Ontology in Literature & Literary Theory

Ontology: Etymology/Term, Meanings and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “ontology” originates from the Greek words “ontos,” meaning “being,” and “logos,” meaning “study” or “science.” In philosophy, ontology refers to the branch of metaphysics concerned with the study of existence, being, or reality. It examines the fundamental categories of existence and the nature of being, seeking to understand what entities exist and how they relate to each other.

Meanings and Concept:

• Study of Being: Ontology investigates the nature of existence and the fundamental categories of being, addressing questions about what exists and what it means for something to exist.
• Categories of Existence: It explores the different types of entities that exist, such as substances, properties, relations, and events, and examines their interrelationships.
• Existential Dependence: Ontology considers the relationships between entities, including questions of dependence, identity, and change, exploring how entities are connected and how they influence each other.
• Metaphysical Commitments: Ontology often involves metaphysical commitments about the nature of reality, such as whether there are abstract objects, whether universals exist, or whether reality is ultimately composed of material or immaterial substances.
• Applications in Philosophy and Beyond: Ontological questions arise in various philosophical domains, including metaphysics, philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, and philosophy of language, as well as in other disciplines such as computer science, where ontology refers to the formal specification of conceptualizations.

Ontology: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Ontology, as a theoretical term, refers to the branch of metaphysics concerned with the study of existence and being. It investigates fundamental questions about what entities exist in the world and how they relate to each other. Ontology seeks to understand the nature of reality by examining the categories of existence and the relationships between different types of entities.

Ontology: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorist	Works	Year	Arguments
Plato	The Republic	380 BCE	Argued for the existence of a realm of Forms, distinct from the physical world, where ideal, immutable entities exist as the ultimate reality.
Aristotle	Metaphysics	350 BCE	Proposed a hylomorphic ontology, positing that substances are composed of matter and form, with form giving identity and defining the essence of things.
Immanuel Kant	Critique of Pure Reason	1781	Developed a transcendental idealism, suggesting that the structure of human cognition shapes our understanding of reality, and posited the existence of noumena.
Martin Heidegger	Being and Time	1927	Explored the question of being (Sein) and the ontological difference between beings (Seiende) and Being itself, emphasizing the temporality and existential aspects.
Jean-Paul Sartre	Being and Nothingness	1943	Championed existentialist ontology, asserting that existence precedes essence and that individuals are radically free to define their own existence through choice.
David Lewis	On the Plurality of Worlds	1986	Proposed modal realism, arguing for the existence of multiple concrete possible worlds as equally real, challenging traditional notions of actuality and possibility.
Saul Kripke	Naming and Necessity	1980	Introduced the idea of rigid designators and argued for the existence of necessary truths grounded in the essential properties of objects, challenging traditional views.

This table provides an overview of key theorists in ontology, their significant works, publication years, and the main arguments they advanced in the field.

Ontology: Major Characteristics

• Study of Being: Ontology delves into the nature of existence itself, examining what entities exist and what it means for something to be.
• Categories of Existence: It explores different types of entities, such as substances, properties, and relations, and investigates how they interrelate.
• Existential Dependence: Ontology considers how entities depend on each other for existence, identity, and change, exploring the connections between them.
• Metaphysical Commitments: Ontology often involves metaphysical commitments about the ultimate nature of reality, such as the existence of abstract objects or the nature of universals.

Literary References:

• In Fyodor Dostoevsky’s The Brothers Karamazov, the character Ivan Karamazov’s philosophical discussions touch upon ontological questions, particularly the existence of God and the nature of moral responsibility.
• Jorge Luis Borges’s short story “The Library of Babel” explores ontological themes through the concept of an infinite library containing all possible books, raising questions about the nature of reality and knowledge.
• In Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis, the protagonist Gregor Samsa’s transformation into a giant insect prompts ontological reflections on identity, existence, and the human condition.
• In Haruki Murakami’s Hard-Boiled Wonderland and the End of the World, the narrative intertwines two parallel worlds, one dystopian and one fantastical, raising ontological questions about the nature of reality and consciousness.

