light,” “wond’ring love,” “blessed Child”	The words chosen contribute to the poem’s religious and emotional impact.
Figurative Language	The use of language that is not meant to be taken literally.	Metaphors, similes, personification, and symbolism	Adds depth and meaning to the poem.
Parallelism	The use of similar grammatical structures.	“Where children pure and happy pray to the blessed Child,” “Where misery cries out to Thee, Son of the mother mild”	Creates a sense of balance and rhythm.
Antithesis	The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas or images.	“For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above, While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch of wond’ring love”	Highlights the contrast between the divine and human realms.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence across lines of poetry.	“O little town of Bethlehem, how still we see thee lie! Above thy deep and dreamless sleep the silent stars go by.”	Creates a flowing rhythm and emphasizes the connection between ideas.
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for effect.	“the everlasting Light”	Emphasizes the significance of Christ’s birth.

Themes: “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

The Birth of Christ and Divine Grace: The poem primarily focuses on the birth of Jesus Christ and the divine grace associated with this event. This is evident in lines like “For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above” and “How silently, how silently, the wondrous Gift is giv’n.” The poem emphasizes the significance of Christ’s birth as a source of hope, peace, and salvation for humanity.
The Contrast Between Darkness and Light: The poem contrasts the darkness of the world with the light brought by Christ’s birth. This is exemplified in lines such as “Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light” and “The dark night wakes, the glory breaks, and Christmas comes once more.” The contrast underscores the transformative power of Christ’s coming.
The Importance of Faith and Hope: The poem highlights the significance of faith and hope in the face of adversity. It encourages readers to believe in the power of Christ and to maintain hope for a better future. Lines like “Where charity stands watching and faith holds wide the door” and “O holy Child of Bethlehem, descend to us, we pray” emphasize the importance of these virtues.

The Universal Appeal of Christmas: The poem’s message of peace, hope, and love resonates with people of all faiths and backgrounds. It emphasizes the universal significance of Christmas as a time for reflection, celebration, and renewal. Lines like “O morning stars, together proclaim the holy birth” and “And praises sing to God the King, and peace to men on earth!” convey this message of unity and goodwill.

Literary Theories and “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

Literary Theory	Application to “O Little Town of Bethlehem”	References from the Poem
Theological/Religious Criticism	Focuses on the poem’s reflection of Christian beliefs about Christ’s birth, redemption, and divine grace. It emphasizes God’s intervention in human history through the birth of Christ.	1. “For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above, While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch of wond’ring love.” — Depicts Christ’s birth as a divine event witnessed by angels. 2. “The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight.” — Christ as the fulfillment of humanity’s long-held hopes and fears, symbolizing salvation.
Historical/Cultural Criticism	Examines the poem in the context of 19th-century Christian values and the cultural significance of Bethlehem. The poem mirrors traditional views of Christmas and its religious importance.	1. “O morning stars, together proclaim the holy birth” — A reflection of the traditional Christian imagery associated with the nativity. 2. “O holy Child of Bethlehem, descend to us, we pray” — Emphasizes the historical and cultural importance of Bethlehem in Christian tradition, especially during the 19th century.
Symbolism/Allegory	Explores how Bethlehem, light, and darkness symbolize spiritual truths. Bethlehem represents the human heart, while light represents Christ, and darkness symbolizes sin or spiritual ignorance.	1. “Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light” — The “everlasting Light” symbolizes Christ, illuminating the spiritual darkness of the world. 2. “No ear may hear His coming, but in this world of sin, Where meek souls will receive Him still, the dear Christ enters in.” — Depicts spiritual transformation and redemption through Christ’s humble arrival.

Critical Questions about “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

How does the poem portray the relationship between humanity and divinity? The poem portrays a close relationship between humanity and divinity, emphasizing the accessibility of God through Christ. Lines such as “For Christ is born of Mary” and “The dear Christ enters in” highlight the incarnation of God in human form. The poem suggests that Christ’s birth bridges the gap between heaven and earth, making God accessible to all.
What is the significance of the imagery of darkness and light in the poem? The imagery of darkness and light serves as a powerful symbol of the contrast between sin and salvation. The darkness represents the world’s state of sin and despair, while the light symbolizes the hope and redemption brought by Christ’s birth. Lines like “Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light” and “The dark night wakes, the glory breaks” emphasize this contrast and the transformative power of Christ’s coming.

How does the poem address the themes of hope and peace? The poem offers a message of hope and peace, suggesting that Christ’s birth brings hope for humanity and a promise of peace on earth. Lines such as “And praises sing to God the King, and peace to men on earth!” and “The dear Christ enters in” convey this message. The poem suggests that through faith in Christ, individuals can find hope and peace in the midst of life’s challenges.
How does the poem’s use of repetition and imagery contribute to its overall impact? The poem’s use of repetition and imagery plays a crucial role in its overall impact. The repetition of certain phrases, such as “O Little Town of Bethlehem,” creates a sense of rhythm and emphasizes the central theme. The vivid imagery, including the description of the night sky and the birth of Christ, helps to evoke emotions and create a powerful mental picture. Together, these elements contribute to the poem’s enduring appeal and its ability to touch the hearts of readers.

Literary Works Similar to “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

“Silent Night” by Franz Gruber and Joseph Mohr: This Christmas carol shares a similar theme of celebrating the birth of Christ and the peace it brings to the world.

“It Came Upon a Midnight Clear” by Edmund Sears: This poem also emphasizes the peaceful and miraculous nature of Christ’s birth, using celestial imagery to convey the divine event.
“O Come, O Thou Faithful and True” by John Mason Neale: Both poems express adoration and reverence for Jesus Christ, focusing on his divine nature and the salvation he offers.
“Angels We Have Heard on High” by Henry Baker: This carol shares a similar theme of angels announcing the birth of Christ and the joy and wonder it brings.

Representative Quotations of “O Little Town of Bethlehem” by Phillips Brooks

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“O little town of Bethlehem, how still we see thee lie!”	Opening line, depicting the peacefulness and stillness of Bethlehem on the night of Christ’s birth.	Symbolism/Allegory: Bethlehem symbolizes the humble and quiet reception of divine grace, representing the human heart open to Christ.
“Above thy deep and dreamless sleep, the silent stars go by.”	Describes the serenity of the town, with only the stars moving overhead, setting a calm, sacred atmosphere.	Theological/Religious Criticism: The stillness reflects a world unaware of the divine event about to occur, emphasizing the mystery of God’s intervention in human history.
“Yet in thy dark streets shineth the everlasting Light;”	Contrasts the physical darkness of Bethlehem with the spiritual illumination brought by Christ’s birth.	Symbolism/Allegory: The “everlasting Light” symbolizes Christ, who brings spiritual enlightenment to the world, which is darkened by sin.
“The hopes and fears of all the years are met in thee tonight.”	Refers to the birth of Christ as the fulfillment of humanity’s long-held hopes and fears.	Theological/Religious Criticism: Christ’s birth is portrayed as the answer to mankind’s deepest anxieties and aspirations, offering salvation and peace.
“For Christ is born of Mary, and gathered all above,”	Refers to the nativity scene, with the birth of Christ observed by angels in heaven.	Historical/Cultural Criticism: Highlights traditional Christian narratives of the nativity and the divine nature of Christ’s birth, as celebrated in 19th-century culture.
“While mortals sleep, the angels keep their watch of wond’ring love.”	Angels watch over humanity as they remain unaware of the sacred event taking place.	Theological/Religious Criticism: The presence of angels signifies divine protection and love, while mortals remain spiritually unaware of Christ’s arrival.
“How silently, how silently, the wondrous Gift is giv’n;”	Describes the humble and quiet manner in which Christ enters the world.	Symbolism/Allegory: Christ’s arrival represents the quiet, unseen transformation of the soul that occurs without fanfare but has profound spiritual significance.
“No ear may hear His coming, but in this world of sin,”	The world is too spiritually unaware to hear or recognize Christ’s arrival in the midst of sin.	Theological/Religious Criticism: Suggests that spiritual deafness prevents humanity from fully understanding or recognizing divine intervention in a sinful world.
“Where meek souls will receive Him still, the dear Christ enters in.”	Refers to Christ being welcomed into the hearts of the humble and faithful.	Symbolism/Allegory: Christ entering “meek souls” symbolizes spiritual openness and humility as the path to receiving divine grace.
“O holy Child of Bethlehem, descend to us, we pray;”	A prayer for Christ to come into the hearts of the faithful, asking for divine presence and spiritual renewal.	Theological/Religious Criticism: Reflects the desire for personal salvation and closeness to Christ, central to Christian spiritual practice and belief.

“Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1982 in the International Socialism journal.

Introduction: “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

“Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1982 in the International Socialism journal. This essay is considered a seminal piece in Marxist literary theory, marking a significant contribution to the field. Eagleton’s work explores the relationship between literature and society, arguing that literary texts are shaped by and reflect the social, economic, and political conditions of their time. His analysis offers a critical perspective on the role of literature in perpetuating or challenging dominant ideologies.

