Month: November 2024

Introduction: “The Inescapability of Humanism” by James L. Battersby

“The Inescapability of Humanism” by James L. Battersby first appeared in College English in September 1996, published by the National Council of Teachers of English. This essay confronts the contentious status of humanism in contemporary literary theory, where it has been criticized or outright dismissed as an outdated or ideologically problematic approach. Battersby argues that, despite the critical trends of the time, humanism—particularly in its pragmatic and pluralist forms—remains an indispensable framework for understanding literature and the human experience. He contends that our intellectual engagement with the world is inevitably mediated by “content-involving capacities,” such as language and thought, that make humanism unavoidable. Battersby explores how humanism intersects with Western intellectual history, drawing from figures like Protagoras, Aristotle, and Enlightenment thinkers to demonstrate its enduring presence. Additionally, he highlights that while postmodernist and anti-humanist theories challenge the notion of human universals and objective truths, they fail to replace the foundational roles that human agency and rationality play in the creation and interpretation of meaning. Through this work, Battersby not only defends humanism but repositions it as a resilient and essential paradigm in literary studies, offering valuable insights into the continuous evolution of humanistic inquiry. This essay has become influential in debates about the role of humanism within literary criticism, urging a reconsideration of its principles and advocating for its relevance in the face of relativism and cultural critique.

Summary of “The Inescapability of Humanism” by James L. Battersby

• Humanism’s Contested Place in Theory: Battersby notes that contemporary critical and theoretical discourse often dismisses humanism and the notion of “human universals” as outdated or ideologically flawed. Despite this trend, he argues for a nuanced view, asserting that humanism—particularly in a pluralistic and pragmatic form—remains crucial and unavoidable for beings with “content-involving capacities” like humans (Battersby 555).
• Diverse Manifestations of Humanism: Humanism is not a monolith; rather, it has many forms across history, each reflecting unique ideals, from the Hellenistic emphasis on skepticism and reason (Protagoras, Plato) to the Enlightenment values of equality, justice, and liberty. These manifestations create a “confusing, often contradictory array” of perspectives that span centuries and differ widely in beliefs and practices, leading Battersby to conclude that there are many “humanisms” rather than a single one (Battersby 556).
• Humanism as a Scapegoat: In modern theoretical frameworks, humanism often serves as a scapegoat, labeled the carrier of Western-centric and hierarchical values. Postmodern thinkers like Foucault and Derrida challenge the foundational elements of humanism, critiquing the idea of objective truth and fixed human nature. Instead, they argue that meaning is fluid, socially constructed, and shaped by “knowledge/power relations” (Battersby 557-558). Thus, rejecting humanism becomes synonymous with rejecting Western intellectual constructs.
• Critique of Relativism: Battersby critiques the relativistic stance that denies any objective truth or universal human values, which he argues is self-defeating. Without shared values or standards, he asserts, meaningful dialogue and critique are impossible. Battersby references Hilary Putnam’s work, noting that beliefs and values can be “better, truer, or more useful” even without an absolute metaphysical guarantee (Battersby 560).
• The Pragmatic-Pluralist Humanist: Battersby advocates for a “pragmatic-pluralist” humanism, which recognizes the role of human agency and the possibility of meaningful reference to reality. He suggests that language and thought are not isolated but instead part of “intentional systems” that give determinate meaning. This approach allows for flexibility and acknowledges that concepts evolve with experience and use, rather than being rigid absolutes (Battersby 561).
• Universality in Human Capacities: Battersby concludes with a defense of human universals, arguing that shared cognitive structures and physical experiences provide a basis for communication and understanding. He draws on Kwasi Wiredu and Ruth Anna Putnam, among others, to argue that universal cognitive traits, like the ability to reason or recognize fundamental relational concepts, allow for cross-cultural dialogue and critique, making humanism an essential, enduring framework (Battersby 565-566).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Inescapability of Humanism” by James L. Battersby

Term/Perspective	Definition/Explanation	Application in Battersby’s Argument
Humanism	An intellectual stance focusing on human values, agency, and rationality; traditionally involves belief in universal human qualities.	Battersby defends humanism as inescapable, arguing that it accommodates human experience and content-involving capacities (555-556).
Pragmatic-Pluralist Humanism	A modern, flexible interpretation of humanism that emphasizes a pluralistic approach to truth and rationality without absolute guarantees.	Battersby advocates for this form, which acknowledges human agency and rationality without essentialist constraints (560-561).
Metaphysics of Presence	The philosophical belief in a stable, determinate reality that language can directly represent.	Battersby critiques this, arguing that while direct access to reality may be impossible, meaningful reference still exists (561-562).
Relativism	The belief that truth and moral values are not absolute but vary by culture, context, or personal perspective.	Battersby critiques relativism, asserting that some shared human principles make intercultural critique and understanding possible (565).
Social Constructionism	The idea that reality, including knowledge and categories, is constructed by social processes and power relations, rather than being an objective fact.	Battersby notes social constructionism’s critique of humanism but maintains that human agency and shared values persist (558).
Postmodernism	A theoretical stance that questions grand narratives, absolute truths, and stable meaning, viewing knowledge and reality as subjective and fragmented.	Battersby positions postmodernism as critical of humanism’s universal claims, yet sees limitations in postmodern relativism (558-559).
Knowledge/Power Relations	A Foucauldian concept that sees knowledge as intertwined with power, influencing societal norms and perceptions of truth.	Battersby examines this concept to illustrate humanism’s role as a counterpoint to purely power-driven perspectives (558).
Universalism vs. Particularism	The debate over whether certain truths, values, or principles are universally applicable or culturally specific.	Battersby defends universalism to some extent, citing shared human capacities as a basis for intercultural communication (565-566).
Intentionality	A term in philosophy referring to the directedness or purposefulness of thoughts and perceptions toward objects, events, or states of affairs.	Battersby asserts that intentionality supports humanism by demonstrating the role of agency in constructing meaning (563).
Objective vs. Subjective Truth	The distinction between truth as universally applicable (objective) and truth as dependent on individual or cultural perspective (subjective).	Battersby argues for a balanced view, where certain truths are context-dependent but communicable across cultural lines (564).
Foundationalism	The philosophical stance that there are basic, self-evident principles or foundations on which knowledge is built.	Battersby criticizes foundationalism as inflexible, favoring pragmatic humanism that evolves through human engagement (561).
Cultural Critique	The practice of analyzing and challenging cultural norms, values, and assumptions, often to reveal power dynamics.	Battersby views humanism as providing a basis for cultural critique without descending into complete relativism (565).
Essentialism	The belief that certain qualities or traits are inherent, natural, and defining for particular groups or categories.	Battersby opposes essentialism, advocating for human universals based on shared cognitive capacities rather than fixed essences (562).

Contribution of “The Inescapability of Humanism” by James L. Battersby to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Humanism in Contemporary Theory
   Battersby revitalizes the relevance of humanism in literary theory, arguing that despite critiques from postmodernism, humanism remains essential for engaging with literature and understanding human experience. He repositions humanism as “inescapable,” emphasizing that literary analysis benefits from recognizing universal human capacities and cognitive structures (Battersby 555-556). This approach reinforces humanism’s adaptability and challenges claims that it is outdated or incompatible with modern critique.
2. Pragmatism and Pluralism in Literary Criticism
   Battersby’s “pragmatic-pluralist” humanism draws heavily on pragmatist theories, especially the works of Hilary Putnam. He suggests that literary interpretations must be adaptable, evolving through a pluralistic approach that accommodates multiple perspectives without rigid foundationalism. This contribution aligns with pragmatist views on truth and rationality, offering a framework for literary critics to assess interpretations based on their usefulness, coherence, and adaptability, rather than absolute standards (Battersby 560-561).
3. Critique of Relativism
   In response to the relativism prevalent in postmodernism, Battersby argues that shared cognitive capacities enable meaningful intercultural critique. He contends that extreme relativism undermines the possibility of literary criticism and cross-cultural understanding by denying objective standards. By advocating for “shared forms of reason” based on common human experiences, he contributes to a middle ground in literary theory that opposes both absolutism and extreme relativism (Battersby 565-566).
4. Social Constructionism and Power Dynamics
   Battersby acknowledges the critiques of humanism from social constructionism, which views reality as a product of power and knowledge relations (Battersby 558). While he agrees that human experience is influenced by social structures, he argues against the complete reduction of human agency. By integrating elements of social constructionism with humanist theory, Battersby’s work contributes to a nuanced literary theory that considers social influences while still valuing human agency and intentionality.
5. Response to Postmodernism and Deconstruction
   Battersby addresses postmodern and deconstructive theories that challenge fixed meanings and objective truths. He critiques the notion that humanism inherently supports “ontotheological” or logocentric thinking, instead proposing a form of humanism compatible with interpretive flexibility. By doing so, he broadens the applicability of humanism in literary theory, showing that it can coexist with some postmodern insights while resisting its more radical skepticism (Battersby 558-559).
6. Universalism and the Possibility of Intercultural Criticism
   Battersby’s defense of human universals offers a significant contribution to theories that question the possibility of universal truths. He argues that shared cognitive structures, such as rationality and basic conceptual capacities, provide a foundation for intercultural communication and criticism. This approach contributes to global literary theory by proposing that certain cognitive traits, such as the ability to “translate” and understand other cultures, make meaningful critique possible across cultural boundaries (Battersby 565).
7. Intentionality and Agency in Literary Interpretation
   Battersby’s emphasis on intentionality aligns with theories that stress the role of human agency in creating and interpreting meaning. He contends that human cognition inherently involves intentionality, allowing us to refer meaningfully to objects and events beyond language. This view supports a humanist approach to literature, emphasizing that literary interpretation is not merely the product of social constructions or linguistic systems but also involves individual and collective agency (Battersby 563).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Inescapability of Humanism” by James L. Battersby