Ontology: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Ontology
Formalism	Formalism may examine how the ontology of literary works influences their structure, content, and interpretation.
Structuralism	Structuralism may explore the underlying structures and systems of meaning within texts, revealing their ontological dimensions.
Postmodernism	Postmodernism may challenge traditional ontological assumptions, questioning the stability and coherence of literary realities.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Psychoanalytic criticism may analyze the ontological implications of characters’ subconscious desires and symbolic representations.
Feminist Criticism	Feminist criticism may investigate how ontological assumptions about gender shape representations of identity and power in literature.
Postcolonial Criticism	Postcolonial criticism may examine how colonial ontologies influence literary representations of identity, culture, and power.
Ecocriticism	Ecocriticism may explore the ontological relationship between humans and the natural world, as depicted in literary texts.
Queer Theory	Queer theory may challenge normative ontological categories of gender and sexuality, destabilizing fixed identities in literature.
Marxist Criticism	Marxist criticism may analyze the ontological dimensions of class struggle and economic relations depicted in literary works.
Reader-Response Criticism	Reader-response criticism may investigate how readers’ ontological assumptions and perspectives shape their interpretations of texts.

In each of these literary theories, ontology plays a crucial role in shaping perspectives on the nature of reality, identity, power, and representation within literary texts.

Ontology: Application in Critiques

1. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez (Colombia):
   • Application: Ontological critiques of this novel may focus on the magical realism that permeates the narrative, exploring how the blending of the ordinary and the fantastical challenges traditional ontological assumptions about reality and perception. García Márquez’s portrayal of the Buendía family’s cyclical history may also prompt reflections on the ontology of time and memory.
2. The Master and Margarita by Mikhail Bulgakov (Russia):
   • Application: Ontological analysis of Bulgakov’s novel may center on the blurred boundaries between reality and fantasy, particularly in the depiction of the Devil’s visit to Moscow and the surreal events that unfold. Critics may explore how Bulgakov uses the supernatural elements to challenge conventional ontological categories and to critique Soviet society.
3. The Trial by Franz Kafka (Austria-Hungary/Czechoslovakia):
   • Application: Kafka’s existential and absurdist themes invite ontological scrutiny, with critiques focusing on the protagonist Josef K.’s futile quest for meaning and justice in a surreal and bureaucratic world. The novel’s depiction of opaque systems of power and the arbitrariness of existence prompts ontological reflections on the nature of authority, identity, and reality.
4. Blindness by José Saramago (Portugal):
   • Application: Saramago’s exploration of a sudden epidemic of blindness serves as fertile ground for ontological critique, with analysts examining how the loss of sight disrupts conventional perceptions of reality and identity. The novel’s portrayal of societal breakdown and the struggle for survival prompts ontological reflections on the fragility of civilization and the essence of humanity.

In each of these non-American literary works, ontology serves as a lens through which to explore themes of reality, perception, identity, and the nature of existence, enriching critical interpretations and deepening understanding of the texts.

Ontology: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Epistemology	Study of knowledge and how we justify beliefs.
Metaphysics	Inquiry into the fundamental nature of reality and existence.
Phenomenology	Examination of subjective experiences and consciousness structures.
Existentialism	Emphasis on individual existence, freedom, and meaning in a chaotic world.
Idealism	Belief that reality is fundamentally mental or conceptual, not material.
Materialism	Assertion that reality consists solely of physical matter and interactions.
Dualism	View positing two distinct substances or realities, often mind and body.
Solipsism	Belief that the self is the only thing known to exist.
Nihilism	Belief that life lacks inherent meaning or value, often leading to despair.
Pragmatism	Emphasis on practical consequences over abstract principles.

Ontology: Suggested Readings

1. Badiou, Alain. Being and Event. Translated by Oliver Feltham, Continuum, 2006.
2. Caputo, John D. Ontology: The Hermeneutics of Facticity. Indiana University Press, 2019.
3. Caputo, John D., and Michael J. Scanlon, editors. Ontology after Ontotheology: Plurality, Event, and Contingency in Contemporary Philosophy. Fordham University Press, 2014.
4. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Translated by John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson, Harper & Row, 1962.
5. Heidegger, Martin. Ontology as the Hermeneutics of Facticity. Indiana University Press, 1994.
6. Locke, John. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Edited by Peter H. Nidditch, Oxford University Press, 1979.
7. Meillassoux, Quentin. After Finitude: An Essay on the Necessity of Contingency. Translated by Ray Brassier, Continuum, 2008.
8. Quine, W.V.O. Ontological Relativity and Other Essays. Columbia University Press, 1969.
9. Sartre, Jean-Paul. Being and Nothingness. Translated by Hazel E. Barnes, Washington Square Press, 1993.
10. Whitehead, Alfred North. Process and Reality: An Essay in Cosmology. Corrected Edition, Free Press, 1978.