Summary of “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Origins in Marx and Engels’ Work
- Marxist literary criticism traces its roots to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Their work provides a scattered but foundational set of ideas on literary form, realism, and aesthetics.
- Marx’s contribution to aesthetics is interwoven with his larger debates on material production, labor, and commodification, making literary criticism less of an isolated practice and more of a part of his general theory of superstructures. (Lifshitz, 1973).
Materialist Criticism and Historical Context
- A central theme in Marxist criticism is the material basis of cultural practices. Marx and Engels explored the relationship between aesthetic superstructures and material history, although they didn’t formulate a full theory of ideological superstructures.
- Marxist criticism must account for how history produces literary texts as complex signifiers, requiring criticism to be understood as a product of specific historical epochs and contexts.
Bolshevik Revolution and Post-Revolutionary Marxist Criticism
- The Bolshevik Revolution marks a seismic shift in Marxist criticism, leading to the intersection of different critical modes, particularly seen in the collision of ideas in Trotsky’s Literature and Revolution.
- Pre-revolutionary critics like Georgi Plekhanov adhered to a sociological and anthropological form of criticism, while post-revolutionary critics like Lenin and Gorki advocated for a committed, politically engaged literature. This laid the groundwork for concepts like socialist realism.
Contradictions within Marxist Aesthetic Theory
- After the revolution, Marxist aesthetics grappled with multiple theoretical problems: the relationship between art and class structure, the role of art in revolutionary politics, and the dilemma of whether bourgeois culture should be assimilated or destroyed.
- The dominance of socialist realism under Stalin marked a setback for more nuanced, materialist aesthetic practices. This led to a return to the ideas of Marx, Engels, and Hegel by critics like Georg Lukács and the Frankfurt School, who tried to preserve the critical function of art in the face of Stalinist repression (Jay, 1973).
Diverse Marxist Approaches
- Marxist aesthetics evolved into multiple streams. Brecht and Benjamin, for instance, rejected the idealism of earlier Marxist critics, focusing on the material conditions of artistic production. They viewed art as a transformative practice, not just a reflection of political ideology (Benjamin, 1973).
- Other critics, such as Galvano Della Volpe, applied a rational materialist analysis to literary texts, focusing on semiotic codes and literary form. His work reflects an alignment with the Russian Formalists’ detailed attention to textual structures.
The Need for a Structural-Historical Approach
- Eagleton argues for a conjuncture of different critical modes—attention to literary form (from the Hegelian tradition), an understanding of art as material production (from Futurism and Constructivism), and a semiological critique of texts (from Formalism). These modes need to be combined to create a genuinely materialist literary criticism.
- The failure to achieve this synthesis has led to the dominance of partial, internally imbalanced approaches in Marxist criticism, resulting in theoretical stagnation in some areas.
Contemporary Marxist Criticism
- In the English context, Eagleton critiques the eclecticism of materialist criticism, which lacks a scientific basis and relies too much on empirical sociology or romantic idealism. He cites Raymond Williams as an example of a critic who, while pioneering, does not fully embody a Marxist approach.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Explanation	Relevance in Eagleton’s Essay
Aesthetics	The philosophical study of beauty and art, particularly its principles and forms.	Eagleton discusses how Marx and Engels did not develop a systematic aesthetics, but their work offers foundational ideas.
Superstructure	In Marxist theory, the social, political, and ideological systems that arise from the economic base.	Literary texts are seen as part of the superstructure, reflecting and mediating material history.
Materialism	A focus on material conditions (economy, labor) as the basis for understanding society and culture.	Marxist literary criticism emphasizes the material basis of cultural practices and their economic roots.
Dialectical Materialism	The Marxist methodology of understanding history and society through the contradictions of material conditions.	This method is central to Marxist criticism, which views literary texts through their relation to material production.
Realism	A style of writing that depicts life as it is, often focusing on the struggles of everyday people.	Realism is valued in Marxist criticism for its ability to reveal the material conditions of society.
Reflectionism	The theory that art reflects society and its class structures.	Critiqued by Eagleton as insufficiently nuanced, especially in the works of Plekhanov and early Marxist critics.
Commitment in Art	The idea that literature and art should be politically engaged and promote revolutionary values.	Figures like Lenin and Gorki advocated for a committed literature to support revolutionary change.
Socialist Realism	A Soviet aesthetic that promoted art as a tool for advancing socialist ideals, often through idealized depictions of the working class.	Eagleton critiques its eventual degeneration under Stalinism as a reduction of art to political propaganda.
Formalism	A literary theory focused on the structure and form of literary texts rather than their content.	Eagleton discusses its relevance in the Russian context, particularly in contrast to Marxist materialist approaches.
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols in language and literature, analyzing how meaning is produced.	Eagleton points to critics like Galvano Della Volpe, who combined Marxist theory with semiotic analysis of texts.
Bourgeois Culture	The culture of the middle/upper class, often critiqued in Marxism for being tied to capitalist interests.	Marxist critics debate whether bourgeois culture should be assimilated or destroyed in revolutionary practice.
Hegelianism	A philosophical tradition based on the work of Hegel, emphasizing dialectics and historical development.	Influences Marxist aesthetics, particularly in the work of Lukács and the Frankfurt School.
Proletkult	A Soviet cultural movement that aimed to develop a new, proletarian art form distinct from bourgeois culture.	Eagleton discusses its failure to produce a lasting materialist aesthetic, overshadowed by socialist realism.
Textual Ideology	The idea that literary texts carry implicit ideologies related to the class structures of society.	Marxist critics analyze how ideology manifests in literature, often through contradictions and ambiguities.
Conjuncture	A specific historical moment where different forces or modes of criticism collide or intersect.	Eagleton uses this concept to describe key periods in Marxist criticism, such as the aftermath of the Bolshevik Revolution.

Contribution of “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Beyond “Reflectionism”: Eagleton criticizes simplistic views that see literature as merely reflecting social structures. He argues for a more complex understanding where literary texts are shaped by, but also potentially challenge, dominant ideologies.
Multiple Strata of Marxist Criticism: Eagleton identifies different historical moments and trends within Marxist criticism. He highlights the tension between “reflectionism,” revolutionary aesthetics, and the focus on textual production and semiotics.
The Importance of the Bolshevik Revolution: The essay emphasizes the pivotal role of the Bolshevik revolution in shaping Marxist criticism. It brought various critical modes like revolutionary aesthetics, formalism, and futurism into sharp focus.

The Need for Conjuncture: Eagleton proposes the necessity of a “conjuncture” where historical materialism combines with the strengths of other critical approaches. This includes attention to:
- Textual Form and Ideology: Building on Hegelian aesthetics, a focus on how form, value, ideology, and history interrelate within a text.
- Material Practice and Production: Analyzing literature as a form of production with its own social relations, drawing from the work of Brecht and Benjamin.
- Textual Codes and Conventions: Studying how meaning is constructed through language and codes, as explored by Formalism and semiotics.
Against Eclecticism: Eagleton argues against simply borrowing from different approaches. He emphasizes the need for a rigorous and unified “scientific aesthetics” grounded in historical materialism.

Examples of Critiques Through “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Marxist Critique
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	While Austen’s novel critiques the superficiality of class-based marriage, it also reinforces the patriarchal norms of the time. The characters’ concerns with wealth, status, and marriage proposals reflect the societal pressures of the era.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Fitzgerald’s novel exposes the emptiness of the American Dream and the corrupting influence of wealth. The characters’ pursuit of material success and their ultimate downfall highlight the destructive nature of capitalism.
The Jungle by Upton Sinclair	Sinclair’s novel provides a scathing critique of the capitalist system through its depiction of the harsh working conditions and exploitation of immigrant workers in the meatpacking industry. The novel calls for social and economic reforms to address the injustices faced by the working class.
Invisible Man by Ralph Ellison	Ellison’s novel explores the experiences of an unnamed African American protagonist who struggles to find his identity in a racist society. The novel critiques the invisibility and marginalization of Black people in America, highlighting the systemic racism embedded within the capitalist system.

Criticism Against “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Lack of a Fully Developed Aesthetic Theory by Marx and Engels
- Critics argue that Marx and Engels did not formulate a comprehensive or systematic theory of art and aesthetics, making later Marxist critics rely on fragmented insights.
Overemphasis on Material Conditions at the Expense of Artistic Autonomy
- Some argue that Marxist criticism reduces art to mere reflections of economic and social conditions, neglecting the autonomy of artistic creativity and innovation.

Simplistic Reflectionism in Early Marxist Critics
- Eagleton critiques the simplistic notion of “reflectionism,” particularly in the works of Georgi Plekhanov, which suggests that literature directly mirrors class structures without accounting for the complexity of artistic representation.
Reduction of Art to Political Propaganda in Socialist Realism
- The concept of socialist realism, particularly during Stalinism, is seen as a reductive approach to art that forces it into political propaganda, stifling creativity and diversity in literary expression.
Internal Contradictions within Marxist Criticism
- Marxist literary criticism struggles with its own contradictions, such as whether bourgeois culture should be assimilated or destroyed, or whether artistic value can be separated from political progressiveness.

Over-reliance on Historical Contextualization
- Critics suggest that Marxist criticism sometimes focuses too heavily on the historical and material context of literature, potentially ignoring the aesthetic, formal, or symbolic elements of texts.
Neglect of the Formal and Semiotic Aspects of Literature
- While Eagleton acknowledges the importance of formalism and semiotics, critics note that traditional Marxist criticism often overlooks the intrinsic formal properties of a literary text in favor of broader ideological or material concerns.
Eclecticism in Contemporary Materialist Criticism
- Eagleton critiques the eclectic nature of contemporary materialist criticism, which often lacks a coherent methodology and borrows too freely from other theoretical approaches, diluting its effectiveness.

Failure to Adequately Address Modern Forms of Art and Literature
- Some critics argue that Marxist literary criticism struggles to deal with contemporary, postmodern forms of art and literature, which do not easily fit into its frameworks based on realism, class struggle, and historical materialism.