Literary Work	Critique Approach	Example Critique Using Battersby’s Humanism
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Humanist Interpretation of Character	Using Battersby’s humanism, Hamlet’s existential questioning about life, death, and morality can be seen as resonating with universal human concerns. Battersby’s concept of “pragmatic-pluralist” humanism allows Hamlet’s introspection to be read as a fundamental human struggle (Battersby 560-561).
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Cultural Critique and Universal Values	Battersby’s approach would interpret Achebe’s depiction of Igbo culture’s resistance to colonialism as illustrating universal themes of identity, justice, and resilience. This perspective supports the idea that cultural critique can highlight shared human values across societies (Battersby 565).
One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez	Critique of Relativism in Theme Analysis	Battersby’s rejection of extreme relativism supports reading Marquez’s exploration of memory, family, and history as universally relevant. Themes in the novel are accessible beyond the Colombian context, appealing to universal aspects of human experience (Battersby 566).
Beloved by Toni Morrison	Agency and Intentionality in Narrative	Through Battersby’s emphasis on agency and intentionality, Sethe’s choices in Beloved can be interpreted as acts of resistance and personal will. This humanist approach validates her decisions as expressions of individual agency within oppressive societal structures (Battersby 563).

Criticism Against “The Inescapability of Humanism” by James L. Battersby

• Over-Reliance on Universality
  Critics might argue that Battersby’s emphasis on universal human capacities oversimplifies cultural differences, potentially ignoring the complexities of diverse worldviews and experiences.
• Resistance to Postmodern Insights
  Battersby’s defense of humanism may be seen as resistant to valuable postmodern critiques of foundationalism, such as deconstruction’s exploration of unstable meaning, which questions fixed interpretations and reveals the inherent multiplicity of texts.
• Underestimation of Social Constructionism
  Battersby’s pragmatic humanism may downplay the influence of social constructs on individual agency, arguably overlooking the extent to which identity, values, and meaning are shaped by societal structures and power dynamics.
• Limited Acknowledgment of Relativism’s Merits
  While Battersby critiques extreme relativism, critics may argue that he underestimates its potential for promoting tolerance and understanding of cultural differences, which can foster greater inclusivity in literary theory and interpretation.
• Potential Essentialism in Human Universals
  Although Battersby rejects essentialism, his focus on shared human cognitive traits and capacities might inadvertently echo essentialist ideas, implying that certain qualities are intrinsic to all humans despite cultural and historical variations.
• Overlooked Agency of Non-Western Perspectives
  Critics may contend that Battersby’s humanism, rooted in Western intellectual traditions, risks marginalizing non-Western perspectives that challenge the very foundation of humanist assumptions, potentially reinforcing a Eurocentric approach to literary theory.

Representative Quotations from “The Inescapability of Humanism” by James L. Battersby with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Humanism… is inescapable for creatures with content-involving capacities such as ours” (555).	Battersby argues that humans inherently need humanistic values because they are necessary to give meaning and content to our lives, making humanism unavoidable.
“Just as there is no such thing as history, only histories, so there is no humanism, only humanisms” (556).	Battersby suggests that humanism is not a monolithic concept but rather an array of diverse perspectives and forms, similar to how history is composed of various narratives.
“It is coextensive with Western intellectual history, [and therefore] humanism is inescapable” (557).	This statement emphasizes that humanism has been deeply embedded in Western thought throughout history, making it a persistent and unavoidable part of the intellectual landscape.
“The metaphysics of presence… a belief in our ability to hook our thoughts and language on to things as they really are” (559).	Battersby critiques the traditional metaphysical belief that language and thought can directly represent reality, arguing that this is a flawed aspect of older humanist thought.
“Pragmatic pluralism… would be the last to say that there is not much powerful sense in the critique” (560).	Battersby acknowledges critiques of humanism, especially how Enlightenment values have been misused, but proposes that a pluralistic, pragmatic approach to humanism can address these concerns constructively.
“There are only the various points of view of actual persons which reflect the various interests and purposes that their theories and descriptions subserve” (560).	Citing Hilary Putnam, Battersby underscores a pragmatic perspective that recognizes knowledge as always shaped by individual perspectives and interests, emphasizing the subjective element in human understanding.
“Once we have given up on metaphysical realism… we can free ourselves to get on with the sort of referring and meaning we do anyway with a clear conscience” (563).	Battersby suggests that abandoning rigid metaphysical beliefs allows for a more flexible and practical approach to understanding and interacting with the world, a key aspect of his pragmatic humanism.
“Our criticism can only be offered from within our tradition or culture” (566).	Battersby argues that cultural critique must come from within a shared cultural framework, making cross-cultural criticism possible through intercultural standards and values.
“To have a thought or a world to talk about or be aware of, we must of necessity participate in systems of rationality” (567).	This line underscores Battersby’s belief that rationality is fundamental to human experience, supporting his idea that humanism is essential for meaningful engagement with the world.
“Those who would deny the enduring value and significance of humanism… implicate themselves in pragmatic inconsistency” (567).	Battersby concludes that attempts to refute humanism are self-contradictory, as such denials still rely on the rational, intentional systems that humanism encompasses.

Suggested Readings: “The Inescapability of Humanism” by James L. Battersby

1. Battersby, James L. “The Inescapability of Humanism.” College English, vol. 58, no. 5, 1996, pp. 555–67. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/378756. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
2. Rae, Gavin. “Re-Thinking the Human: Heidegger, Fundamental Ontology, and Humanism.” Human Studies, vol. 33, no. 1, 2010, pp. 23–39. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40981088. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
3. Wolff, Ernst. “Levinas’ Post-Anti-Humanist Humanism: Humanism of the Other.” Political Responsibility for a Globalised World: After Levinas’ Humanism, transcript Verlag, 2011, pp. 105–46. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv1xxsvc.10. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
4. Manne, Kate. “Humanism: A Critique.” Social Theory and Practice, vol. 42, no. 2, 2016, pp. 389–415. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24871349. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.

Introduction: “Problems of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning” by Catherine Belsey

“Problems of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning” by Catherine Belsey first appeared in 1982 in New Literary History as part of a special issue on the challenges within literary theory. In this article, Belsey addresses the critical problem of meaning, which she argues is a central concern in literary criticism. By examining different theoretical frameworks—empiricism, formalism, and poststructuralism—Belsey explores how each perspective conceptualizes meaning in varied, often conflicting ways. She posits that these disputes highlight the theoretical nature of interpretation itself, where meaning is not merely found within a text but is actively constructed through critical frameworks influenced by language, ideology, and cultural contexts. The work gained popularity due to its incisive critique of traditional literary methods and its accessible analysis of complex theoretical issues. Belsey’s arguments resonated widely, encouraging critics to rethink the assumptions underlying literary interpretation, making this work foundational in debates about objectivity, the role of the critic, and the very nature of meaning in literature.

Summary of “Problems of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning” by Catherine Belsey

