Theoretical Terms Archives - Page 39 of 52

Determinism in Literature & Literary Theory

Determinism, as a theoretical concept, refers to the philosophical position that all events, actions, and outcomes in the universe are the result of pre-existing causes, laws, or conditions, making them predictable and inevitable.

Etymology of Determinism

The term “determinism” finds its roots in the Latin word “determinare,” which means “to limit” or “to bound.”

In its historical and philosophical context, determinism refers to the idea that events, actions, and outcomes are bound by pre-existing causes, laws, or conditions, thereby leaving little room for random chance or free will.

The concept of determinism has been a subject of extensive philosophical discourse, particularly in the realms of metaphysics and ethics, where it has been both defended and criticized. It remains a fundamental idea in understanding the extent to which human choices and events are governed by external factors or are, to some degree, free from deterministic constraints.

Meanings of Determinism

Aspect	Meanings
Causal Determinism	Events have predetermined causes and necessary sequences.
Logical Determinism	Statements are true or false based on logical necessity, implying no free will.
Psychological Determinism	Human thoughts and actions are entirely determined by prior factors, limiting personal agency.
Hard Determinism	All events and actions are determined by preceding conditions, denying free will.
Soft Determinism	Suggests that free will and determinism can coexist under certain conditions.
Biological Determinism	Human behavior and traits are shaped primarily by genetic and biological factors.
Technological Determinism	Technology influences society’s development, culture, and behavior deterministically.
Ethical Determinism	Moral choices are determined by external factors like societal norms, upbringing, or religious beliefs, not individual agency.

Definition of Determinism as a Theoretical Term

It suggests that there is a deterministic relationship between antecedent factors and subsequent events, leaving little room for random chance or human free will. This concept has profound implications for understanding the extent to which individual choices and actions are influenced by external forces and constraints.

Determinism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Pierre-Simon Laplace: Laplace, a French mathematician and physicist, formulated Laplace’s demon, a concept in which the universe is entirely determined if one possesses complete knowledge of its present state.
Baruch Spinoza: Spinoza’s philosophical work, particularly his “Ethics,” explored a deterministic worldview, asserting that everything in the universe, including human actions, is determined by the necessity of nature.
Albert Einstein: Einstein’s work in physics, including his “Theory of Relativity,” contributed to the idea that the universe operates under deterministic laws, although his later thoughts on quantum mechanics added complexity to this view.

Works:

“Philosophical Essay on Probabilities” by Pierre-Simon Laplace: In this work, Laplace introduced the idea of determinism through the concept of Laplace’s demon, proposing that the future could be predicted if one had complete knowledge of the universe’s current state.
“Ethics” by Baruch Spinoza: Spinoza’s magnum opus delves into his deterministic philosophy, arguing that everything, including human actions, is governed by the necessity of nature.
“Theory of Relativity” by Albert Einstein: Einstein’s groundbreaking theories in physics, particularly his theory of relativity, contribute to the understanding of deterministic laws governing the universe.

Key Arguments:

Laplace’s Determinism: Laplace’s argument is centered around the concept of Laplace’s demon, suggesting that if one had complete knowledge of the present state of the universe, all future and past events could be determined with certainty, implying a fully deterministic cosmos.
Spinoza’s Necessitarianism: Spinoza’s argument revolves around the idea of “necessity” in his philosophy, contending that all things are determined by the necessity of nature and that human freedom is an illusion.
Einstein’s Contribution: Einstein’s key argument relates to the deterministic nature of the physical universe as described by his theories of relativity, which posit that the laws of physics apply consistently and deterministically to all events and objects.

These theorists, their works, and arguments contribute to the understanding of determinism as a philosophical and scientific concept, challenging notions of chance and free will in the universe.

Determinism and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance of Determinism
Naturalism:	Naturalism in literature explores how individuals are shaped by their environment, heredity, and external factors. Determinism is highly relevant here, as naturalist authors often depict characters whose actions and fates are preordained by these influences. Novels like Emile Zola’s Germinal exemplify this by portraying characters trapped in circumstances they cannot control.
Realism:	Realist literature aims to depict life and society as it is, often emphasizing the influence of external factors on characters’ choices and outcomes. Determinism can be a key theme, illustrating how societal norms, class structures, and economic conditions limit individual agency. Works like Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the d’Urbervilles showcase this aspect.
Existentialism:	While existentialism typically focuses on individual freedom and choice, it also engages with determinism. Existentialist authors like Jean-Paul Sartre explore the tension between the individual’s capacity for free will and the external forces that may limit that freedom. In Sartre’s play No Exit, the characters are both free and determined by their own choices and actions.
Science Fiction:	Determinism plays a crucial role in many science fiction works, particularly in exploring the impact of technology and future societies on individual agency. Authors like Philip K. Dick, in his novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, examine how technology and artificial intelligence challenge human agency and free will.
Postmodernism:	Postmodern literature questions and challenges traditional notions of agency and determinism. It often explores the instability of meaning and the multiplicity of interpretations. Works like Italo Calvino’s If on a winter’s night a traveler challenge the idea of a singular, deterministic narrative structure.