Representative Quotations from “Marxist Literary Criticism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Marxist criticism begins, naturally, with the work of Marx and Engels themselves.”	Eagleton emphasizes the foundational role of Marx and Engels in Marxist literary criticism, though their work on literature was often fragmentary.
“…it is still remarkable how many of the issues now central to the development of a Marxist criticism emerge in embryonic form in their oeuvre.”	Despite the lack of a systematic theory, Eagleton highlights how Marx and Engels laid the groundwork for many key topics in Marxist literary criticism.
“It is the materialist method of the Grundrisse and Capital, not hints gleaned from the ‘literary criticism’, which must form the basis of anything worthy of the title of a ‘Marxist criticism’.”	Eagleton argues that Marxist criticism should be based on the broader materialist method of Marx’s economic and social theories, not just literary insights.
“The problem for Marxist criticism… is how it comes about that history produces (and reproduces) that set of ambiguous significations which we term the literary text.”	Eagleton identifies a key challenge for Marxist criticism: understanding how historical processes produce literary texts and the meanings they carry.
“Before the revolution, Marxist criticism was nurtured largely in the shadow of the later Engels.”	Eagleton discusses how early Marxist criticism was heavily influenced by Engels, whose approach combined sociological and anthropological insights.
“…socialist realism, the concept of literary partisanship, degenerate into the theoretical nullity of proletkult and its Stalinist aftermath.”	This quote critiques the decline of socialist realism into a tool for political propaganda under Stalinism, losing its critical and aesthetic value.
“The epistemological problem: is art reflection, refraction, creation, transformation, reproduction, production?”	Eagleton outlines the complex theoretical issues that Marxist criticism faces when trying to define the relationship between art and society.
“The failure to achieve this synthesis has had dire consequences; as the strata have been wedged apart, each has displayed a tendency to subside internally under its own unsupported weight.”	Eagleton laments the fragmentation of different critical approaches within Marxist criticism, resulting in their internal weaknesses.
“One might formulate the problem paradoxically by saying that our best Marxist critic – Raymond Williams – is not in fact a Marxist.”	Eagleton provocatively suggests that while Raymond Williams made significant contributions to literary criticism, he does not fully embody Marxist theory.
“…the need for a scientific aesthetics cannot be ignored.”	Eagleton concludes by calling for a more rigorous, systematic approach to aesthetics within Marxist literary criticism to go beyond mere interpretation.

“The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1967 in the journal New Blackfriars, is considered a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory.

Introduction: “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

“The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1967 in the journal New Blackfriars, is considered a significant contribution to the fields of literature and literary theory. Eagleton argues that liberalism, while valuable in promoting individual rights and freedoms, ultimately fails to address the underlying social and economic inequalities that perpetuate injustice. He critiques liberalism’s emphasis on formal equality and its neglect of the structural power imbalances that shape society. This essay helped to establish Eagleton as a leading figure in Marxist literary criticism and continues to be widely discussed and debated in academic circles.

Summary of “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

The Focus on Liberal Christian Tradition
Terry Eagleton critiques Rosemary Haughton’s book as a significant contribution to liberal Christian thought. It successfully connects psychological, literary, and Christian insights to explore themes like love, freedom, and maturity in personal relationships. However, Eagleton argues that the book is deeply embedded in the liberal tradition, focusing on personal experience and neglecting broader societal structures, politics, and history.
The Limits of Individualism and Personal Experience
Eagleton notes that Haughton’s focus is primarily on individual experience and the psychological dimensions of human relationships. This leads to a narrow interpretation of what it means to be human. While the personal aspects are sensitively handled, the exclusion of political and historical struggles, collective actions, and broader social commitments weakens the analysis of humanity.

Critique of Christian Liberalism’s Inward Focus
According to Eagleton, Christian liberalism, as represented in Haughton’s work, emphasizes an inward spiritual experience over external social realities. This creates a dualism between the personal and societal, where external actions and institutions are seen as mere aids to personal spiritual growth, rather than integral components of human experience. Eagleton argues that Christianity should integrate personal and political dimensions rather than treating them separately.
The Problem of Liberalism’s Open-Endedness
Eagleton critiques the liberal emphasis on openness and exploration without commitment to specific truths or actions. He draws parallels to Mill, Arnold, and Leavis in this regard, suggesting that Haughton’s perspective prioritizes openness and self-exploration over firm commitment to political or religious truths. This results in a version of Christianity that lacks depth and fails to address real social change.
The Dualism of Flesh and Spirit
Haughton’s approach reinforces a Cartesian dualism between flesh and spirit, where the body and social institutions are necessary but secondary to the spiritual life. Eagleton challenges this view, asserting that Christian and political radicalism involve transforming the “flesh” or material reality into a language through which the spirit is expressed. This holistic view contrasts with the liberal tendency to separate the inward and external aspects of life.

Inadequate Integration of the Social and Political
Eagleton contends that liberal Christianity, as portrayed in Haughton’s book, alienates political and social behaviors from the authentic self. He argues that political and social structures are not external constraints but integral parts of human experience and freedom. By relegating politics to the external, liberalism fails to engage with the full complexity of human life.
The Role of Rules and Culture
Eagleton praises Haughton’s metaphor of learning the rules of perspective in art, suggesting that this is an insightful description of how human culture works. Humans internalize rules and conventions that make their experiences meaningful. However, Eagleton believes Haughton undercuts this insight by treating rules as superficial scaffolding rather than essential structures for human life and relationships.
The Need for Radical Transformation
In conclusion, Eagleton calls for a more radical approach that surpasses the limits of liberalism. He argues that a true Christian and political radicalism must integrate personal experience with social and political realities, rather than treating them as separate or in opposition. Until this integration is achieved, liberalism will remain limited in its ability to effect meaningful social change.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in “The Limits of Liberalism”
Liberalism	A political and philosophical ideology emphasizing individual freedom, personal rights, and open inquiry.	Eagleton critiques the liberal Christian tradition, which emphasizes personal experience over broader political and social realities.
Dualism	The division of two opposing forces or concepts, such as body vs. spirit or individual vs. society.	Eagleton highlights the dualism in Haughton’s work between inward spiritual life and external social structures.
Christian Liberalism	A strand of Christianity that emphasizes personal spirituality and exploration, often at the expense of dogma.	Eagleton critiques this focus for its lack of engagement with political and social action.
Dogma	A principle or set of principles laid down by an authority as incontrovertibly true.	Eagleton contrasts liberalism’s open-endedness with the commitment and exclusivity often associated with Christian dogma.
Individualism	The focus on the individual’s self-expression and autonomy, often in contrast to collective or societal norms.	Eagleton critiques Haughton for prioritizing individual spiritual growth over social or political engagement.
Sacrament	A religious ceremony regarded as an outward and visible sign of inward and spiritual divine grace.	Eagleton discusses how Haughton downplays the role of material and social structures in favor of inward spiritual authenticity.
Romanticism	A literary and cultural movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature.	Eagleton references Romanticism when critiquing Haughton’s view of personal spiritual freedom as opposed to broader social institutions.
Political Radicalism	A belief in fundamental societal change, often through revolutionary or profound structural transformation.	Eagleton contrasts Christian liberalism’s personal focus with political radicalism, which seeks to transform society as a whole.
Cartesian Dualism	A philosophical term referring to Descartes’ division between mind (spirit) and body (flesh).	Eagleton critiques the dualism in Haughton’s work that separates the flesh (social reality) from the spirit (authentic inner life).
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities beyond the literal meaning.	Eagleton discusses how external actions and social institutions can be seen as symbols through which spiritual life is expressed.
Situational Ethics	The idea that ethical decisions should be based on the context of a situation rather than fixed moral rules.	Eagleton identifies this approach in Haughton’s work, where external actions and moral codes are considered secondary to inward authenticity.
Cultural Alienation	The feeling of being estranged from the dominant values or norms of society.	Eagleton argues that Haughton’s liberalism leads to a political alienation where personal authenticity is separated from social engagement.

Contribution of “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

This excerpt from Eagleton’s “The Limits of Liberalism” critiques Rosemary Haughton’s book “Trying to be Human.” Here are some key points of Eagleton’s argument, focusing on specific theories from the text:

Limited Scope: Eagleton argues Haughton focuses too narrowly on the personal and psychological aspects of Christianity, neglecting the social, political, and historical context (p. 353). He suggests a more complete picture requires considering collective action and social struggles (p. 353).
Liberal Oversimplification: Eagleton criticizes Haughton’s portrayal of Christianity as solely promoting openness, exploration, and self-discovery. He argues Christianity also has a history, doctrines, and commitments that define it (p. 354).

Individual vs. Societal: Eagleton finds fault with Haughton’s view of Christianity opposing social structures and institutions. He argues that authentic human relationships and communication exist within these structures, not entirely separate from them (p. 354-355).
False Duality: Eagleton criticizes the book’s portrayal of a split between “spirit” and “flesh.” He argues that external structures like laws, customs, and institutions are not just limitations but also the language through which the spirit expresses itself (p. 354-356).
Importance of Rules: Eagleton disagrees with the book’s suggestion that rules and codes are merely external constraints on authenticity. He argues that interiorizing them is essential for human culture and authentic living (p. 356-357).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique
Rosemary Haughton’s Trying to be Human	Overemphasis on the personal and psychological aspects of Christianity, neglecting the social, political, and historical context.
John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty	Liberal emphasis on individual rights and freedoms without considering the structural power imbalances that shape society.
Matthew Arnold’s Culture and Anarchy	Liberal belief in the power of culture to improve society without addressing underlying social and economic inequalities.
E.M. Forster’s A Passage to India	Liberal portrayal of the clash between East and West as a conflict between individual freedom and cultural tradition, neglecting the power dynamics of colonialism.

Criticism Against “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton

Narrow Focus on Personal Experience
Eagleton is criticized for placing too much emphasis on the personal, psychological, and individual dimensions of Christianity, neglecting broader societal, political, and historical perspectives.
Overemphasis on Dualism
Eagleton’s critique of liberalism often hinges on a dualistic view of personal versus societal, or flesh versus spirit, which some critics argue oversimplifies the relationship between individual and collective experience.
Lack of Engagement with the Positive Aspects of Liberalism
Critics might argue that Eagleton fails to acknowledge the strengths of liberalism, such as its emphasis on personal freedom, individual rights, and openness to multiple viewpoints, which can be seen as vital in a pluralistic society.