• Central Problem of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning
  Catherine Belsey begins by framing the central issue of literary theory as the “problem of meaning,” noting that this question of meaning is crucial to literary criticism across different approaches (Belsey, 1982, p. 175). Meaning is contested not only in its definition but also in its implications for how critics interpret texts. Belsey points out that literary theory’s divisions—between empiricism, formalism, and poststructuralism—reflect fundamentally different views on how meaning is constructed and understood (p. 176).
• Challenges of Neutrality in Literary Criticism
  Belsey argues that there is no “neutral place” from which to conduct literary criticism without engaging with theoretical assumptions about meaning (p. 176). Ignoring theoretical questions leads to a reliance on “unexamined assumptions,” an issue she sees as pervasive and problematic in the field. She critiques the notion that literary competence or appreciation can provide a non-theoretical foundation for criticism, as advocated by some critics, such as Stein Haugom Olsen (p. 177).
• Plurality of Textual Meaning
  Addressing the debate on textual interpretation, Belsey highlights Jeffrey Stout’s argument that multiple interpretations of a text—such as Marxist, Freudian, or theological readings—do not necessarily compete but can coexist by focusing on different aspects (p. 177). She emphasizes that recognizing this plurality enriches criticism by acknowledging that there is no single, fixed meaning in a text.
• Theoretical Critiques of Objective Meaning
  Belsey critiques attempts to ascribe fixed or “obvious” meanings to literary works. She notes the complexity of meaning within texts, where even seemingly clear sentences can yield diverse interpretations. She uses examples from works by Shakespeare and Yeats to illustrate that meanings often require contextualization and are subject to cultural and historical influences (p. 178).
• Role of Language in Constructing Meaning
  Drawing on Saussure’s model of the sign, Belsey underscores that language itself is a crucial site of meaning construction. In her view, language signifies through relational and cultural processes, aligning with poststructuralist theories that view meaning as fluid and context-dependent (p. 180). By connecting this view to Derrida’s concept of différance, Belsey suggests that the meanings of words are never fully fixed, always carrying multiple, historically situated interpretations (p. 181).
• Influence of Power in Interpretation
  Belsey introduces Michel Foucault’s ideas to emphasize that interpretations of texts are not neutral but often reflect power dynamics. According to Foucault, knowledge and meaning are produced within institutions that enforce specific interpretations and practices, affecting how literary texts are read and understood (p. 181). For Belsey, Foucault offers a framework that allows literary criticism to pursue a transformative role by analyzing how power shapes meaning.
• Implications for Literary Criticism
  Belsey concludes by discussing the implications of adopting a Foucauldian approach, which challenges the objectivity of criticism. She suggests that such an approach would expand the scope of criticism beyond traditional aesthetic evaluations, focusing instead on texts’ capacity to reveal the fluidity of meanings and their sociopolitical contexts. This perspective, Belsey argues, would reframe criticism as a practice not of finding fixed meanings but of understanding how meanings and values are constructed and contested (p. 182).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Problems of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning” by Catherine Belsey

Concept/Term	Explanation
Meaning	Central issue in literary theory; Belsey explores how meaning is constructed through different theoretical frameworks, with no fixed or objective interpretation.
Empiricism	Approach focusing on observable facts, often associated with intuitive interpretation of texts, critiqued by Belsey for avoiding deeper theoretical questioning.
Formalism	A method focusing on the form and structure of texts, treating meaning as inherent in literary form itself, independent of historical or social contexts.
Poststructuralism	A critical framework that views meaning as unstable and context-dependent, questioning the fixed interpretations of traditional criticism.
Plurality of Meaning	Concept that texts do not have a single, fixed meaning but instead support multiple interpretations based on the reader’s theoretical perspective.
Signifier and Signified	Saussurean terms for the components of linguistic signs; “signifier” is the form of the word, while “signified” is its meaning, which is contextually constructed.
Différance	Derridean concept suggesting that meaning is deferred and relational, never fully present or fixed, making interpretation a continuous process.
Textuality	Refers to the qualities and structures within a text that shape how it is interpreted, often seen in poststructuralist theory as inherently unstable.
Power and Knowledge	Foucault’s idea that knowledge production, including literary interpretation, is intertwined with power dynamics within societal institutions.
Ideology	Belsey’s exploration of how meanings within texts reflect and challenge ideological structures, showing that interpretation is influenced by cultural beliefs.
Reader-Response Theory	Theory that considers readers’ role in creating meaning, suggesting that interpretations are shaped by individual and cultural perspectives.
Deconstruction	Derrida’s approach to examining texts by uncovering inherent contradictions, emphasizing the multiplicity and instability of meaning.
Structuralism	Framework focusing on underlying structures (linguistic or social) that shape meaning, which poststructuralism critiques for assuming stable meanings.
Critique of Objectivity	Belsey challenges the idea that criticism can be objective or neutral, arguing instead that interpretations are shaped by theoretical assumptions.
Interpretive Frameworks	Theories or perspectives (e.g., Marxist, Freudian) that influence how critics understand and derive meaning from texts.
Hypostasized Meaning	Concept of meaning as an assumed “essence” that can exist outside language, critiqued by Belsey for implying fixed truths without theoretical grounding.

Contribution of “Problems of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning” by Catherine Belsey to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Poststructuralism

• Contribution: Belsey advances poststructuralist thought by arguing that meaning in texts is not fixed or inherent but rather constructed through interpretive practices. She critiques the idea of a singular, stable meaning, supporting Derrida’s concept of différance, which posits that meaning is always deferred and relational (Belsey, 1982, p. 181).
• Reference: Belsey highlights that poststructuralism offers a productive model for understanding texts, as meaning is seen as fluid, “always in process, always contextually deferred” (p. 180).

2. Structuralism and Saussurean Linguistics

• Contribution: Using Saussure’s model of the sign (signifier and signified), Belsey builds on structuralist principles to emphasize that meaning is created through language itself, not by external reference or authorial intent. She critiques interpretations that assume a “real presence” of meaning within a text, instead positioning language as the core of meaning construction (p. 180).
• Reference: Belsey draws directly from Saussure’s ideas, stating, “language itself which signifies,” and hence, it is the “location of meaning” rather than any inherent essence (p. 180).

3. Reader-Response Theory

• Contribution: Belsey contributes to reader-response theory by addressing the role of readers in creating meaning. She argues that each reader brings their own interpretive framework, leading to plural and varied meanings based on personal, cultural, or theoretical perspectives (p. 177). This plurality underscores that meaning arises in the interaction between text and reader.
• Reference: Belsey refers to the multiple interpretations that readers may apply, noting that “readings are not necessarily in competition with each other…there is no single meaning” (p. 177).

4. Ideological Criticism and Cultural Studies

• Contribution: Belsey’s examination of meaning also contributes to ideological criticism by challenging the neutrality of interpretations. She suggests that texts reflect ideological positions and power structures, as in Foucault’s assertion that knowledge, including literary interpretation, is inherently linked to power (p. 181). This approach has influenced cultural studies by connecting literary meaning with sociopolitical and institutional contexts.
• Reference: She asserts that meaning cannot be separated from its ideological implications, stating that the problem of meaning is “centrally a debate about meaning” and its ideological influences (p. 175).

5. Deconstruction

• Contribution: Belsey’s critique of objective meaning is aligned with Derridean deconstruction, questioning stable interpretations and examining texts for internal contradictions. By rejecting the notion of a single, inherent meaning, she encourages a deconstructive reading that exposes multiple meanings and the limits of language (p. 181).
• Reference: She suggests that meaning is “never single, never fixed,” emphasizing deconstruction’s role in destabilizing absolute interpretations (p. 182).

6. Foucauldian Discourse Analysis

• Contribution: Belsey draws from Michel Foucault’s ideas on discourse to argue that literary criticism is itself a discourse shaped by power. By treating meaning as a product of institutional forces, she links literary theory to Foucault’s concept of knowledge as power, proposing a critical approach that investigates how texts function within larger ideological systems (p. 181).
• Reference: She states that meaning in texts is “produced in institutions” and is “a network of signifieds” that often serves power, supporting a Foucauldian analysis of literary texts as products of cultural power dynamics (p. 181).

7. Empiricism Critique

• Contribution: Belsey critiques empiricist approaches that claim to objectively evaluate texts without theoretical bias, which she argues are based on “unexamined assumptions.” By revealing that all interpretations are theoretically and ideologically influenced, Belsey challenges empiricism’s claims of objectivity and promotes a more self-aware, theoretically grounded criticism (p. 176).
• Reference: Belsey warns against “falling back on unexamined assumptions” that empiricist criticism relies on, suggesting that true neutrality in interpretation is impossible (p. 176).

8. Formalism Critique

• Contribution: By questioning the inherent meaning in a text’s form or structure, Belsey challenges formalism’s emphasis on the text as an isolated entity. Instead, she argues that form and structure gain meaning only through the interpretive frameworks applied by readers, which vary according to cultural and ideological contexts (p. 176).
• Reference: She asserts that interpretations should not be “intuitive, explicitly antitheoretical,” critiquing formalist ideas that elevate the text’s form above cultural context (p. 177).

Examples of Critiques Through “Problems of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning” by Catherine Belsey

Literary Work	Application of Belsey’s Theory	Example of Critique
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Plurality of Meaning & Reader Interpretation Belsey’s emphasis on plural readings suggests that Hamlet allows for multiple interpretations depending on readers’ theoretical lenses.	A Marxist reading may interpret Hamlet’s hesitation as reflecting class struggles and power dynamics, while a Freudian analysis might focus on psychological conflicts, showing that meaning shifts based on interpretive frameworks.
Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen	Ideology and Cultural Context Belsey’s framework highlights how texts reflect and challenge cultural ideologies. Pride and Prejudice offers critiques of class and gender roles.	By focusing on Elizabeth Bennet’s rejection of societal expectations, a feminist reading aligns with Belsey’s view on ideological critique, examining how meaning shifts with changing perceptions of gender and power.
The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot	Instability of Meaning & Deconstruction Belsey’s support for Derrida’s différance aligns with the fragmented nature of Eliot’s poem, where meaning is deferred and elusive.	The Waste Land can be critiqued as resisting a single interpretation; its fragmented structure and intertextuality invite a poststructuralist reading, which sees meaning as always deferred, aligning with Belsey’s ideas on textual instability.
Beloved by Toni Morrison	Power Dynamics & Foucauldian Discourse Belsey’s Foucauldian view suggests analyzing how Morrison’s novel constructs identity and power within cultural memory and historical trauma.	A critique using Belsey’s approach would explore how Beloved reveals the power structures surrounding race and memory, examining how the text constructs meanings around identity, survival, and history through competing discourses.