Determinism in Literary Criticism

In The Stranger by Albert Camus:
- Critique: Camus explores the idea of existential absurdity and a world devoid of inherent meaning. The deterministic backdrop in The Stranger suggests that the protagonist, Meursault, is trapped in a world where his actions and choices seem predetermined by the indifference of the universe. Critics argue that this bleak determinism overshadows individual agency, making Meursault a passive observer in his own life.
In Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky:
- Critique: Dostoevsky’s novel grapples with moral determinism and the consequences of one’s actions. Critics argue that the deterministic themes in Crime and Punishment can lead to a pessimistic view of human nature, suggesting that individuals are inevitably bound by their moral choices, leaving little room for redemption or change.
In The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka:
- Critique: Kafka’s The Metamorphosis portrays the absurdity of existence and the powerless, deterministic nature of Gregor Samsa’s transformation into an insect. Critics contend that the work critiques the dehumanizing effects of determinism, where external circumstances strip away one’s humanity and agency, leaving the individual subject to the whims of fate.
In Brave New World by Aldous Huxley:
- Critique: In Huxley’s dystopian novel, the deterministic nature of the World State, with its conditioning and societal control, is a central theme. Critics argue that the excessive determinism depicted in Brave New World can be seen as a critique of a society that sacrifices individual agency and freedom for stability and conformity, leading to a loss of genuine human experience.

These critiques underscore how determinism, when explored in literature, can both shed light on the constraints of individual agency and potentially overshadow the complexity of characters and their choices.

Angst in Literature & Literary Theory

Angst, as a theoretical term, is a complex and pervasive psychological phenomenon characterized by a deep and often inexplicable sense of unease, anxiety, or existential dread.

Etymology of Angst

The word “angst” derives from the German language, specifically from the Middle High German term “angest,” which means “fear” or “anxiety.” It can be traced back to the Old High German word “angust,” stemming from the Proto-Germanic root “angustaz.”

The term has evolved to encompass a broader range of emotional distress, often associated with a deep sense of existential anxiety and dread, particularly in philosophical and psychological contexts. The word gained prominence in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, notably in the works of existentialist philosophers, such as Søren Kierkegaard and Jean-Paul Sartre, where it became emblematic of the human condition’s inherent unease and uncertainty.

Meanings of Angst

Aspect	Meaning
Existential Angst	Philosophical anxiety about life’s uncertainty and meaninglessness, explored by philosophers.
General Anxiety	Broad anxiety unrelated to existential concerns, characterized by unease or apprehension.
Deep Emotional Turmoil	Profound emotional distress, including dread, fear, and inner conflict.
Adolescent Angst	Moodiness and emotional turbulence in adolescence due to identity and societal pressures.
Cultural and Artistic Expression	Theme in literature, art, and culture representing psychological struggle in various contexts.
Psychological and Therapeutic Context	Inner turmoil in psychology and therapy, often a symptom of mental health conditions like anxiety disorders.

Definition of Angst as a Theoretical Term

Angst, as a theoretical term, is a complex and pervasive psychological phenomenon characterized by a deep and often inexplicable sense of unease, anxiety, or existential dread.

It is frequently used in philosophical and psychological contexts to describe a fundamental, underlying human disquiet related to the uncertainty and meaninglessness of life. This term, which gained prominence in existentialist thought, serves as a lens to explore the profound emotional and intellectual challenges associated with the human condition.

Angst: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Søren Kierkegaard: Kierkegaard is often regarded as one of the foundational figures in the exploration of existential angst. In his works, particularly in The Concept of Anxiety, he delves into the concept of existential angst, emphasizing the individual’s internal struggle with the anxiety of freedom and the potential despair arising from choices.
Friedrich Nietzsche: Nietzsche explored existential concerns and the experience of anguish in various works, notably in Thus Spoke Zarathustra, where he discussed the idea of the “overman” who confronts and transcends existential angst.
Jean-Paul Sartre: Sartre, a prominent existentialist philosopher, extensively examined angst in his writings. In Being and Nothingness, he argued that existential angst is a result of the realization of one’s radical freedom and the responsibility that comes with it.