Dismissal of Exploration and Openness
Eagleton’s critique of liberalism’s emphasis on openness, exploration, and personal honesty may be seen as too harsh, especially since these values are often considered crucial for intellectual and spiritual growth.
Insufficient Consideration of Modern Liberal Thought
Eagleton’s critique largely focuses on traditional liberalism without sufficiently addressing the evolution of liberal thought, especially its more recent attempts to incorporate social justice, political activism, and institutional change.
Heavy Reliance on Christian Radicalism
Some critics may argue that Eagleton’s call for a more radical, politicized version of Christianity is overly idealistic and may not resonate with the practical realities of contemporary faith communities.

Tendency to Romanticize Radicalism
Eagleton’s preference for political radicalism over the more gradual, reformist tendencies of liberalism might be criticized for romanticizing revolutionary change without fully accounting for the complexities and risks involved.
Overgeneralization of Liberalism’s Limitations
Eagleton’s blanket critique of liberalism as being disconnected from real social change might overlook the fact that liberal values have played a significant role in progressive reforms and political movements throughout history.

Representative Quotations from “The Limits of Liberalism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The liberal tradition is not the only one in modern Christianity, and when it stands alone, as it does here, it demonstrates at once its strengths and failures.”	Eagleton acknowledges both the strengths and weaknesses of the liberal Christian tradition, indicating that its focus on individual experience can be valuable, but insufficient without addressing broader societal issues.
“The meaning of the human, the book implicitly suggests, is precisely in this deeper entry into an understanding of felt relationship.”	Eagleton critiques Haughton’s narrow focus on personal relationships as the core of humanity, ignoring the political and collective dimensions that shape human experience.
“The Christian life is characterized as a search, an exploration… But like radical politics, it unites this openness with a closedness.”	Eagleton points out that while exploration is important in Christianity, it must be coupled with commitment to certain truths or actions, a balance lacking in liberalism’s constant openness.
“The liberal, unending openness, objectified to a goal— a dogma— by an English liberal tradition…is no more satisfying in itself than the closed and killing dogmatism of the English Communist Party.”	Eagleton critiques liberalism’s tendency toward indefinite openness without firm commitments, comparing it to the opposite extreme of rigid dogmatism, which is equally unsatisfactory.
“The second, major defect of Christian liberalism is an option for the inward against the external, the personal against society.”	This quote captures Eagleton’s central criticism of liberalism’s inward focus on personal spirituality at the expense of engaging with external social and political realities.
“The fact that these are not scaffolding, but the structure of the spirit, the ways in which human life becomes real and formulable, is then blurred over.”	Eagleton argues that external structures like social institutions are not mere aids to spirituality but essential elements that give form and meaning to human life, a nuance overlooked in Haughton’s liberal view.
“Politics…deals with the outside aspects of humanity, the personal-authentic-psychological with the real inwardness.”	This reflects Eagleton’s critique of liberalism’s separation of politics from personal authenticity, suggesting that political behavior is as integral to human identity as inward spiritual experience.
“Human beings live by actively interiorizing rules, codes, conventions…which make that experience humanly possible.”	Eagleton emphasizes the importance of social conventions and rules in shaping human experience, countering the liberal preference for spontaneous, unstructured personal freedom.
“Christians are virtuous not by rejecting rules and codes…but by coming to act spontaneously in accordance with them.”	Eagleton highlights the Christian ideal of internalizing moral and social rules, aligning them with personal virtue, contrasting this with liberalism’s tendency to reject external rules.
“When rules are set against authenticity, a whole set of dualisms follow: law against spontaneity, politics against the individual, flesh against spirit.”	This quote summarizes Eagleton’s critique of the false dualisms created by liberalism, where rules and societal structures are seen as opposed to personal authenticity and spiritual freedom.

“The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1983 in the New Literary History journal, has been instrumental in shaping the landscape of literary theory.

Introduction: “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

“The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1983 in the New Literary History journal, has been instrumental in shaping the landscape of literary theory. His exploration of the role of criticism in society and its relationship to power has had a profound impact on scholars and students alike. The book’s second edition, reprinted by Verso in 1984, solidified its status as a foundational text in literary studies.

Summary of “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

1. Criticism vs. Creation:

Eagleton highlights the historical distinction between criticism and creative works. Creative activity is considered superior to criticism, as seen in Wordsworth’s view that time spent on criticism would be better devoted to original composition. However, Eagleton argues that criticism is essential for the development of a rich intellectual environment that can nurture creative genius.

Reference: Wordsworth’s letters reflect his belief in the supremacy of creative works over criticism (p. 26).

2. The Role of Criticism in Society:

Criticism’s purpose is to “see the object as in itself it really is,” offering a clear and truthful reflection on literature, theology, philosophy, art, and science. Criticism helps establish a coherent intellectual climate that provides the creative powers with the ideas and materials they need to thrive.

Reference: Eagleton emphasizes the importance of establishing a “current of true and fresh ideas” (p. 28).

3. Critical Power as a Precursor to Creation:

Great literary epochs are rare because they require not only the creative power of individuals but also the presence of an intellectual atmosphere rich in ideas. Criticism helps lay the groundwork for these ideas, preparing the elements necessary for creative genius to flourish.

Reference: “The creative power has, for its happy exercise, appointed elements” that are often shaped by the critical power (p. 29).

4. Criticism and Historical Movements:

Eagleton draws a comparison between the intellectual underpinnings of the French Revolution and earlier disinterested intellectual movements, such as the Renaissance. He argues that the practical, political focus of the Revolution limited its potential for generating significant creative works.

Reference: The political nature of the French Revolution contrasted with the intellectual movements of the Renaissance (p. 32).

5. The Practical Application of Ideas:

Criticism should maintain its independence from practical concerns, focusing instead on intellectual rigor and disinterested examination. Critics should avoid being swayed by political or practical interests, ensuring that their work contributes to intellectual and cultural growth.

Reference: Eagleton emphasizes the need for criticism to be “disinterested” and free from practical ends (p. 36).

6. The Influence of Criticism on National Culture:

In Eagleton’s view, English culture has historically undervalued intellectual curiosity and free play of the mind, prioritizing practical concerns over the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake. Criticism can help counteract this tendency by encouraging a more open engagement with new ideas.

Reference: “The practical man” in England resists intellectual exploration, preferring action over thought (p. 41).

7. Criticism’s Slow but Crucial Role:

Though Eagleton acknowledges that the impact of criticism may seem slow and subtle, he insists that it is essential for the development of higher truths and the broadening of cultural perspectives. The critic must resist the allure of immediate practical outcomes in favor of long-term intellectual progress.

Reference: Criticism’s proper work is “slow and obscure,” but it is necessary for cultivating adequate ideas (p. 40).

8. The Ideal of Disinterested Criticism:

Eagleton argues that true criticism must be disinterested, focusing on the pursuit of knowledge and understanding rather than aligning with specific political or practical agendas. This ideal ensures that criticism contributes meaningfully to cultural and intellectual development.

Reference: Criticism must “know the best that is known and thought in the world” without becoming entangled in practical considerations (p. 37).

9. Criticism’s Future:

Eagleton envisions a future where criticism plays a central role in fostering creative activity by developing a rich intellectual atmosphere. While criticism itself may not offer the same fulfillment as creative work, it lays the foundation for future generations of artists and thinkers.
Reference: Criticism prepares the groundwork for a “promised land” of creative activity, even if the critic does not directly participate in it (p. 49).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Eagleton’s Text
Criticism	The analysis, interpretation, and evaluation of literary works.	Eagleton argues that criticism involves seeing “the object as in itself it really is” and establishing a current of true ideas that influence creative work. He sees it as a crucial precursor to creation, forming the intellectual environment in which creative genius can flourish.
Creative Power	The ability to produce original literary or artistic work, considered the highest form of human intellectual activity.	Eagleton recognizes that the creative power is superior to criticism but asserts that criticism is necessary for the creative power to have the intellectual materials (ideas) it needs to work with effectively.
Disinterestedness	A critical approach that is free from political, practical, or personal bias.	Eagleton insists that criticism should remain disinterested, meaning that it should not serve practical or political interests. Instead, it should focus purely on the intellectual task of understanding and spreading the best knowledge and ideas.
Intellectual Atmosphere	The environment of ideas and knowledge within which creative works are produced.	According to Eagleton, great creative epochs arise when there is a rich intellectual atmosphere. Criticism helps build this atmosphere by developing and circulating ideas that can inspire and nourish creativity.
Epoch of Creation	A period in history marked by significant and original creative activity.	Eagleton argues that epochs of creative power are rare and often rely on the intellectual work done in preceding times of criticism. He refers to past creative periods like those of Aeschylus and Shakespeare as examples of times when criticism had already prepared the necessary intellectual climate.
Synthesis	The combination of ideas to form a cohesive and comprehensive whole.	Eagleton describes the role of creative genius as one of synthesis, meaning that it works by combining existing ideas in new and effective ways, rather than by discovering new ideas (which is more the work of philosophers).
Intellectual Progress	The advancement of knowledge, understanding, and the quality of ideas within a culture or society.	Eagleton sees criticism as central to intellectual progress, helping society move beyond narrow or outdated ideas by critically engaging with the best ideas available, regardless of their practical or political consequences.
The Practical Spirit	A mindset focused on the utility and application of ideas in everyday, political, or economic life.	Eagleton criticizes the “practical spirit” of English society, which prioritizes practical outcomes over intellectual exploration. He argues that criticism must avoid becoming entangled with this spirit in order to truly contribute to intellectual and cultural progress.
Free Play of the Mind	The unrestrained exploration of ideas for their own sake, without concern for practical applications.	Eagleton champions the “free play of the mind” as essential to criticism. He argues that criticism should value ideas in themselves, seeking to understand them without regard to whether they serve practical, political, or economic interests.
Creative Epochs	Periods in history when literature and art flourish, producing great works.	Eagleton asserts that such epochs require a rich intellectual environment prepared by criticism. He contrasts epochs of creation with epochs of intellectual stagnation, where criticism has failed to establish the necessary intellectual atmosphere for creativity.
Intellectual and Spiritual Expansion	A period where thought and culture grow dynamically, embracing new ideas and perspectives.	Eagleton contrasts this with periods of concentration, where society turns inward and intellectual stagnation occurs. He suggests that criticism should aim to foster intellectual and spiritual expansion by engaging with ideas disinterestedly and promoting fresh, true ideas.
Philistinism	A derogatory term for the rejection or undervaluing of culture, intellectual pursuits, and the arts.	Eagleton uses “Philistinism” to describe the tendency in English society to prioritize practical concerns over intellectual and cultural activities, a mindset that he argues criticism should actively work to counter.