Criticism Against “Problems of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning” by Catherine Belsey

• Overemphasis on Theoretical Relativism
  Some critics argue that Belsey’s focus on the instability and plurality of meaning undermines the possibility of definitive interpretation, potentially rendering any textual analysis as equally valid or invalid, which could dilute critical rigor.
• Limited Practical Application
  Belsey’s theoretical insights, while intellectually stimulating, are sometimes criticized for being challenging to apply practically in literary analysis, leaving critics without clear methodologies for analyzing specific texts.
• Neglect of Authorial Intent
  Belsey’s disregard for authorial intent has been criticized as limiting; some argue that understanding an author’s purpose can enhance rather than constrain the interpretation, offering insights into cultural and historical contexts.
• Dismissal of Empirical Criticism
  Belsey’s critique of empiricism as overly simplistic and reliant on “unexamined assumptions” has been contested by critics who believe that empirical methods can offer valuable insights and that objectivity, while complex, is not entirely unattainable.
• Ideological Bias in Criticism
  Critics note that Belsey’s emphasis on ideology and power structures risks politicizing literary criticism excessively, potentially sidelining aesthetic and literary qualities of the text in favor of ideological readings.
• Dependency on Poststructuralist Theories
  Belsey’s reliance on poststructuralist thinkers like Derrida and Foucault has been critiqued for potentially limiting her theoretical framework. Critics argue that this dependency could close off alternative interpretative frameworks, especially those outside postmodernist thought.
• Potential for Reader Subjectivity Overload
  By endorsing the plurality of reader responses, Belsey’s approach may be seen as enabling overly subjective readings, where the reader’s biases dominate the text’s meaning, raising concerns about relativism in literary criticism.

Representative Quotations from “Problems of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning” by Catherine Belsey with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The central problem of literary theory is the problem of meaning.”	Belsey identifies meaning as the primary concern in literary theory, emphasizing that understanding how meaning operates in literature is foundational to all other critical analysis.
“To ignore the theoretical question is simply to fall back on unexamined assumptions.”	This statement highlights the necessity of engaging with theoretical questions about meaning rather than relying on intuitive or simplistic understandings.
“Meaning is conventionally hypostasized, a real presence, never quite defined, understood as other than language itself, but the source, paradoxically, from which language derives its substance, its life.”	Belsey critiques the conventional notion of meaning as something abstract and separate from language, urging that meaning and language are inseparable and contextually grounded.
“The question ‘What is the meaning of a text?’ might elicit answers of various kinds, in terms of the author’s intention, the external relation of the text, or the discourse the reader brings to bear on the text in the process of producing a reading.”	This highlights the multiplicity of interpretations that can emerge from a text, emphasizing that meaning is not fixed but contingent on different interpretative frameworks.
“Texts are (or can be) interesting: ‘The more interesting the text, the more readings we shall be able to give.'”	Belsey suggests that the complexity and richness of a text lead to multiple readings, and this plurality is part of what makes texts compelling in literary criticism.
“The specter of a pure, conceptual intelligibility, a ‘truth in the soul,’ as Derrida puts it, of which words are only an expression, is at the heart of our problems.”	Here, Belsey engages with Derrida’s view on the instability of meaning, where meaning is always deferred and cannot be pinned down to a singular, unchanging concept.
“The more interesting the text, the more readings we shall be able to give.”	This underlines the idea that engaging with a text can lead to varied interpretations, and texts with rich layers of meaning allow for a multiplicity of critical perspectives.
“For Foucault the signified is inscribed in knowledges which are repositories simultaneously of meaning and power.”	Belsey integrates Foucault’s theory, emphasizing how meaning is not only linguistic but also shaped by power structures and historical context, affecting how knowledge is produced and interpreted.
“A knowledge (or a discourse) is a network of signifieds, and these meanings may conflict with those delimited by the same signifiers in other knowledges.”	This refers to the concept that meaning is fluid and context-dependent, and the same words or ideas can hold different meanings in different discourses or knowledge systems.
“The alternative I am proposing is not a return to ‘objective criticism’ but a move beyond the empiricist framework of ideas, which gives us a world consisting only of subjects and objects, into a problematic where meaning is not spectral and singular but substantial and plural.”	Belsey critiques both traditional objective criticism and the overly subjective framework of literary theory, proposing a more nuanced view of meaning as plural and dynamic, produced in the interplay of power and language.

Suggested Readings: “Problems of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning” by Catherine Belsey

1. Belsey, Catherine. “Problems of Literary Theory: The Problem of Meaning.” New Literary History, vol. 14, no. 1, 1982, pp. 175–82. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/468964. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
2. Jauss, Hans Robert, and Elizabeth Benzinger. “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory.” New Literary History, vol. 2, no. 1, 1970, pp. 7–37. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/468585. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
3. Rowlett, John L., editor. “Reviewing Criticism: Literary Theory.” Genre Theory and Historical Change: Theoretical Essays of Ralph Cohen, University of Virginia Press, 2017, pp. 122–36. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1v2xtv6.12. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
4. Nicholas O. Pagan. “The Evolution of Literary Theory and the Literary Mind.” Interdisciplinary Literary Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, 2013, pp. 157–79. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.5325/intelitestud.15.2.0157. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.

Introduction: “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory” by Hans Robert Jauss and Elizabeth Benzinger

“Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory” by Hans Robert Jauss and translated by Elizabeth Benzinger first appeared in New Literary History, Vol. 2, No. 1, as part of a symposium on literary history in Autumn 1970. This influential essay presents a framework that reconsiders literary history’s role in relation to literary theory, urging a shift away from solely formalist or Marxist interpretations. Jauss critiques these schools for treating literature as a closed system, ignoring its interactive and socially impactful dimension, especially its reception by audiences. By proposing an “aesthetics of reception,” Jauss argues that literature’s value and historicity derive not only from its creation but also from its engagement with readers over time. This “dialogue” between text and reader forms a living history that changes as each generation interprets literature anew, bridging historical and aesthetic analysis.

The essay’s importance lies in its challenge to prevailing views that literature’s meaning and value are inherent and static, as well as in its proposal of a dynamic model where the audience plays a pivotal role in literary continuity and historical impact. This approach reshapes literary theory by grounding it in human experience, making it integral to cultural and historical understanding. Jauss’s ideas significantly influenced the field of reader-response criticism and expanded the methodological toolkit of literary historians, marking a progressive turn towards contextual, socially engaged literary analysis.

Summary of “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory” by Hans Robert Jauss and Elizabeth Benzinger

• Literary History’s Role in Bridging Theory and Reception: Jauss critiques both Marxist and formalist approaches to literary theory for ignoring the audience’s role in the literary experience. He advocates a literary history that integrates the audience’s reception and interaction with texts, acknowledging their active role in shaping a work’s historical impact (Jauss, p. 7).
• Audience as Historical Agent: Rather than treating the reader as a passive recipient, Jauss argues that the audience is a “history-making energy” that transforms a work through reception. Literature achieves continuity through this evolving relationship with readers over time (Jauss, p. 8).
• The Aesthetics of Reception: Jauss introduces the aesthetics of reception as a new framework, suggesting that literary history should be viewed as a dialogue between past works and the evolving public perception. This perspective allows literature to maintain relevance across generations by adapting and responding to new interpretive contexts (Jauss, p. 10).
• Horizon of Expectations and Aesthetic Distance: The concept of a “horizon of expectations” is central, as it defines the frame within which readers interpret new works based on previous experiences and genres. The aesthetic value of a text, according to Jauss, can be measured by the extent to which it challenges or expands this horizon, creating “aesthetic distance” (Jauss, p. 12).
• Evolutionary Process in Literary Development: Jauss asserts that literary history is not linear but evolves through a dynamic process of reception and reinterpretation. This ongoing “literary evolution” reshapes old forms as new works provide fresh perspectives, influencing both current literary norms and historical canons (Jauss, p. 17).
• Synchronic and Diachronic Analysis of Literature: Jauss proposes integrating both synchronic (cross-sectional) and diachronic (historical) analyses to understand literature within its broader social and historical contexts. This combined approach can reveal how works are situated within and respond to their immediate literary environment while influencing future interpretations (Jauss, p. 30).
• Impact of Literature on Social and Ethical Norms: Literature’s social function goes beyond mere representation, as Jauss argues it plays a role in shaping moral and social values by challenging prevailing standards. Through this lens, literature actively participates in defining societal ethics rather than merely reflecting them (Jauss, p. 35).
• Beyond Mimesis to a Societal Function of Literature: Moving beyond traditional aesthetics, Jauss asserts that literature’s role in society is to provoke reflection and offer alternative viewpoints, thus fostering critical thought and potentially inspiring societal change (Jauss, p. 37).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory” by Hans Robert Jauss and Elizabeth Benzinger