Key Works:

Søren Kierkegaard’s The Concept of Anxiety (1844): This work is a seminal exploration of existential angst, delving into the concept of “dread” and the idea that angst is integral to the human condition.
Friedrich Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883-1885): Nietzsche’s concept of the overman and the eternal recurrence is linked to the theme of existential anguish.
Jean-Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness (1943): Sartre’s existentialist philosophy, including his views on existential angst, is extensively discussed in this influential work.

Key Arguments:

Individual Responsibility: These theorists argue that existential angst is closely tied to the recognition of individual freedom and responsibility. It arises when individuals confront the burden of making authentic choices in the face of life’s inherent uncertainties and meaninglessness.
Transcendence: Existentialist thinkers often propose that confronting and embracing angst can lead to a form of transcendence, where individuals move beyond mere existence to create their own values and meanings in life.
Human Condition: They suggest that existential angst is a fundamental aspect of the human condition, and acknowledging it can lead to a deeper understanding of the complexities of human existence, ultimately contributing to personal growth and self-realization.

Angst and Literary Theories

Existentialism: Literary works that embody existentialist themes frequently delve into the concept of angst. Writers like Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre use literature to depict characters facing profound existential dilemmas, grappling with the meaninglessness of life, and experiencing existential angst. For example, Camus’ novel The Stranger and Sartre’s play No Exit both reflect the theme of existential angst.
Modernism: The modernist literary movement often engages with existential questions and inner turmoil. Authors like Franz Kafka, in works like The Metamorphosis, and T.S. Eliot, in poems like “The Waste Land,” incorporate elements of existential angst, reflecting the disillusionment and disorientation felt in the aftermath of World War I.
Psychological Realism: In psychological literature and realism, characters’ internal struggles, anxieties, and emotional turmoil are central themes. Novels like Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment and Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway provide in-depth explorations of characters’ psychological angst and the impact of their internal conflicts on their lives.
Postmodernism: Postmodern literature often questions traditional notions of identity, meaning, and reality, leading to characters and narratives characterized by a sense of disorientation and existential angst. For instance, works like Thomas Pynchon’s The Crying of Lot 49 and Don DeLillo’s White Noise incorporate elements of existential uncertainty and anxiety.
Literary Criticism and Analysis: Literary theorists and critics use the concept of existential angst as a lens to interpret and analyze literary works. It provides a framework to explore the psychological depth of characters, the uncertainty of meaning, and the human condition as portrayed in various narratives.
Symbolism and Allegory: Authors often employ symbols and allegorical elements to convey existential angst in their works. For example, Franz Kafka’s The Trial is interpreted as an allegory of a sense of alienation and disorientation in a bureaucratic and incomprehensible world.

In these literary theories and contexts, the exploration of existential angst adds depth and complexity to characters and narratives, offering readers a deeper understanding of the human experience and the complexities of existence.

Angst in Literary Criticism

Work	Critique
*The Stranger* by Albert Camus	In *The Stranger*, Camus presents the protagonist, Meursault, as a detached and indifferent individual who faces a profound sense of existential angst. Meursault’s emotional detachment and his inability to conform to societal norms reflect the alienation and the absurdity of human existence. Literary critics often explore how Camus uses Meursault’s experiences to illustrate the futility of life and the individual’s struggle to find meaning in an indifferent world.
*Crime and Punishment* by Fyodor Dostoevsky	Dostoevsky’s novel *Crime and Punishment* provides a rich canvas for the exploration of existential angst. The protagonist, Raskolnikov, grapples with moral dilemmas and the consequences of his actions. Literary critics analyze how Raskolnikov’s inner turmoil and moral conflict highlight the torment and suffering inherent in the human condition. The novel is often seen as a portrayal of the psychological and existential torment experienced by individuals when confronted with their own moral transgressions.
*The Metamorphosis* by Franz Kafka	In Kafka’s *The Metamorphosis*, the central character, Gregor Samsa, undergoes a bizarre transformation into an insect, which serves as a powerful metaphor for alienation and existential angst. Literary critics examine how Kafka’s narrative illustrates the absurdity of life and the isolation experienced by individuals who struggle to communicate their innermost feelings. The novella is often interpreted as an exploration of the human condition, where Gregor’s transformation represents the profound alienation and estrangement felt by individuals in a modern, dehumanizing society.
*The Stranger* by Harlan Coben	While not to be confused with Camus’s *The Stranger*, Harlan Coben’s novel is also a fertile ground for exploring themes of existential angst, albeit in a contemporary context. Literary critics may discuss how Coben’s characters confront moral ambiguities, deception, and the unpredictability of life. The novel’s suspense and the characters’ dilemmas offer a lens through which to examine the complexities of human existence, where individuals must grapple with personal choices and the consequences of their actions.