Contribution of “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory/Theory	Eagleton’s Contribution	Reference from “The Function of Criticism”
New Historicism	Eagleton’s emphasis on the intellectual and historical context shaping literary creation aligns with New Historicism, which views literature as a product of its historical circumstances. He highlights how literature cannot exist in a vacuum and requires a rich intellectual atmosphere shaped by criticism.	Eagleton discusses how great literary epochs depend on the “power of the moment” and the intellectual conditions surrounding them (p. 29).
Marxist Literary Theory	Eagleton contributes to Marxist theory by discussing the material and intellectual conditions necessary for great creative works to emerge. He argues that criticism plays a role in establishing an intellectual climate, which in turn allows for the flourishing of literature, suggesting a dialectical relationship between society and art.	“The critical power… tends to establish an order of ideas” and enables the creation of literature by ensuring the best ideas of the time are available (p. 28).
Cultural Materialism	Eagleton’s insistence on the importance of cultural and intellectual forces in shaping literary production resonates with Cultural Materialism. He critiques English society’s fixation on practical concerns, arguing that criticism must remain disinterested and independent from political or economic interests.	Eagleton critiques the “practical spirit” of English society and emphasizes the importance of criticism being independent of practical concerns (p. 36).
Poststructuralism	Eagleton critiques the hierarchical relationship between creative and critical power, which challenges traditional notions of authority in literature. He argues that criticism is not subordinate to creation but essential to enabling the conditions for creation, which resonates with poststructuralist decentering of authority.	Eagleton challenges the idea that “the critical power is of lower rank than the creative” and argues for the value of criticism in enabling creation (p. 27).
Reader-Response Theory	Although Eagleton does not directly engage with Reader-Response Theory, his emphasis on criticism shaping intellectual climates implies that critics influence how texts are understood. By establishing currents of true ideas, criticism affects how readers and future critics interpret and engage with literary works.	Eagleton discusses how criticism helps create “a current of true and fresh ideas,” which impacts the way literary works are received and understood by readers and critics (p. 37).
Romanticism vs. Enlightenment Debate	Eagleton contrasts Romanticism’s focus on creativity with Enlightenment ideals of reason and critical inquiry. He criticizes Romantic thinkers like Wordsworth for undervaluing criticism, suggesting that Enlightenment-style critical effort is essential for sustained creativity, thus engaging with the Romanticism-Enlightenment debate.	Wordsworth’s view of criticism as inferior to creative activity is critiqued, as Eagleton argues that the critical effort is necessary to produce substantial and long-lasting creative work (p. 27).
Humanism	Eagleton contributes to the humanist tradition by emphasizing the role of criticism in fostering intellectual growth and human perfection. He suggests that criticism helps individuals and societies to move beyond self-satisfaction and toward a more profound understanding of ideas and culture, a key tenet of humanist thought.	Eagleton states that criticism should “lead man towards perfection” by engaging with the best ideas and fostering an intellectual climate that values excellence (p. 37).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Example of Critique Using Eagleton’s “The Function of Criticism”
William Wordsworth’s “The Prelude”	Critique would focus on how Wordsworth’s poetry could have benefited from a richer intellectual atmosphere. Eagleton suggests that Wordsworth, despite his creative genius, lacked a broader engagement with literature, especially German thinkers like Goethe, which limited the philosophical depth and variety of his poetic thought.
Lord Byron’s “Don Juan”	Eagleton would critique Byron’s work for its lack of critical foundation, arguing that while Byron possessed strong creative power, his poetry lacks the intellectual rigor and knowledge of life and the world that would sustain it. The absence of a strong critical environment left Byron’s work comparatively “empty of matter.”
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s “Faust”	Eagleton praises Goethe as an example of how strong critical engagement enriches creative output. Goethe’s work, particularly “Faust,” would be seen as nourished by his intellectual engagement with life, literature, and criticism. Goethe’s wide-ranging learning and synthesis of ideas serve as a model for how criticism fosters enduring creativity.
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Prometheus Unbound”	Shelley’s poetry, like Byron’s, would be critiqued for its incoherence, which Eagleton might attribute to a lack of sufficient critical foundation. Although rich in passion and energy, Shelley’s work suffers from an intellectual environment that failed to fully engage with the complexities of modern thought, making his poetry less coherent and less enduring.

Criticism Against “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton

Overemphasis on Ideas: Critics argue that Eagleton’s focus on ideas and intellectual atmosphere is excessive, neglecting the importance of other factors such as social, cultural, and historical contexts in shaping literary production.

Underestimation of Creative Intuition: Some contend that Eagleton downplays the role of intuition and creative genius in literary creation. They argue that great works of art often emerge from subconscious impulses rather than conscious intellectual effort.
Historical Specificity: Critics have questioned the generalizability of Eagleton’s claims. They argue that his observations about the relationship between criticism and creativity may not hold true in all historical and cultural contexts.
Limited Definition of Criticism: Eagleton’s definition of criticism as “the free play of the mind on all subjects” has been criticized as overly narrow. Some argue that criticism can also involve other forms of engagement, such as interpretation, evaluation, and social commentary.

Neglect of Power Dynamics: Critics have suggested that Eagleton’s focus on ideas and intellectual atmosphere overlooks the power dynamics that shape literary production and reception. They argue that factors such as class, race, and gender can significantly influence the production and consumption of literature.
Overemphasis on Western Canon: Some critics have accused Eagleton of privileging Western literature and Western intellectual traditions. They argue that his analysis does not adequately account for the diverse literary traditions and critical practices found around the world.

Representative Quotations from “The Function of Criticism” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The critical power is of lower rank than the creative. True; but…men may have the sense of exercising this free creative activity in other ways than in producing great works of literature or art.”	Eagleton acknowledges that creative work is often valued more than criticism but argues that critical activity also involves creativity, as it engages with intellectual ideas and helps shape the conditions for future creativity.
“Criticism must maintain its independence of the practical spirit and its aims.”	Eagleton stresses that criticism should remain detached from political, practical, and material interests. This disinterestedness allows criticism to focus purely on intellectual growth and avoid being manipulated by external pressures or interests.
“Its business is to do this with inflexible honesty, with due ability; but its business is to do no more.”	Criticism’s primary role is to disseminate and understand the best knowledge and ideas available. Eagleton suggests that it must stay within its own domain and not become involved in broader political or practical applications.
“It is the business of the critical power…to see the object as in itself it really is.”	This statement reflects Eagleton’s belief that criticism should strive to understand works of literature and art in their purest form, without distorting them to fit preconceived notions, ideologies, or practical agendas.
“The exercise of creative power in the production of great works of literature…is not at all epochs and under all conditions possible.”	Eagleton argues that not all historical moments are ripe for great creative works. The conditions necessary for such works—such as the intellectual atmosphere and critical foundation—must be in place, and these are shaped by criticism.
“Criticism first; a time of true creative activity, perhaps…when criticism has done its work.”	Eagleton asserts that criticism often precedes periods of creative flourishing. The critical analysis and circulation of ideas help to build the intellectual climate that fosters the production of great literary works.
“The grand work of literary genius is a work of synthesis and exposition, not of analysis and discovery.”	Here, Eagleton defines the role of literary creation as combining and presenting ideas rather than discovering new ideas, which he views as more of a philosophical endeavor. Critics help by making those ideas available for synthesis by creative geniuses.
“A free play of the mind upon all subjects, being an essential provider of elements, without which a nation’s spirit must, in the long run, die of inanition.”	Eagleton emphasizes that the intellectual freedom to explore ideas is crucial for the health of a society’s culture and spirit. Without such freedom, both the creative and critical faculties will stagnate.
“Men may have the sense of exercising free creative activity in criticising.”	Eagleton reframes the role of criticism by suggesting that, although it is often seen as secondary to creation, it too is a form of creative engagement. Critics can exercise their intellectual faculties in meaningful and innovative ways.
“Disinterestedness…means simply keeping aloof from what is called ‘the practical view of things.'”	Eagleton stresses the need for criticism to be objective and detached, focused solely on the intellectual and artistic value of works rather than their practical applications or immediate societal benefits. This helps criticism remain pure in its purpose.

“The End of English” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“The End of English” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1986 in the Journal of Literary Studies, is considered a pivotal moment in the evolution of literary theory.

Introduction: “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

“The End of English” by Terry Eagleton, first appeared in 1986 in the Journal of Literary Studies, is considered a pivotal moment in the evolution of literary theory, marking a shift away from traditional approaches and embracing a more politically conscious and interdisciplinary perspective. Eagleton’s essay challenges the notion of English literature as a unified and timeless body of work, instead arguing that it is a socially constructed discourse shaped by historical, political, and economic forces. This groundbreaking insight has had a profound impact on the field of literary studies, inspiring scholars to examine literature within broader cultural and ideological contexts.