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation/Context in the Text
Aesthetics of Reception	A framework that centers on the reader’s experience, emphasizing the role of reception in the historical and aesthetic life of a text.	Jauss suggests that the value and meaning of literature are actively shaped by its audience, not only by the author or text itself. This approach positions the reader’s interaction as essential to understanding literature as a historical process (Jauss, p. 8).
Horizon of Expectations	The collective set of cultural, social, and aesthetic norms and expectations that shape how readers interpret and respond to a work.	A work’s impact is measured by how it aligns with, challenges, or redefines these expectations, creating “aesthetic distance” based on the level of novelty and deviation from prior norms (Jauss, p. 12).
Aesthetic Distance	The gap between a reader’s existing expectations and the experience offered by a new work, reflecting the degree of novelty or challenge posed by the text.	Jauss argues that works with high aesthetic distance stimulate reader engagement by provoking new perspectives. The “greater” the distance, the more the work challenges norms and encourages reflective reception (Jauss, p. 12).
Literary Evolution	The dynamic process by which literature develops over time through the ongoing interaction of reception, interpretation, and creation.	This evolutionary approach contrasts with linear or teleological models, as it sees literature developing through complex dialogues between old and new works, shaped by reader response and historical context (Jauss, p. 17).
Synchronic Analysis	A method of studying literature at a single historical moment, analyzing how works interact within a common cultural or literary horizon.	Jauss advocates synchronic cross-sections to examine how contemporary works resonate with or differ from each other, revealing a system of relationships within a specific time period (Jauss, p. 30).
Diachronic Analysis	Analyzing literature as it develops over time, focusing on historical progression and transformations in literary forms and reader responses.	Jauss suggests combining diachronic and synchronic analysis to trace both the evolution of genres and the shifting patterns of reader reception, offering a fuller picture of literary history (Jauss, p. 30).
Impact History	The history of a work’s influence, tracking how it has been received, interpreted, and integrated into cultural and literary norms over time.	This concept supports the idea that literary history includes the progression of responses to a text, showing its evolving role in shaping cultural and aesthetic values (Jauss, p. 31).
Classical	Refers to works that transcend historical distance and maintain relevance across time, often seen as possessing inherent “timeless” value.	Jauss challenges this static view by suggesting that a work becomes classical only through continued reinterpretation by successive generations, underscoring the role of historical mediation in constructing “classics” (Jauss, p. 23).
Social Function of Literature	Literature’s ability to influence and shape societal values, norms, and ethics, extending beyond its role as mere representation of social realities.	According to Jauss, literature can redefine morals by challenging prevailing norms, as shown by works that evoke moral or ethical reconsideration within the reader, often inspiring societal shifts (Jauss, p. 35).
Question and Answer Structure	A hermeneutic method where literature is understood as posing questions that invite reader response, aligning with Gadamer’s idea of historical dialogue.	For Jauss, each work embodies questions pertinent to its time, which may only be fully realized in new contexts. Readers must interpret literature by engaging with its implied questions, thereby linking past and present meanings (Jauss, p. 22).
Genre Horizon	The set of formal and thematic conventions associated with a particular genre that shapes how readers approach a text.	Jauss argues that new works often engage with the “genre horizon,” either conforming to or challenging these conventions, which shifts the reader’s expectations and redefines genre boundaries (Jauss, p. 14).
Impersonal Narrative Form	A narrative technique that presents characters’ thoughts and feelings without explicit narrative commentary, leaving moral interpretation to the reader.	Jauss discusses Flaubert’s use of this style in Madame Bovary, highlighting how it subverted moral norms and invited readers to question accepted values, thus serving as an example of literature’s social function (Jauss, p. 35).

Contribution of “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory” by Hans Robert Jauss and Elizabeth Benzinger to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Reception Theory

• Contribution: Jauss is considered a pioneer in reception theory, where he challenges the conventional focus on the author and text alone by placing the reader’s response at the center of literary analysis. He argues that literary meaning is not fixed but changes with each generation’s reception.
• Key Concept: Horizon of Expectations – This is defined as the framework of cultural and historical norms through which audiences interpret literature. Jauss proposes that the meaning of a text emerges through the reader’s response, shaped by historical context and prior literary experience.
• Reference: Jauss states, “The historical life of a literary work is unthinkable without the active participation of its audience” (Jauss, p. 8), underscoring the reader’s role in shaping the work’s impact over time.

2. Historicism and Diachronic Analysis in Literary Studies

• Contribution: Jauss revitalizes literary historicism by introducing a dynamic, evolutionary model for understanding literary development, which contrasts with traditional, linear historicism. He suggests that literature should be understood as part of an ongoing dialogue with both past and future works.
• Key Concept: Literary Evolution – Jauss’s notion of literary evolution involves tracking the transformation of genres and themes across time through the lens of reader response and societal change.
• Reference: He explains that literary history should account for the “mutual mediation” of old and new forms, emphasizing literature’s continuous transformation rather than a static historical narrative (Jauss, p. 17).

3. Hermeneutics and Dialogism

• Contribution: Jauss integrates hermeneutic principles, particularly from Gadamer, into literary theory by framing literary history as a “dialogue” between past and present. This dialogic relationship forms the foundation of understanding literature in a historical and interpretative context.
• Key Concept: Question and Answer Structure – Inspired by Gadamer’s hermeneutics, Jauss advocates for a method where each text is seen as a response to specific historical and literary questions, requiring the reader to engage with its historical and ethical implications.
• Reference: Jauss argues that understanding is achieved through “the process of fusion of such horizons which seem to exist independently,” suggesting that readers must actively interpret the questions each text implicitly answers (Jauss, p. 22).

4. Aesthetics and Value of the Classical Canon

• Contribution: Jauss critiques the concept of the “classical” as a fixed standard, proposing instead that the status of classical works results from their ongoing reinterpretation by successive generations. His challenge to classical aesthetics supports a more fluid, reception-based understanding of literary value.
• Key Concept: Classical as a Construct – According to Jauss, works become classical not through inherent “timelessness” but through sustained relevance and reinterpretation by later audiences.
• Reference: Jauss contends, “the concept of the classical which interprets itself” obscures the role of historical reception in determining a work’s status, stressing that classics are products of continual engagement (Jauss, p. 23).

5. Sociology of Literature and the Social Function of Art

• Contribution: Jauss explores literature’s role in society by examining how it challenges or reinforces social norms. He moves beyond representation theories, suggesting that literature actively shapes societal values and ideas, rather than merely reflecting them.
• Key Concept: Social Function of Literature – Jauss argues that literature contributes to society by expanding the reader’s moral and ethical imagination, often challenging prevailing norms and fostering new social perspectives.
• Reference: He illustrates this with Flaubert’s Madame Bovary, which forces readers to re-evaluate their moral judgments, highlighting literature’s power to provoke ethical reflection (Jauss, p. 35).

6. Structuralism and Genre Theory

• Contribution: Jauss addresses the limitations of structuralist genre theory, particularly in its tendency to treat genres as static categories. He instead views genres as evolving systems that respond to shifting reader expectations and cultural norms.
• Key Concept: Genre Horizon – Jauss’s concept of genre horizon introduces a dynamic view of genres, where texts not only conform to genre expectations but also reshape and expand them, thereby evolving the genre itself.
• Reference: Jauss notes, “The new text evokes for the reader (listener) the horizon of expectations and rules familiar from earlier texts, which are then varied, corrected, changed or just reproduced,” pointing to genre as an evolving framework (Jauss, p. 14).

7. Impact History and Historical Consciousness in Literary Theory

• Contribution: Jauss introduces the idea of “impact history,” proposing that a work’s influence is best understood through the sequence of its reception and reinterpretation over time. This continuous interaction aligns literary history with the evolving consciousness of readers.
• Key Concept: Impact History – By tracing a work’s impact on successive generations, Jauss’s theory accounts for shifts in cultural significance and literary value over time, focusing on the progression of literary influence.
• Reference: He states, “The history of literature can be rewritten on this premise,” suggesting that impact history can be a foundation for a revised, reader-centered literary history (Jauss, p. 31).

