Subaltern in Literature & Literary Theory

Etymology of Subaltern

• The term “subaltern“ finds its etymological roots in the Latin word “subalternus,” signifying “subordinate” or “inferior.”
• Italian Marxist thinker Antonio Gramsci played a pivotal role in shaping the concept of the “subaltern” during the early 20th century, using it to characterize marginalized and oppressed social groups within society.
• Gramsci’s use of “subaltern” underscored the idea of political and social subordination, particularly in the context of hegemony and cultural dominance.
• Postcolonial theorists, most notably Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, further developed and refined the concept of the “subaltern,” shedding light on the complexities of subaltern voices and their representation within dominant discourses. In contemporary academic discourse, the term remains vital for analyzing power dynamics, marginalization, and resistance, particularly within the domains of postcolonial and subaltern studies.

Meanings of Subaltern

Aspect	Meaning
Marginalized Voices	In literary contexts, it often refers to the voices, experiences, and narratives of individuals or groups who are marginalized, oppressed, or silenced within society. These voices may represent the perspectives of subjugated communities, minorities, or those on the fringes of mainstream discourse.
Resistance and Counter-Narratives	It can also denote the act of resistance and the creation of counter-narratives by those who challenge dominant ideologies and power structures. In literature, subaltern characters or authors may actively subvert or critique prevailing norms and hierarchies.
Postcolonial Discourse	Within postcolonial literature and theory, “subaltern” carries specific significance, referring to the colonized or colonially oppressed populations whose experiences and histories were often marginalized or erased by colonial powers. It underscores the importance of acknowledging and giving voice to these historically silenced perspectives.
Intersectionality	The term can encompass the intersectionality of identities, highlighting that subaltern individuals may face multiple layers of oppression based on factors such as race, gender, class, and ethnicity. This complexity is explored in literary works that seek to depict the multifaceted nature of subaltern experiences.
Agency and Empowerment	In some literary contexts, it is associated with agency and empowerment, as subaltern characters or authors may assert their identity and demand recognition, justice, or equality. These narratives can emphasize resilience and the struggle for self-determination.
Narrative Representation	Within literary theory, the concept raises questions about who has the authority to represent subaltern voices and experiences. Scholars engage with issues of authenticity, and the ethics of representation when examining subaltern narratives in literature.

Definition of Subaltern as a Theoretical Term

In academic discourse, the term “subaltern” refers to marginalized or oppressed groups within a society, often encompassing individuals who are socially, politically, or economically disadvantaged.

This concept is closely associated with postcolonial theory and the works of scholars like Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and Antonio Gramsci, who explored the power dynamics and agency of these subordinated groups. In essence, “subaltern” serves as a theoretical lens to analyze and understand the experiences, voices, and struggles of those on the periphery of dominant social structures.

Subaltern: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

• Antonio Gramsci: Pioneering Italian Marxist philosopher and theorist who introduced the concept in his Prison Notebooks, emphasizing their role in challenging hegemonic structures.
• Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak: Influential postcolonial theorist known for her essay “Can the Subaltern Speak?” in which she critically examined the representation and agency of subaltern groups, highlighting the complexities of their voices within power structures.

Works:

• Antonio Gramsci’s Prison Notebooks: Gramsci’s writings in prison, particularly his ideas are found within his extensive collection of notebooks, where he explores the role of subaltern classes in challenging and transforming social hierarchies.
• Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s “Can the Subaltern Speak?”: This seminal essay by Spivak delves into the limitations and challenges of representing the subaltern and explores the complexities of their ability to articulate their own experiences and needs.

Arguments:

• Gramsci’s Argument: Gramsci argued that such groups, often marginalized and disempowered, possess the potential to challenge and transform the dominant ideology through a process of counter-hegemony, ultimately playing a crucial role in social change.
• Spivak’s Argument: Spivak’s argument in “Can the Subaltern Speak?” centers on the notion that the representation of subaltern voices by elites or scholars can be problematic, as it may inadvertently perpetuate their subjugation. She calls for a nuanced approach to understanding and amplifying these voices while recognizing the difficulties they face in articulating their own concerns within dominant structures.