Summary of “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Colonial Modernism as a Literary Revolt
Eagleton explores how Irish and American writers like James Joyce and T.S. Eliot used their outsider status to challenge and transform English literary traditions. These writers, free from the emotional ties to England, “objectify and appropriate” its traditions to their own ends, positioning themselves both “inside and outside” the dominant discourse. This allowed for a “profoundly dialogical” form of modernism, where peripheral figures like Joyce and Synge exploited English conventions while subtly mocking them. As Eagleton notes, modernist writers “revealingly inhabit English culture” but maintain a critical distance from it.
English Literary Tradition as Imperialist and Nationalist
The Victorian era’s English literature reflected the anxieties of the imperial middle class, attempting to establish a unified national identity. However, this identity was challenged by three interrelated events: World War I, modernism, and shifts in capitalist production. Eagleton argues that modern English literature “was violently assailed” by these global forces, creating a tension between national cultural formations and a rising internationalism. This led to English literary criticism adopting a regressive stance, turning back toward an “imaginary past” rather than engaging with the radical modernist movement.

Modernism vs. Englishness
Eagleton discusses how modernism, rooted in cosmopolitanism and transgression, collided with English nationalism. He draws a distinction between modernism’s borderless, international vision and the insular, reactionary nature of the English literary establishment, represented by figures like F.R. Leavis. The struggle of modernism to find acceptance in England is explained by the nation’s “resistance to subversive cultural forms” and its focus on maintaining national identity through literary realism and liberal empiricism. This resulted in modernism being seen as a foreign aberration and pushed to the margins of English culture.
The Decline of Empire and the Collapse of “Englishness”
Eagleton posits that English literature’s global significance was buttressed by the reach of the British Empire, which allowed the English language to “subsume all regional particularities” and position itself as a universal medium. However, with the decline of empire, English literature began to lose its global guarantee. Eagleton refers to this as the “pathetic farce” of Commonwealth Literature, marking the diminishing global relevance of English literature. The “loss of empire” marked a significant blow to the cultural ideology of Englishness.
Postmodernism and the Erosion of Liberal Humanism
Eagleton highlights how postmodernism has further threatened the ideology of “Englishness.” He identifies the audio-visual dominance of contemporary culture as symptomatic of this threat, noting that while postmodernism deconstructs traditional literary forms, it also exposes the “increasing irrelevance” of English literary discourse. Eagleton notes the irony that postmodern theories of cultural relativism and intertextuality have arisen at a time when Englishness is “culturally speaking, pretty much like North America,” stripped of its unique identity and authenticity.

Theory as the New Battleground
In the absence of a vibrant national literature, Eagleton argues that critical theory has become the new space for contesting cultural and political ideas. He draws a parallel between the earlier struggles of modernism and contemporary theory, suggesting that the debates over “high modernism” are being re-enacted within literary criticism today. The rise of theory represents a shift away from traditional Englishness and towards a more international, politically charged discourse.

Quotations:

“It is the colonised and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth.”
“English literature was violently assailed by three phenomena: the Great War, the explosion of modernism, and the mutation of the capitalist mode of production.”

“Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Eagleton’s Context
Modernism	A movement in literature and the arts characterized by a break with traditional forms.	Eagleton examines how modernist writers like Joyce and Eliot, positioned outside the English tradition, challenged and subverted its conventions, bringing in international and cosmopolitan elements.
Colonialism	The practice of acquiring political control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.	Eagleton connects the rise of English literature with British imperialism and shows how colonized writers used the English language to critique and subvert imperial culture.
Liberal Humanism	An ideology that emphasizes the autonomy of the individual, moral values, and universal truths.	Eagleton argues that the English literary tradition is steeped in liberal humanism, which is increasingly irrelevant in the postmodern and post-colonial world.
Postmodernism	A cultural, artistic, and literary movement characterized by a rejection of traditional narratives, embracing relativism and fragmentation.	Postmodernism, according to Eagleton, poses a significant threat to the ideology of “Englishness,” especially as it undermines fixed narratives and notions of cultural stability.
Cosmopolitanism	The ideology that all human beings belong to a single community based on shared morality.	Eagleton highlights the cosmopolitan nature of modernist writers, who transcended national boundaries and engaged with diverse literary traditions.
Parody	A work created to imitate, make fun of, or comment on an original work, often as a form of critique.	Eagleton describes how modernist writers like Joyce parodied English literary conventions, using them as tools to both inhabit and critique English culture.
Imperialism	A policy of extending a country’s power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means.	Eagleton links the rise of English literature and its academic study to the British Empire’s desire to create a cohesive national identity, now challenged by post-colonial and global developments.
Hegemony	The dominance of one group over others, culturally, politically, or ideologically.	Eagleton sees the English literary tradition as an expression of bourgeois, imperial hegemony, which is now being undermined by modernist and postmodernist forces.
Avant-garde	Works that are experimental, radical, or unorthodox, particularly in art and literature.	Eagleton discusses how modernist writers, operating from the margins, adopted avant-garde techniques to break away from bourgeois and imperialist literary traditions.
Nativism	A policy or belief that favors the interests of native inhabitants over those of immigrants or colonizers.	Eagleton refers to the conservative reaction of English critics who sought to defend “native” Englishness against the perceived threats of modernist cosmopolitanism and colonial influence.
Discourse	Written or spoken communication, often associated with power structures and ideologies.	Eagleton examines the “discourse” of English literature as a form of cultural power, historically used to support imperialism and liberal humanism.
Cultural Relativism	The idea that a person’s beliefs and practices should be understood based on that person’s own culture, rather than judged against the criteria of another.	Postmodernism, according to Eagleton, embraces cultural relativism, challenging the universalizing tendencies of liberal humanism and the English literary tradition.
Realism	A literary movement aimed at representing everyday experiences and conditions as they are, without idealization or romanticism.	Eagleton argues that English literature’s traditional attachment to realism was a defense against the disruptive forces of modernism and the declining empire.
Internationalism	The principle of cooperation and understanding between nations.	Eagleton identifies modernism’s internationalism as opposed to the insular nature of the English literary tradition, which sought to preserve a national cultural identity.
Aesthetic Elitism	The belief that certain art forms, styles, or cultural products are inherently superior to others.	Eagleton critiques how modernist and colonial writers often became isolated due to their aesthetic elitism, resulting from their marginalized cultural positions.

Contribution of “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Post-colonial Theory
Eagleton’s “The End of English” contributes significantly to post-colonial theory by exploring the complex relationship between English literature and colonialism. He argues that the peripheral figures, such as Irish and American writers, used the English literary tradition as both a medium for expression and a tool for critique. By doing so, they subverted the dominant English literary canon while simultaneously being excluded from it.

Quotation: “It is the colonized and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth… able to carry through this audacious feat of inverted imperialism precisely because they lacked those vested emotional interests in an English literary tradition.”
This reflects a post-colonial inversion where the colonized gain agency by subverting and appropriating the colonizer’s language and literary culture.

2. Modernism and Literary Subversion
Eagleton’s analysis engages with modernist theory, particularly how modernist writers like James Joyce, T.S. Eliot, and Samuel Beckett, positioned themselves both within and outside of English cultural discourse. He discusses how modernists challenged traditional literary forms and nationalistic ideologies by blending global and cosmopolitan influences.

Quotation: “Modernism’s bold dissolution of national formations, that heady transgression of frontiers between both art-forms and political states…”
This underlines modernism’s rejection of national boundaries and traditional literary forms, aligning with modernist literary theory, which emphasizes fragmentation, formal experimentation, and transnational perspectives.

3. Critique of Liberal Humanism
A major contribution of Eagleton’s article is its critique of liberal humanism. He challenges the assumption that literature should focus on universal human values, individuality, and moral truths, which he argues were deeply intertwined with imperialist ideologies. The collapse of empire and the rise of modernism, he suggests, has made liberal humanism increasingly irrelevant in contemporary literary studies.

Quotation: “English literature was the product of a Victorian imperial middle class, anxious to crystallize its spiritual identity in a material corpus of writing.”
This illustrates Eagleton’s argument that liberal humanism is a remnant of the imperial era, shaped by bourgeois ideology and no longer relevant in a post-imperial, postmodern world.

4. The Role of Criticism in the Postmodern Age
Eagleton’s work engages with postmodern literary theory, particularly its deconstruction of traditional literary criticism and narratives. He argues that postmodernism further destabilizes the discourse of “Englishness” by challenging linear histories, stable subjectivities, and the centrality of written texts. He also notes the rise of cultural studies and theory as new battlegrounds for literary discourse, shifting away from traditional criticism.

Quotation: “The final discrediting of ‘native Englishness’ in a post-modernist epoch at least clarifies the issues at stake.”
This speaks to the postmodern condition where fixed notions of national identity and literary traditions are discredited, allowing for a multiplicity of voices and perspectives in literary discourse.

5. The Intersection of Modernism and Capitalism
Eagleton also contributes to Marxist literary theory by linking the rise of modernism to the contradictions inherent in capitalist development. He argues that modernism was not only a reaction to the collapse of traditional national formations but also to the rhythms of global capitalism, which erodes local identities while fostering a cosmopolitan, market-driven culture.

Quotation: “The contradiction of such a system is that in order to secure the political and ideological conditions for the international circulation of commodities, it needs to exploit exactly the national allegiances and identities which its economic activities constantly undermine.”
This aligns with Marxist theories of capitalism’s contradictory nature and its role in the production of cultural forms, including literature.

6. Cultural Imperialism and the Global Reach of English
Eagleton critiques the way cultural imperialism is sustained through the English language, which became a global tool of dominance through the British Empire. He argues that the global spread of English allowed England to maintain a form of hegemony even as its political empire collapsed, aligning this critique with cultural materialism.