Examples of Critiques Through “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory” by Hans Robert Jauss and Elizabeth Benzinger

Literary Work	Critique Through Jauss’s Framework	Key Theoretical Lens	Explanation & Reference
Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert	Jauss critiques Madame Bovary by focusing on the reception and moral dilemma it presents to readers, emphasizing how Flaubert’s use of impersonal narration forces readers to confront their own judgments.	Reception Theory, Social Function	Jauss uses Madame Bovary as an example of how new literary forms like “impersonal telling” create moral ambiguity, making readers question societal norms rather than imposing a moral stance. This narrative style disorients readers, challenging them to interpret the story’s ethical implications (p. 35).
Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes	Jauss analyzes Don Quixote as a work that uses parodic genre conventions to reshape audience expectations, evolving the genre of chivalric romance into a critical commentary.	Genre Horizon, Evolution of Genres	Jauss highlights how Don Quixote creates new horizons by parodying familiar conventions, like the chivalric romance, which leads readers to recognize the absurdity of traditional heroic ideals. This challenges and reconstructs genre boundaries for readers of the time (p. 14).
Perceval, the Story of the Grail by Chrétien de Troyes	Jauss interprets Perceval as a “literary event” rather than a static historical artifact, viewing it as a text that establishes new narrative expectations for the medieval audience.	Literary Evolution, Impact History	Jauss asserts that Perceval introduced complex narrative forms and thematic depth that broke from previous epics. By doing so, it becomes “eventful” only through readers who understand it as an innovative step beyond prior heroic narratives, expanding the genre’s possibilities (p. 10).
Chimères by Gérard de Nerval	Jauss examines Chimères as a work that confronts and subverts Romantic conventions, challenging readers to re-evaluate Romantic ideals and mythic motifs.	Horizon of Expectations, Reception Theory	Jauss notes that Chimères mixes familiar Romantic symbols with an unsettling sense of existential despair, creating a distance from reader expectations. This horizon shift forces readers to reconsider their Romantic ideals, reflecting Nerval’s own critique of Romanticism’s limitations (p. 16).

Criticism Against “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory” by Hans Robert Jauss and Elizabeth Benzinger

• Lack of Emphasis on Authorial Intent
  Critics argue that Jauss’s emphasis on reader reception overlooks the importance of authorial intent. By focusing predominantly on the audience’s interpretation, Jauss may diminish the significance of the author’s original purpose and context.
• Over-Reliance on Subjective Reception
  Reception theory can be seen as overly subjective, as it depends heavily on the audience’s changing perceptions and experiences. Critics suggest this may lead to a relativistic view of literature, where meaning fluctuates excessively with each generation’s reception, undermining the stability of a text’s meaning.
• Inadequate Engagement with Power Dynamics in Interpretation
  Jauss has been critiqued for not addressing how power structures and social hierarchies impact reader interpretation and reception. This oversight limits the theory’s ability to account for how dominant ideologies might shape and control literary interpretation over time.
• Insufficient Methodology for Determining Canon
  Jauss’s theory has been critiqued for offering little guidance on evaluating why certain works become canonical while others do not. Critics argue that simply tracking the “horizon of expectations” is inadequate for explaining why certain texts maintain prominence in literary history.
• Neglect of Cultural and Social Contexts
  By focusing on the aesthetic experience of the reader, Jauss may inadequately account for broader cultural, economic, and social forces that influence both the production and reception of literature. This narrow focus could limit the applicability of his theory across diverse socio-cultural contexts.
• Limited Applicability to Non-Western Literature
  Reception theory, as formulated by Jauss, has been criticized for its Eurocentric approach, which may not apply as effectively to non-Western literary traditions with different structures of literary history, genre, and audience engagement.
• Tendency Toward Retrospective Bias
  Jauss’s method of reconstructing past “horizons of expectations” has been criticized for being speculative and prone to retrospective bias. Reconstructing past receptions risks imposing present-day understandings onto historical interpretations.

Representative Quotations from “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory” by Hans Robert Jauss and Elizabeth Benzinger with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The historical life of a literary work is unthinkable without the active participation of its audience.”	Jauss emphasizes the role of the reader in bringing a text to life and creating its historical relevance, challenging previous theories that focus only on authorial intent and formal structure. He asserts that literature’s impact evolves over time as it interacts with different generations of readers.
“Literary history can be rewritten… by an aesthetics of reception and impact.”	This statement highlights Jauss’s belief that literary history should consider the evolving responses and interpretations of audiences rather than adhering strictly to a chronological or stylistic analysis. The reception theory thus calls for a “rewriting” of literary history to include how works affect readers across different times and contexts.
“A literary work is not an object that stands by itself and offers the same face to each reader in each period.”	Jauss critiques objectivist approaches to literary analysis, arguing that texts do not have a fixed meaning. Instead, each reader and period brings a unique interpretation, reinforcing the dynamic relationship between the work and its audience.
“The new text evokes for the reader the horizon of expectations and rules familiar from earlier texts.”	Jauss introduces the concept of the “horizon of expectations,” where a reader’s prior experiences with literature shape their response to a new work. This “horizon” becomes the basis for evaluating the innovation or predictability of the text, as readers compare it with their past literary experiences.
“Aesthetic distance… is the distance between the given horizon of expectations and the appearance of a new work.”	Jauss explains that the “aesthetic distance” between what a reader expects and what a text delivers determines the text’s novelty and artistic value. If a work challenges or negates readers’ expectations, it often requires a shift in their understanding, marking it as innovative.
“The history of literature is a process in which the passive reception of the reader changes into active reception.”	This reflects Jauss’s belief that readers do not merely absorb literature passively but engage with it actively over time, responding critically and reshaping their interpretations. This process involves transforming initial responses into deeper critical understandings and even new creative works.
“The specific achievement of literature in society can be found only when the function of literature is not imitation.”	Jauss challenges the notion of literature as merely reflecting society, suggesting that it actively influences social beliefs and norms. Literature should be seen as an active force that offers new perspectives and possibilities, going beyond mere representation of existing reality.
“Literary history based on the history of reception and impact reveals itself as a process.”	By framing literary history as an ongoing process of reception, Jauss argues that literature evolves not just through the addition of new works but also through continuous reinterpretation by readers and critics. This view treats literary history as dynamic and open-ended rather than static and fixed.
“The perspective of the aesthetics of reception mediates between passive reception and active understanding.”	Here, Jauss describes his theory as bridging the gap between simply consuming a text and actively engaging with it. This shift to active understanding occurs when readers interpret, question, and even produce new meanings in response to the text, advancing literary tradition.
“The judgment of the centuries… is the successive development of the potential meaning present in a work.”	Jauss refers to the enduring impact and evolution of a work’s meaning over time. Instead of one definitive interpretation, the “judgment of the centuries” reveals how literature accrues significance as different generations uncover new facets and applications, showcasing its lasting value and relevance.

Suggested Readings: “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory” by Hans Robert Jauss and Elizabeth Benzinger

1. Jauss, Hans Robert, and Elizabeth Benzinger. “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory.” New Literary History, vol. 2, no. 1, 1970, pp. 7–37. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/468585. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
2. Foley, John Miles. “Genre(s) in the Making: Diction, Audience and Text in the Old English Seafarer.” Poetics Today, vol. 4, no. 4, 1983, pp. 683–706. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1772320. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
3. Jauss, Hans Robert, and Elizabeth Benzinger. “Literary History as a Challenge to Literary Theory.” New Literary History, vol. 2, no. 1, 1970, pp. 7–37. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/468585. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
4. Mailloux, Steven. “Literary History and Reception Study.” Interpretive Conventions: The Reader in the Study of American Fiction, Cornell University Press, 1982, pp. 159–91. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctt207g64r.11. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.

Introduction: “The New Humanism” by George Sarton

“The New Humanism” by George Sarton, first published in 1924 in Isis, Vol. 6, No. 1, and issued by The University of Chicago Press for The History of Science Society, is a foundational text that explores the interconnectivity of scientific progress, unity of knowledge, and the advancement of human culture. Sarton argues that human progress hinges on the expansion of positive knowledge, including scientific, social, and religious domains, underscoring that understanding across disciplines and cultures is essential. He emphasizes the “unity of knowledge” and “unity of mankind” as essential for fostering a cohesive intellectual society, where the advancement of each scientific branch supports others, fostering an intertwined intellectual ecosystem. Sarton’s text is significant in literary theory and philosophy because it advocates for a humanistic approach to science, integrating science with human values and ethics. This philosophy laid a conceptual framework for later interdisciplinary studies, bridging humanities and sciences, and has been pivotal in influencing modern discussions on the roles of science, philosophy, and human culture.