Agent in Literature & Literary Theory

In theoretical contexts, an “agent” is a term that designates an entity or actor capable of initiating, executing, or influencing actions within a given system or framework.

Etymology of Agent

The term “agent” has its etymological roots in the Latin word “agens,” derived from the verb “agere,” which means “to do” or “to act.”

This Latin word is associated with the concept of a person or entity that carries out actions or exercises authority on behalf of another.

With time, the term “agent” has evolved to refer to individuals or entities who act on behalf of and under the authority of others, often in a professional or legal capacity, to perform various tasks, represent interests, or facilitate transactions.

The concept of agency is fundamental in law, business, and various social contexts, and its etymology reflects the underlying notion of action and representation.

Meanings of Agent

Aspect	Meaning
Narrative Agent	Characters or entities that advance the plot within a literary work.
Author as Agent	The author’s role in creating and shaping characters and themes to convey their message.
Literary Agency	Professionals who represent authors and negotiate book deals in the publishing industry.
Intentional Agent	The implied author’s intentions and the intended meaning behind the text.
Socio-Political Agents	Characters or elements representing broader social, political, or cultural forces.
Structural Agent	Elements like motifs, symbols, or narrative devices contributing to the text’s organization and meaning.
Reader as Agent	The active role of readers in interpreting and constructing meaning within a text.
Agency in Postmodernism	Questioning traditional authorial control and fixed interpretations in postmodern literary theory.

Definition of Agent as a Theoretical Term

In theoretical contexts, an “agent” is a term that designates an entity or actor capable of initiating, executing, or influencing actions within a given system or framework.

This concept is often used to analyze and describe the capacity of individuals, organizations, or elements to bring about change or generate effects, particularly in fields such as sociology, economics, and artificial intelligence. Agents are characterized by their autonomy, decision-making capabilities, and their potential to impact the outcomes or dynamics of the system they are situated within.

Agent: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Immanuel Kant: Kant discussed the concept of moral agency and the autonomy of rational agents in his works on ethics, particularly in Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals and Critique of Practical Reason.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Rousseau explored the notion of the social contract, wherein individuals collectively form a political community and act as moral agents, in his seminal work The Social Contract.
Jürgen Habermas: Habermas, in works like The Theory of Communicative Action, emphasized the role of communicative rationality in shaping agency and the potential for emancipatory action in modern society.

Works:

Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals by Immanuel Kant: In this foundational work, Kant delineates his ideas on moral agency, moral autonomy, and the categorical imperative as a guide for ethical action.
The Social Contract by Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Rousseau’s work outlines the concept of the social contract and the idea of collective agency in the formation of just societies.
The Theory of Communicative Action by Jürgen Habermas: Habermas presents his theory of communicative action and communicative rationality, highlighting the importance of language and discourse in shaping human agency and social change.

Key Arguments:

Moral Agency in Kant: Kant argues that individuals possess moral agency through their rational capacity to act according to universal moral principles, emphasizing the inherent autonomy of rational agents in ethical decision-making.
Social Contract in Rousseau: Rousseau’s argument revolves around the idea that individuals collectively exercise agency by entering into a social contract, forming a political community with shared rules and obligations.
Communicative Rationality in Habermas: Habermas contends that communicative rationality, rooted in open and free discourse, serves as the basis for agency and social transformation, promoting the idea that rational communication leads to consensus and cooperative action.

Agent and Literary Theories

Theory	Critique
Structuralism:	Structuralism, while valuable for understanding underlying patterns in literature, is often criticized for its focus on the text’s structure at the expense of individual agency. It can be seen as reducing characters to mere functions within a pre-established system, neglecting their individual motivations and actions.
Psychoanalytic Theory:	Psychoanalytic theory, notably associated with Sigmund Freud, emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on human behavior. Critics argue that this focus on the subconscious can reduce characters to products of their psyches, potentially overlooking external influences and societal factors that shape their agency.
Marxist Literary Theory:	Marxist theory examines literature through the lens of class struggle and economic forces. Critics argue that it tends to reduce characters to representatives of social classes and economic systems, potentially oversimplifying their motives and actions, and neglecting their individual agency.
Postcolonial Theory:	Postcolonial theory explores the impact of colonialism and imperialism on literature. Critics argue that it might overemphasize the influence of external colonial powers, potentially downplaying the agency and resistance of characters in colonized societies.
Feminist Literary Theory:	Feminist theory often highlights the portrayal of gender and power dynamics in literature. Critics argue that it can overemphasize gender-based victimization and oppression, potentially limiting the agency and complexity of female characters.
Postmodernism:	Postmodern literary theory challenges traditional notions of authorial control and fixed interpretations. Some critics argue that this focus on the instability of meaning can lead to a loss of agency within the text, making it difficult to discern clear intentions or character actions.