Quotation: “English was a language in which one could be internationally at home, subsuming all regional particularities… Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”
This critique shows how cultural imperialism is sustained by language, making English a tool for both global dominance and exclusion of other cultural identities.

Examples of Critiques Through “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique through “The End of English”	Key Concepts from Eagleton’s Text
Ulysses by James Joyce	Eagleton would view Ulysses as a quintessential example of a colonial modernist work, where Joyce, a peripheral Irish writer, subverts and appropriates the English language. Joyce’s complex narrative form challenges imperialist traditions of language and identity.	– Modernism – Colonial Modernism – Subversion of English Literary Tradition
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Eliot’s The Waste Land embodies the modernist breakdown of national and cultural boundaries. Eagleton might critique Eliot’s cosmopolitan approach, where fragments of different cultures are appropriated and integrated, reflecting the collapse of English cultural hegemony.	– Cosmopolitanism – Breakdown of National Formations – Modernism’s Challenge to “Englishness”
Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett	Eagleton might argue that Waiting for Godot exemplifies the post-colonial condition of alienation from one’s own language. Beckett, an Irish writer, writes in French, signaling the dislocation of identity and language central to modernism and post-colonialism.	– Disinheritance from Mother Tongue – Post-Colonial Alienation – Modernist Deracination
Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Woolf	Through Eagleton’s lens, Mrs Dalloway can be critiqued for its bourgeois liberal humanism, focusing on the internal consciousness of individuals. Eagleton would argue that Woolf’s modernist technique remains anchored in the subjective experience of the imperial center.	– Liberal Humanism – Bourgeois Consciousness – Resistance to Radical Modernist Subversion of Imperial Norms

Criticism Against “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton

Overemphasis on Political Ideology:Critics argue that Eagleton focuses too heavily on the political and ideological implications of literature, often overshadowing aesthetic and literary qualities. This Marxist approach reduces literature to merely a tool for class struggle and imperialist critique, ignoring the artistic innovations and individual expressions in the works he critiques.
Reductionist View of English Literature: Eagleton’s argument that English literature is primarily a product of Victorian imperialism and bourgeois ideology is seen as reductionist by some scholars. They claim that this perspective overlooks the diversity of English literary traditions, which include dissenting voices and works critical of empire and nationalism.

Limited Engagement with Postcolonial Voices: While Eagleton discusses postcolonialism and the subversion of the English literary tradition, some critics suggest that he doesn’t fully engage with postcolonial writers from non-Western regions. His focus remains on Irish, American, and European modernists, neglecting voices from Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean.
Neglect of Feminist Perspectives: Eagleton’s critique largely overlooks feminist perspectives in literature, failing to engage with how gender intersects with imperialism and modernism. Scholars argue that his analysis of works like Mrs. Dalloway underplays the role of gender in shaping narratives of identity and alienation within English literature.
Postmodernism Critique Oversimplified: Some critics claim that Eagleton’s dismissal of postmodernism as a threat to “Englishness” lacks nuance. They argue that postmodernism is more than just a critique of national identity; it offers valuable insights into fragmentation, plurality, and the complexities of cultural production in a globalized world.

Binary Between National and Cosmopolitan Literature: Eagleton establishes a rigid binary between English national literature and modernist cosmopolitanism. Critics argue that this dichotomy oversimplifies the relationship between local and global influences in literature, failing to recognize how even English writers were shaped by cosmopolitan movements and global exchanges.
Nostalgic for Marxist Criticism: Some critics view Eagleton’s critique as overly nostalgic for the Marxist critical tradition, particularly his longing for the kind of politically engaged criticism associated with movements like Scrutiny. This focus on a specific type of Marxist literary criticism is seen as outdated in a more pluralistic academic environment.

Representative Quotations from “The End of English” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“It is the colonized and dispossessed who shall inherit the literary earth.”	Eagleton argues that writers from colonized or peripheral nations, such as Ireland and America, have taken over the English literary tradition, challenging the imperial center by appropriating and subverting its language and conventions.
“English literature was the product of a Victorian imperial middle class, anxious to crystallize its spiritual identity in a material corpus of writing.”	Eagleton critiques how English literature, as a discipline, emerged from imperialist and bourgeois concerns, particularly in the Victorian era, where it was used to forge a cohesive national identity and justify colonial domination.
“Modernism’s bold dissolution of national formations, that heady transgression of frontiers between both art-forms and political states…”	This highlights how modernist writers broke down traditional boundaries, not just in literary form but in cultural and political spheres, moving away from the rigid nationalisms that defined English literary tradition and embracing cosmopolitanism.
“Empire was England’s secret weapon against a promiscuous modernism.”	Eagleton argues that the British Empire allowed English literature to resist modernism’s destabilizing forces. The global reach of the English language enabled the country to maintain its cultural hegemony even as modernist and internationalist movements threatened national boundaries.
“Post-modernism, whether it knows it or not, is the appropriate coding of this real historical situation.”	Eagleton suggests that postmodernism reflects the current historical condition, particularly the disintegration of national and imperial identities, and the global commodification of culture. It captures the fragmented, decentered nature of contemporary capitalism.
“Liberal humanism, already in the process of being historically superseded, remains the major subjacent ideology of English studies.”	He critiques how liberal humanism—focused on universal values and individual morality—continues to dominate English literary studies, even though it has become irrelevant in the face of modern and postmodern cultural shifts.
“The contradiction of such a system is that in order to secure the political and ideological conditions for the international circulation of commodities, it needs to exploit exactly the national allegiances and identities which its economic activities constantly undermine.”	This emphasizes the paradox of capitalism, where national identities are manipulated to maintain political control, while global economic activities erode those very identities, creating a tension within capitalist societies.
“The final discrediting of ‘native Englishness’ in a post-modernist epoch at least clarifies the issues at stake.”	Eagleton points out that in the postmodern age, the concept of “native Englishness” is no longer tenable, and this collapse clarifies the cultural and ideological conflicts between global capitalism and its political opponents.
“Criticism confronts the unenviable destiny of becoming its own avant-garde, doubly estranged from its contemporary cultural moment.”	Eagleton argues that English literary criticism has become increasingly disconnected from contemporary cultural production. In trying to preserve past traditions while opposing modernism, criticism has become an avant-garde movement of its own, detached from the realities of current culture.
“The experiences of both modernism and colonialism were kept at bay, but in the latest historical irony now offer to repossess the metropolitan culture from inside in the shape of post-modernism.”	Eagleton identifies a historical irony: while English literature resisted both modernism and colonialism, these forces have now returned in the form of postmodernism to challenge and undermine the core ideologies of English culture from within.

“Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton: Summary and Critique

“Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1998 in the journal Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies.

Introduction: “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

“Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton first appeared in 1998 in the journal Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies. This article holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its critical examination of the term “postcolonialism” itself. Eagleton challenges the assumptions and limitations of the concept, arguing that it often obscures rather than illuminates the complex realities of postcolonial experiences. His essay has sparked important debates and continues to influence discussions on postcolonial theory and its applications.

Summary of “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

Critique of the Term “Postcolonialism”:
- Eagleton opens by emphasizing how postcolonial theorists often start by questioning the very concept of postcolonialism. The term is viewed as oversimplified, falsely homogeneous, and problematic in addressing ongoing forms of colonization, both direct and indirect.
- He asserts that postcolonialism is criticized for presenting a chronological issue where the colonial condition still persists. It “suggests a confident posteriority to a condition which still prevails in transformed guise” (Eagleton, 1998).
Distinction Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
- Eagleton differentiates between two forms of postcolonialism: the political-economic reality of former colonies and the academic, theoretical construct labeled ‘postcolonialism’.
- The latter has its roots in Western intellectual history and operates within the scope of modern theoretical concepts. “‘Postcolonialism’ is a way of analysing a true state of affairs in terms of certain currently rather modish western theoretical concepts” (Eagleton, 1998).
Hostility Toward Essentialism:
- A major aspect of ‘postcolonialism’ is its hostility to essentialism, which includes the rejection of a universal human nature. Postcolonialists reject liberal humanist ideals that generalize human experiences, preferring to focus on cultural differences.
- Eagleton challenges this approach by pointing out its inherent contradictions, such as replacing one form of essentialism with another when cultural difference is emphasized over universal humanity.
Criticism of Key ‘Postcolonial’ Concepts:
- Concepts such as hybridity, non-exclusivity, and openness to the Other are integral to ‘postcolonialism’. However, Eagleton argues that such ideals can be hypocritical because they implicitly assume the value of a common humanity, a notion they outwardly reject.
- Furthermore, Eagleton notes that not all forms of hybridity or difference are positive, citing examples such as exclusionary nationalist movements (Mussolini vs. Mozambique).
Rejection of Totalities:
- Eagleton critiques postcolonial theorists for their rejection of systematic thinking and totalities. He points out that, in the real world, social and economic systems are interconnected and can have widespread consequences (e.g., a crisis in Asia affecting the West).
- He criticizes postcolonialism for ignoring this reality, stating that the dismissal of totalities is a weakness in the face of global economic and political interconnectedness.
Suppression of Class Struggle:
- Eagleton accuses ‘postcolonialism’ of sidelining class struggle in favor of cultural identity politics. He notes that postcolonial discourse has played a role in displacing socialist ideas and class-based political movements.
- The focus on cultural identity, he argues, has emerged partly due to the difficulty of addressing more significant political conflicts in the West.
Culturalism and Political Ethic:
- Eagleton views ‘postcolonialism’ as a form of culturalism that inflates the importance of cultural factors in global politics. He critiques the tendency to focus on identity and marginality rather than on economic issues such as trade agreements and military alliances.
- He suggests that the acknowledgment of cultural difference, while necessary, should not overshadow the broader ethical imperative of human solidarity and reciprocity.
Conclusion – The Conflict Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
- Eagleton concludes by calling for a conflict between postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism’, arguing that while openness, dialogue, and hybridization are important, ‘postcolonialism’—as the theoretical construct—should ultimately “lose out.”
- He emphasizes that solidarity and coherence in political action are necessary for addressing real-world inequalities, implying that the academic focus on cultural hybridity is insufficient.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Postcolonialism	Refers to the political, cultural, and economic conditions of former colonies after they gained independence, often addressing the lingering effects of colonialism.	“There is obviously a lot of the globe which used to be colonized directly and is now colonized by other means…” (Eagleton, 1998)
‘Postcolonialism’	A theoretical framework, rooted in Western intellectual history, that critically examines postcolonial conditions using contemporary concepts such as hybridity, identity, and cultural difference. This version is more abstract and controversial.	“At the same time, there is a particular theoretical agenda known as ‘postcolonialism’…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Essentialism	The belief in an intrinsic, unchanging human nature or characteristics. In postcolonial theory, it is rejected as a means of suppressing cultural difference and homogenizing identities.	“Postcolonialism usually entails… a fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism’.” (Eagleton, 1998)
Hybridity	A key concept in postcolonial theory, hybridity refers to the mixing of cultures, identities, and ideas resulting from colonial encounters. Postcolonialists often view this as positive, but Eagleton questions its universal virtue.	“Or take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of hybridity, non-exclusivity, multiplicity…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Non-exclusivity	The idea that identities or cultures are not rigidly defined and can be open to multiple influences. This concept is aligned with the postcolonial emphasis on fluidity and rejection of fixed categories.	“Non-exclusivity… openness to the Other, the dissemination of difference…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Multiplicity	Refers to the postcolonial idea that identities and realities are plural, diverse, and cannot be reduced to singular narratives.	“Multiplicity… openness to the Other, the dissemination of difference…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Transgressiveness	A postcolonial term denoting the act of crossing cultural, social, or political boundaries, often associated with resistance to established norms and power structures.	“Take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of… transgressiveness…” (Eagleton, 1998)
Culturalism	A concept Eagleton critiques, where cultural factors are given disproportionate importance in explaining global inequalities, often sidelining economic and political dimensions.	“‘Postcolonialism’, like postmodernism in general, is among other things a brand of culturalism, which inflates the significance of cultural factors in human affairs.” (Eagleton, 1998)
Anti-Essentialism	The rejection of the idea of a universal human nature or essence. Postcolonialists often argue that this view allows for the recognition of cultural difference without resorting to generalizations.	“A fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism’… means rejecting the idea of a general common humanity, or human nature, as a liberal humanist stratagem for suppressing cultural difference.” (1998)