Summary of “The New Humanism” by George Sarton

• Human Progress as Function of Knowledge: Sarton posits that all meaningful progress in society stems from the advancement of positive knowledge, covering fields like science, religion, politics, and sociology (Sarton, p. 9-10). He emphasizes that deeper knowledge in these areas has led to societal benefits, like increased religious tolerance and humane treatment of others.
• Unity of Knowledge Across Disciplines: Science, in Sarton’s view, is a unified field that, despite its diverse branches, forms an interconnected “tree of knowledge.” He likens scientific progress to the growth of a tree, where advancements in one branch support others, creating a holistic structure of knowledge (Sarton, p. 11).
• Unity of Mankind in Scientific Progress: Sarton advocates that scientific advancements are inherently international, built upon contributions from diverse cultures. He asserts that the “tree of knowledge” draws sustenance globally, reflecting mankind’s shared intellectual heritage (Sarton, p. 12).
• Invisible History as the True Progress of Humanity: According to Sarton, the “essential history of mankind” is the progressive, often unseen development of knowledge and intellectual achievements, not the visible political or social events. These intellectual pursuits are what truly drive humanity forward (Sarton, p. 14).
• The Role of Encyclopedic Knowledge: Sarton champions a comprehensive, encyclopedic approach to knowledge. He warns against excessive specialization, advocating for a broad understanding that unifies knowledge across disciplines (Sarton, p. 17-18).
• The Importance of Historical Context: To understand the progress of science, Sarton stresses the need to study its history. He likens this to observing the growth of a tree, suggesting that scientific knowledge is most meaningful when viewed as a cumulative, evolving process (Sarton, p. 27).
• Towards an Inclusive Humanism: Sarton’s “New Humanism” emphasizes a balanced integration of scientific and humanistic values, akin to the Renaissance’s revival of classical knowledge. This humanism aims to bridge the scientific and cultural worlds, fostering unity and progress for the benefit of all mankind (Sarton, p. 33-34).
• Appeal for Support of ‘Isis’: Sarton concludes with a call for support for his journal, Isis, which aims to document and promote the history of science in service of these humanistic ideals. He positions Isis as essential for scholars invested in the interconnected advancement of knowledge (Sarton, p. 35-36).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The New Humanism” by George Sarton

Term/Concept	Definition	Application in “The New Humanism”
Humanism	A philosophy that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively.	Sarton’s entire work advocates a New Humanism that integrates scientific and humanistic values, aiming to unify humanity’s purpose.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that describes an object or action in a way that isn’t literally true.	Sarton uses the metaphor of a “tree of knowledge” to illustrate the interdependence of scientific disciplines (p. 11).
Unity of Knowledge	The idea that all branches of knowledge are interconnected and support one another.	Sarton argues that science should not be seen in isolation, but rather as a unified body where each discipline strengthens others (p. 11).
Progress	A central theme, relating to the advancement of society through knowledge and science.	Sarton emphasizes that human progress is fueled by intellectual growth and scientific discoveries (p. 9-10).
Analogy	A comparison between two things, typically for clarification.	Sarton compares humanity’s intellectual growth to that of a single “immortal man” whose knowledge expands over time (p. 12).
Internationalism	The principle of cooperation and understanding among nations for shared progress.	Sarton asserts that scientific progress is an international endeavor, with contributions from all cultures supporting unity (p. 12).
Philosophical Positivism	A philosophy that emphasizes empirical evidence as the basis for knowledge.	Sarton aligns with a “tempered positivism” that respects empirical truths while acknowledging the need for humility in science (p. 22).
Historical Contextualism	The idea that understanding history is essential for comprehending present knowledge.	Sarton argues for a historical approach to science, insisting that modern advancements are rooted in earlier knowledge (p. 27).
Encylopedism	The pursuit of broad, organized, and comprehensive knowledge across disciplines.	Sarton advocates for encyclopedic knowledge to avoid excessive specialization and to unify scientific understanding (p. 17).
Philosophical Idealism	A philosophy that holds that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritually oriented.	Sarton promotes a balance between idealism and scientific knowledge, believing ideals guide meaningful progress (p. 33).
Renaissance Allusion	A reference to the historical period known for the revival of art, culture, and science.	Sarton draws a parallel between the New Humanism and the Renaissance, viewing both as revivals of knowledge and human ideals (p. 33).
Scholasticism	A medieval method that emphasized dogmatic adherence to authorities.	Sarton critiques scholasticism for stifling intellectual growth and advocates for a spirit of inquiry and openness (p. 32).
Optimism vs. Pessimism	A theme contrasting hopeful vs. negative perspectives on humanity’s future.	Sarton argues that humanity’s purpose is progressive, with intellectual and scientific advancements as pathways to a better future (p. 24).
Interdisciplinary Approach	An approach that integrates insights from multiple fields to gain a fuller understanding.	Sarton’s New Humanism merges science with philosophy, history, and sociology, aiming for a comprehensive intellectual culture (p. 33).

Contribution of “The New Humanism” by George Sarton to Literary Theory/Theories

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Theory	Sarton’s Contribution	References from “The New Humanism”
Humanism	Sarton revitalizes humanistic ideals, emphasizing the intrinsic value of human intellectual and spiritual progress.	Sarton’s advocacy for a “New Humanism” seeks to balance scientific inquiry with humanistic values (p. 9).
Historicism	Sarton promotes understanding knowledge as historically situated, stressing the need to contextualize scientific advancements.	He views the study of history as essential to science, arguing that knowledge of the past clarifies the present (p. 27).
Interdisciplinary Theory	Sarton emphasizes the interdependence of disciplines, which contributes to modern interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary studies.	Sarton uses the “tree of knowledge” metaphor to demonstrate how science and humanities are interconnected (p. 11).
Philosophical Positivism	His tempered positivism insists on empirical knowledge tempered by ethical and philosophical insights, broadening positivist views.	He advocates for a synthesis of truth-seeking across sciences and humanities, adding a humanistic layer to positivism (p. 22).
Internationalism	Sarton promotes scientific knowledge as a global effort, aligning with theories of cosmopolitanism and internationalism in literature.	He argues that scientific and intellectual progress results from global contributions, transcending national borders (p. 12).
Humanist Historicism	By linking humanism with historical evolution, Sarton provides a framework for understanding cultural achievements as cumulative.	Sarton’s emphasis on humanity’s progressive knowledge aligns with historicist perspectives on cultural achievements (p. 24).
Neo-Renaissance Thought	By paralleling his New Humanism to the Renaissance, Sarton contributes to understanding modern intellectual movements in a Renaissance light.	Sarton describes New Humanism as a revival akin to the Renaissance, merging science with humanistic inquiry (p. 33).
Epistemology	Sarton’s work suggests that scientific and humanistic knowledge must be unified, influencing epistemological approaches in literary theory.	He contends that knowledge must be comprehensive and connected to human values for true understanding (p. 17).
Anti-Scholasticism	Sarton critiques rigid scholastic traditions, advocating for flexible and evolving understanding, contributing to theories on open-minded inquiry.	He positions scholasticism as opposed to genuine intellectual progress, calling for intellectual freedom (p. 32).

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Detailed Contributions to Theories

1. Humanism and Neo-Humanism
   Sarton’s New Humanism contributes to humanistic literary theories by advocating that intellectual pursuits are integral to humanity’s purpose. His perspective that humanity’s core mission is to create and preserve knowledge adds depth to modern humanism theories, where intellectual and moral growth are central to human value (p. 9).
2. Historicism
   Sarton’s emphasis on history’s role in contextualizing knowledge aligns with historicism in literary theory, advocating that scientific developments can only be fully understood within their historical frameworks (p. 27). He parallels literary theorists who argue that literary works and ideas must be seen within historical and cultural contexts.
3. Interdisciplinary Theory
   Sarton’s metaphor of the “tree of knowledge” stresses that knowledge is interconnected, reinforcing interdisciplinary approaches in literary studies, where multiple perspectives are essential to a holistic understanding of texts and ideas (p. 11). His ideas contribute to the growing emphasis on interdisciplinary scholarship.
4. Philosophical Positivism
   Sarton’s “tempered positivism” moves beyond empirical data, suggesting a synergy between scientific inquiry and philosophical thought. This approach contributes to theories that value empirical evidence but insist on the need for philosophical and ethical context in understanding the human condition (p. 22).
5. Internationalism
   Sarton’s assertion that scientific and intellectual progress depends on contributions from all nations supports internationalism and cosmopolitanism in literary theory. His emphasis on global collaboration parallels theories that view literature and ideas as products of cross-cultural influences (p. 12).
6. Epistemology
   Sarton’s call for a unified epistemology that integrates scientific and humanistic knowledge offers a new approach in literary epistemology, emphasizing that all understanding requires a convergence of diverse intellectual pursuits (p. 17).
7. Anti-Scholasticism and Open Inquiry
   His critique of scholastic rigidity contributes to theories that challenge dogmatism, promoting open-minded inquiry and intellectual flexibility. Sarton’s disdain for scholasticism aligns with theories that value questioning established norms and supporting intellectual innovation (p. 32).
8. Neo-Renaissance Thought
   Sarton’s New Humanism parallels Renaissance ideals by seeking to synthesize knowledge across disciplines, resonating with theories that view modern humanistic inquiry as a revival of Renaissance intellectualism (p. 33).

Examples of Critiques Through “The New Humanism” by George Sarton

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Literary Work	Sartonian Critique (Through “The New Humanism”)	Relevant Ideas from “The New Humanism”
Dante’s Divine Comedy	Dante’s synthesis of theology, philosophy, and literature aligns with Sarton’s call for knowledge unity, where science, art, and spirituality coalesce to reflect human growth.	Sarton emphasizes a “tree of knowledge” connecting branches of knowledge into a cohesive whole (p. 11).
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein	Shelley’s exploration of scientific ambition and ethical consequences reflects Sarton’s tempered positivism, illustrating the need for ethical responsibility in scientific pursuits.	Sarton argues for science’s role in enhancing humanity but warns against unchecked ambition divorced from ethics (p. 22).
Tolstoy’s War and Peace	Tolstoy’s holistic portrayal of Russian society reflects Sarton’s vision of interconnected human progress, showing how science, politics, and culture shape collective development.	Sarton promotes an interdisciplinary approach, asserting that progress in one area influences all humanity (p. 12).
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	Achebe’s depiction of Igbo society underscores Sarton’s call for global intellectual contributions and respect for non-Western perspectives, reinforcing a multicultural understanding of human progress.	Sarton’s belief in internationalism and mutual cultural contributions aligns with Achebe’s depiction of indigenous society (p. 24).