Subaltern and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance with Key Points	Example
Postcolonial Literary Theory	– Relevance: The concept enriches postcolonial literary theory by allowing for a nuanced examination of how colonialism and imperialism are portrayed in literature, emphasizing the experiences and resistance of marginalized communities in colonial settings. – Example: In analyzing works like Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apartor Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children the subaltern concept illuminates the agency and struggles of characters from subjugated cultures.	In Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, the subaltern perspective helps analyze the impact of British colonialism on the Igbo society, highlighting the subjugation and resistance of the indigenous people.
Feminist Literary Theory	– Relevance: The concept is crucial in feminist literary theory as it aids in understanding the experiences of historically marginalized women due to gender, race, or socio-economic status, revealing intersecting forms of oppression. – Example: In works by authors like Toni Morrison or Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, the subaltern perspective enriches the interpretation of feminist texts by recognizing the unique challenges and perspectives of these women.	In Toni Morrison’s Belovedthe subaltern concept allows for a deeper exploration of the struggles faced by African American women who endured slavery and the trauma it inflicted.
Cultural Studies	– Relevance: Cultural studies incorporates the subaltern concept to explore how cultural representations in literature reflect and contest dominant power structures. Examining subaltern voices in diasporic literature provides insights into the depiction of identity, migration, and hybridity in marginalized communities. – Example: In the works of Jhumpa Lahiri or Junot Díaz, the subaltern perspective deepens the understanding of how these themes are portrayed in the context of globalization.	Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake explores such experiences of immigrants in the United States, revealing the challenges of navigating between their cultural heritage and the American identity.
Critical Race Theory	– Relevance: Critical race theory intersects with subaltern studies by focusing on racial hierarchies and power dynamics in literature. This approach uncovers the experiences of racialized subaltern groups and their confrontation with systemic racism. – Example: In novels by authors like James Baldwin or Zora Neale Hurston, the subaltern lens exposes how these writers engage with and subvert racialized oppression.	James Baldwin’s The Fire Next Time delves into the subaltern experiences of African Americans in the context of racial discrimination and civil rights, offering a powerful critique of systemic racism.

Subaltern in Literary Criticism

1. The Sympathizer by Viet Thanh Nguyen (2015):
   • In The Sympathizer, the perspective is central to the narrative as it explores the experiences of a Vietnamese communist sympathizer during and after the Vietnam War. The novel delves into the subaltern voice of a character caught between the competing forces of colonialism and nationalism.
   • It critiques the dominant narratives of the war, highlighting the complexities and moral dilemmas faced by the protagonist. Through this lens, the novel exposes the suffering and agency of the Vietnamese people, often overlooked in Western-centric accounts of the war.
2. Exit West by Mohsin Hamid (2017):
   • Exit West uses a subaltern lens to portray the experiences of refugees in a world disrupted by conflict and displacement. The subaltern perspective is crucial in understanding the challenges, resilience, and aspirations of the characters who escape war-torn regions through magical doors.
   • It critiques the global response to the refugee crisis and challenges the dominant narratives surrounding migration. By focusing on the subaltern voices of refugees, the novel offers a humanizing portrayal of those who are often dehumanized or ignored in political discourse.
3. Homegoing by Yaa Gyasi (2016):
   • Homegoing employs a subaltern approach to trace the intergenerational experiences of two branches of a Ghanaian family—one that remains in Africa and the other that is sold into slavery in America. This novel is a critique of the historical silencing of African voices in the context of the transatlantic slave trade.
   • It emphasizes the resilience and cultural identity of African and African American subalterns throughout history. By juxtaposing the narratives of these two branches, the novel exposes the enduring impact of slavery on generations and challenges dominant historical narratives.
4. The Water Dancer by Ta-Nehisi Coates (2019):
   • Ta-Nehisi Coates’ The Water Dancer is a novel that uses a subaltern perspective to explore the experiences of enslaved people in the American South. The protagonist possesses a supernatural power that allows him to transport others to freedom, giving voice to the subalterns in their quest for liberation.
   • This novel critiques the dehumanization of enslaved individuals and the violence of the antebellum South. It underscores the agency of the subaltern characters in their resistance against oppression and their pursuit of a better future.

In these four recent works, this concept is a critical tool for literary criticism, enabling a deeper understanding of marginalized voices and their struggles against dominant power structures. These narratives challenge historical and social injustices while emphasizing the importance of recognizing and widening these perspectives in literature and society.

Suggested Readings

1. Chakrabarty, Dipesh. Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference. Princeton University Press, 2000.
2. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Translated by Richard Philcox, Grove Press, 2004.
3. Gramsci, Antonio. Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Edited and translated by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, International Publishers, 1971.
4. Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. Feminism Without Borders: Decolonizing Theory, Practicing Solidarity. Duke University Press, 2003.
5. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard University Press, 1999.
6. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Can the Subaltern Speak?: Reflections on the History of an Idea. Edited by Rosalind C. Morris, Columbia University Press, 2010.
7. Young, Robert J.C. Postcolonialism: An Historical Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell, 2001.
8. Young, Robert J.C. White Mythologies: Writing History and the West. Routledge, 1990.