Contribution of “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Critiques the Term “Postcolonialism”:
- It oversimplifies diverse situations (Bullet point 1).
- It suggests a false sense of “post” – colonialism still exists in new forms (Bullet point 2).
- It focuses on trendy Western theories instead of the realities of postcolonial societies (Bullet point 3).
Distinguishes Between “Postcolonialism” and “‘Postcolonialism'”:
- “Postcolonialism” refers to the actual state of former colonies (exploitation by new means) (Bullet point 1).
- “‘Postcolonialism'” refers to a specific theoretical approach with limitations (Bullet point 3).
Highlights Issues with “‘Postcolonialist'” Theory:
- Overemphasis on cultural factors and identity over economic realities (Bullet points 4 & 5).
- Disdain for class struggle as a concept (Bullet point 6).
- Neglect of global power structures like the IMF (Bullet point 5).
- Preference for celebrating difference over human solidarity (Bullet point 5).

Overall Argument:

Eagleton argues that “‘postcolonialism'” theory, while well-intentioned, suffers from limitations. It prioritizes trendy Western ideas and cultural factors over the harsh realities of ongoing economic exploitation faced by former colonies. He suggests a more nuanced approach that acknowledges both cultural complexities and the importance of class struggle and global economic structures.

Examples of Critiques Through “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Using Eagleton’s Concepts	Relevant Concept
*Heart of Darkness* by Joseph Conrad	Eagleton’s critique would focus on the way Conrad presents a Eurocentric perspective of Africa, where colonial subjects are either marginalized or dehumanized. While postcolonialism addresses this imbalance, ‘postcolonialism’ might analyze it through modern theoretical constructs like hybridity and cultural difference.	Eurocentrism, Hybridity
*Wide Sargasso Sea* by Jean Rhys	Eagleton would likely praise the novel for exposing the consequences of colonialism, particularly its psychological impact on the colonized, while critiquing ‘postcolonialism’ for overly theoretical discussions on identity politics and hybridity that may overshadow material concerns like class and economic exploitation.	Culturalism vs. Class Struggle
*Things Fall Apart* by Chinua Achebe	Eagleton would acknowledge Achebe’s exploration of colonial disruption in traditional African society but might critique ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing too heavily on cultural identity, potentially overlooking the broader economic systems of exploitation highlighted in the novel.	Cultural Identity, Class Struggle
*A Passage to India* by E.M. Forster	Eagleton might critique Forster’s novel for presenting cultural encounters between British and Indian characters through a lens of essentialism and cultural difference. While postcolonialism addresses this, ‘postcolonialism’ may overly focus on hybridity and dialogue, downplaying the material inequalities of the British Empire.	Essentialism, Hybridity vs. Materialism

Criticism Against “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton

Oversimplification of Postcolonialism:
- Critics argue that Eagleton oversimplifies the vast and complex field of postcolonial theory by reducing it to a binary between postcolonial reality and ‘postcolonial’ theoretical abstraction.
Dismissal of Cultural Identity Politics:
- Eagleton’s critique of postcolonialism as a form of “culturalism” is seen as dismissive of the significance of cultural identity in postcolonial struggles. Critics contend that he undermines the importance of recognizing marginalized identities and their fight against cultural hegemony.

Excessive Focus on Class Struggle:
- Eagleton’s emphasis on class struggle as the primary lens for analyzing postcolonial societies is criticized for being overly Marxist, neglecting the specificities of race, ethnicity, and culture, which are central to postcolonial analysis.
Inadequate Engagement with Postcolonial Theorists:
- Some critics suggest that Eagleton does not engage deeply enough with key postcolonial theorists like Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, or Homi Bhabha, whose works are foundational in shaping the field of postcolonial studies.
Undervaluation of Hybridity and Difference:
- Eagleton’s skepticism toward concepts like hybridity, multiplicity, and transgressiveness is seen by some as reactionary. Postcolonial theorists argue that these ideas are crucial for understanding the fluid, dynamic identities and conditions of postcolonial societies.

Neglect of Global Economic and Political Systems:
- Although Eagleton criticizes ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing on cultural factors, some critics point out that his essay itself lacks substantive analysis of the global economic and political systems that sustain neocolonialism.
Elitism and Overly Theoretical Approach:
- Eagleton’s language and critique are sometimes viewed as elitist, catering more to an academic audience and lacking practical relevance for real-world postcolonial struggles and movements.
Binary Opposition Between Postcolonialism and ‘Postcolonialism’:
- Critics argue that the binary opposition between postcolonialism (as reality) and ‘postcolonialism’ (as theory) in Eagleton’s essay is artificial, as both aspects are interrelated and influence each other.

Minimization of the Role of Cultural Studies:
- Eagleton’s critique downplays the role of cultural studies in postcolonialism, which has been instrumental in exploring how colonial power is exercised not just politically and economically but also through culture, media, and representation.

Representative Quotations from “Postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism'” by Terry Eagleton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“There must surely be in existence somewhere a secret handbook for aspiring postcolonial theorists…”	Eagleton humorously critiques the formulaic nature of postcolonial writing, where theorists begin by questioning the legitimacy of the term “postcolonialism.”
“The term ‘postcolonialism’ won’t do because it falsely homogenizes a set of diverse conditions…”	Eagleton points out the flaws in the term “postcolonialism,” arguing that it simplifies and generalizes complex historical and cultural situations.
“There is something called postcolonialism and … something called ‘postcolonialism’ too.”	He makes a distinction between the real political-economic conditions of postcolonial societies and the theoretical, intellectual construct labeled ‘postcolonialism.’
“‘Postcolonialism’ is a way of analysing a true state of affairs in terms of certain currently rather modish concepts.”	Eagleton critiques ‘postcolonialism’ for relying heavily on trendy Western theoretical concepts rather than focusing on concrete material conditions.
“Postcolonialism usually entails… a fierce hostility to… ‘essentialism.'”	This highlights the postcolonial rejection of universal human nature and emphasis on cultural difference, a key critique Eagleton engages with.
“Or take the favoured ‘postcolonial’ concepts of hybridity, non-exclusivity, multiplicity, transgressiveness…”	Eagleton challenges the overuse of concepts like hybridity and multiplicity in ‘postcolonialism,’ arguing that they are often applied without critical examination of their actual value in specific contexts.
“Not all differences are positive, not all exclusions are pathological.”	Eagleton warns that the celebration of difference in postcolonial theory can be simplistic, and some exclusions, such as rejecting harmful ideologies, can be necessary.
“‘Postcolonialism’, like postmodernism in general, is among other things a brand of culturalism…”	He critiques ‘postcolonialism’ for focusing too much on cultural identity and symbolism while neglecting larger material and economic realities, which he views as more pressing in global power dynamics.
“Class struggle is now embarrassingly passé, whereas the affirmation of cultural identity is not.”	Eagleton points out that ‘postcolonialism’ has shifted attention away from class-based political struggles to cultural identity, which he believes is a less urgent political focus in many postcolonial contexts.
“It would be enheartening… to see this welcome new journal staging a conflict between postcolonialism and ‘postcolonialism’.”	Eagleton encourages a critical dialogue between the real conditions of postcolonialism and the theoretical concerns of ‘postcolonialism,’ calling for a more grounded approach to addressing global inequalities.