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Detailed Explanations

1. Dante’s Divine Comedy
   • Critique: Through Sarton’s New Humanism, Dante’s Divine Comedy can be seen as an exemplary work that merges religious, philosophical, and poetic knowledge. Sarton’s emphasis on unifying diverse knowledge systems highlights Dante’s achievement in integrating theology with philosophy and art, suggesting that Dante’s work epitomizes the pursuit of truth across fields.
   • Sartonian Relevance: This aligns with Sarton’s metaphor of the “tree of knowledge,” which emphasizes interconnected knowledge, where each field strengthens and complements the others (p. 11).
2. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein
   • Critique: Shelley’s novel warns of the perils of scientific ambition without ethical consideration, echoing Sarton’s “tempered positivism.” Sarton’s perspective would critique Victor Frankenstein’s lack of responsibility, highlighting how scientific progress must align with moral growth to benefit humanity.
   • Sartonian Relevance: Sarton’s tempered positivism calls for science informed by ethics, resonating with Shelley’s cautionary tale of scientific overreach (p. 22).
3. Tolstoy’s War and Peace
   • Critique: Sarton’s New Humanism supports Tolstoy’s comprehensive portrayal of Russian life as a microcosm of interconnected human knowledge. By reflecting the intertwined nature of social, political, and scientific spheres, Tolstoy’s work aligns with Sarton’s idea that progress in one field advances all fields, showing society as a cumulative and collaborative force.
   • Sartonian Relevance: Sarton’s idea of interdisciplinary progress highlights how Tolstoy’s integration of social, political, and cultural aspects reveals the holistic nature of human development (p. 12).
4. Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart
   • Critique: Achebe’s portrayal of Igbo culture presents a counter-narrative to Western-centered intellectual traditions, aligning with Sarton’s belief in the importance of global contributions to knowledge. Sarton’s emphasis on respecting diverse cultural perspectives supports Achebe’s work as a vital addition to the understanding of human progress beyond a Eurocentric lens.
   • Sartonian Relevance: Sarton’s principle of internationalism and intellectual unity across cultures finds resonance in Achebe’s portrayal of the Igbo society, illustrating how diverse societies contribute to a richer, global humanistic vision (p. 24).

Criticism Against “The New Humanism” by George Sarton

• Idealistic View of Science and Knowledge: Critics argue that Sarton’s portrayal of science as inherently progressive and altruistic overlooks the complexities and potential harms of scientific advancements, such as ethical issues in technology and environmental degradation. The idealism of “New Humanism” may oversimplify the impact of scientific pursuits.
• Eurocentrism and Western Bias: Although Sarton advocates for the unity of knowledge and global intellectual contributions, critics note that his framework sometimes reflects a Eurocentric perspective, focusing heavily on Western scientific and philosophical traditions while underemphasizing non-Western epistemologies and historical contributions.
• Neglect of Economic and Political Realities: Sarton’s approach is seen by some as too focused on intellectual development without adequately addressing the economic and political structures that influence human progress. Critics argue that knowledge production cannot be separated from these power dynamics, which affect access to resources and scientific funding.
• Limited Practical Applicability: “The New Humanism” has been critiqued for its broad and theoretical approach, which can be challenging to implement in concrete, real-world scenarios. Skeptics argue that Sarton’s ideas are inspirational but lack specific strategies for applying humanistic principles in diverse educational and scientific institutions.
• Overemphasis on Unity at the Expense of Diversity: Sarton’s vision of unified knowledge might risk homogenizing diverse fields of study and disciplines, potentially stifling the unique contributions of specialized research. This focus on unity could overlook the value of divergent perspectives and methodologies essential for scientific and cultural advancement.
• Underestimation of Social and Cultural Divisions: Critics contend that Sarton’s emphasis on the unity of mankind through science and knowledge does not fully address the profound social, cultural, and political divisions that exist globally. His optimism regarding the power of science and knowledge to unify humanity might underestimate these persistent divisions.
• Romanticizing the Role of Scientists and Intellectuals: Some argue that Sarton idealizes the role of scientists and intellectuals, positioning them as inherently virtuous and selfless. This romanticized view does not account for individual and institutional biases, financial interests, and personal ambitions that often influence scientific and intellectual pursuits.
• Ambiguous Definition of Humanism: Critics note that Sarton’s concept of “New Humanism” can be vague and overly inclusive, leaving it open to interpretation. This lack of clear definition may lead to inconsistencies in understanding and applying his ideas within the broader discourse of humanism.

Representative Quotations from “The New Humanism” by George Sarton with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Human progress is essentially a function of the advance of positive knowledge.”	Sarton posits that societal advancement is deeply intertwined with the growth of objective, empirical knowledge. This view reflects his belief in scientific inquiry as a central driver of human development and enlightenment, emphasizing the transformative power of scientific progress in improving human conditions.
“The unity of knowledge and the unity of mankind are but two aspects of one great truth.”	Sarton suggests that the interconnectedness of different fields of knowledge mirrors the inherent unity of humanity. This principle underscores his vision that scientific understanding transcends cultural and national boundaries, fostering a shared intellectual heritage that unites people across the globe.
“The essential history of mankind is largely secret… Visible history is nothing but the local scenery.”	Here, Sarton differentiates between “visible” history (often focused on politics, wars, and surface events) and a deeper, largely invisible history driven by intellectual progress and scientific discovery. For Sarton, the “real” history of humanity lies in the quiet, often unseen advancement of knowledge that shapes the course of civilization more profoundly than transient political or military events.
“The New Humanism is a revival of the knowledge patiently elaborated… by men of science.”	Sarton describes The New Humanism as a renaissance in scientific knowledge, advocating for a renewed focus on science as a means to understand and shape the world. This philosophy draws inspiration from Renaissance humanism, yet focuses more on modern scientific achievements than on classical texts.
“Unity is hidden but deep-seated; disunity, widespread but superficial.”	According to Sarton, humanity’s differences are largely superficial, while a deeper, more profound unity exists beneath these divisions. He argues that intellectual and scientific endeavors reveal this underlying unity, promoting a sense of shared purpose and interconnectedness that surpasses cultural and political divides.
“The main purpose of a scientific education would be to explain the methods of reaching the truth.”	Sarton advocates for a scientific education centered on truth-seeking rather than mere accumulation of facts. He emphasizes the importance of cultivating critical thinking skills and a genuine understanding of scientific methods to foster intellectual independence and a commitment to objective truth.
“Science is not simply an aggregation of isolated facts… it is an organized concatenation of them.”	Sarton sees science as more than a collection of facts; it is an interconnected system where each discovery relates to others. This view challenges the compartmentalization of knowledge, urging a holistic approach that recognizes the interdependence of scientific discoveries and encourages a cohesive understanding of the natural world.
“Whatever material and intellectual progress there is can be traced… to some new secret of nature.”	Sarton suggests that human progress, both in material and intellectual terms, derives from uncovering new scientific truths. This perspective reflects his belief in science as a powerful force for innovation and advancement, continually revealing nature’s secrets to improve human lives.
“Artists and scientists are the true creators, the guardians of human ideals.”	For Sarton, artists and scientists hold a unique role as the creators and protectors of human civilization’s core values. This statement underscores his belief that the pursuit of truth, beauty, and knowledge—values embodied by both artists and scientists—constitutes humanity’s highest purpose and is crucial for cultural and intellectual enrichment.
“The progress of science is not due to the isolated efforts of a single people but to the combined efforts of all peoples.”	Sarton champions an international perspective on scientific progress, recognizing that knowledge is built collaboratively across cultures and nations. This quote highlights his rejection of nationalist claims to scientific achievements, instead promoting a vision of science as a universal enterprise that belongs to all of humanity.

Suggested Readings: “The New Humanism” by George Sarton

1. Hellman, C. Doris. “George Sarton, Historian of Science and New Humanist.” Science, vol. 128, no. 3325, 1958, pp. 641–44. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1755311. Accessed 12 Nov. 2024.
2. HAY, WILLIAM H. “GEORGE SARTON: HISTORIAN OF SCIENCE AND HUMANIST.” American Scientist, vol. 41, no. 2, 1953, pp. 282–86. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27826490. Accessed 12 Nov. 2024.
3. Sarton, George. “War and Civilization.” Isis, vol. 2, no. 2, 1919, pp. 315–21. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/223881. Accessed 12 Nov. 2024.
4. Sarton, George. “The New Humanism.” Isis, vol. 6, no. 1, 1924, pp. 9–42. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/223969. Accessed 12 Nov. 2024.