Agent in Literary Criticism

In Macbeth, the characters are often seen as agents driven by supernatural forces, particularly the prophecies of the witches, which can diminish their individual agency. Macbeth’s descent into tyranny is influenced by external factors, raising questions about the extent of his personal responsibility as an agent.
While Austen’s novel Pride and Prejudice explores the agency of its female characters, such as Elizabeth Bennet, it also reveals societal constraints that limit their choices. The critique centers on whether the characters are too constrained by the social norms of the time, potentially affecting the authenticity of their agency as agents.
In Huxley’s dystopian vision presented in Brave New World, individual agency is compromised by a highly controlled society where people are conditioned from birth. This critique questions whether the characters’ actions are genuine expressions of their will or merely products of a manipulative system, challenging their roles as agents.
In Orwell’s novel 1984, the oppressive totalitarian regime severely limits individual agency, and the protagonist, Winston Smith, struggles to assert his independence as an agent. Some critics argue that the bleak portrayal of a society devoid of agency can be overly pessimistic, potentially overshadowing the possibilities for resistance by agents within the system.

These critiques highlight the complexity of individual agency within the context of these literary works, where external forces and societal constraints play a significant role in shaping the characters’ actions and choices.

False Consciousness in Literature & Literary Theory

False consciousness denotes a cognitive state where individuals, typically from the working class, hold beliefs and values that align with the interests of the dominant ruling class rather than recognizing their own class-based interests.

Etymology of False Consciousness

The term “false consciousness” has its roots in the field of Marxist theory and social philosophy. It was originally formulated in German as “falsches Bewusstsein.” Here’s a brief etymological breakdown:

False (falsches): This word comes from the Middle English word “fals,” derived from the Old French word “faus,” meaning “false” or “deceptive.” In turn, the Old French word can be traced back to the Latin word “falsus,” which means “false” or “counterfeit.”
Consciousness (Bewusstsein): The term “Bewusstsein” in German translates to “consciousness” or “awareness.” It has its roots in the Old High German word “biwus,” which means “conscious” or “aware.”

“False consciousness” popularized by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the mid-19th century, it found its place in their critiques of capitalism and class struggle. It, in fact, refers to a state of mind in which individuals within a particular social class or group hold beliefs or adopt ideologies contrary to their own interests.

In Marxist theory, false consciousness is seen as a result of the dominant class’s ideological control, where the ruling class shapes and distorts the worldview of the working class, preventing them from recognizing their own exploitation and leading them to support the existing social order.

Meanings of False Consciousness

Concept	Meanings
Marxist Theory	– False consciousness refers to a state of misperception or misunderstanding where members of the working class (proletariat) hold beliefs, values, or ideologies that align with the interests of the ruling class (bourgeoisie). This misalignment is often attributed to the ideological control exerted by the dominant class, leading the proletariat to accept and perpetuate the existing social and economic system that oppresses them.
Misrecognition of Interests	– False consciousness implies the misrecognition of one’s own class interests, where individuals fail to recognize their exploitation and instead adopt the values, norms, and aspirations promoted by the ruling class. This can result in a lack of class solidarity and hinder collective action for social change.
Ideological Manipulation	– It suggests that ideological manipulation by the ruling class, often through media, education, and cultural institutions, can shape the beliefs and perceptions of the working class, leading them to accept the status quo as natural and just.
Critical Tool	– In critical theory and sociology, the concept of false consciousness serves as a critical tool to analyze how dominant ideologies and power structures influence the thoughts and actions of marginalized groups beyond the Marxist context. It highlights the need for critical awareness and the examination of underlying power dynamics in society.
Path to Liberation	– Recognizing and overcoming false consciousness is seen as a crucial step toward the liberation of oppressed groups, as it involves raising class consciousness and challenging the hegemonic ideologies that maintain social inequalities.

These meanings and interpretations of false consciousness are essential in understanding its role in Marxist theory, sociology, and critical analysis of society and ideology.

Definition of False Consciousness as a Theoretical Term

It signifies a lack of awareness or misperception of one’s own exploitation and the systemic inequalities within the prevailing socio-economic system. This concept highlights the role of ideological manipulation and serves as a critical framework for understanding how dominant ideologies shape individuals’ perceptions and hinder collective efforts for social change.

False Consciousness: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Karl Marx: The concept is closely associated with Marx’s critique of capitalism. He argued that the working class, due to ideological manipulation, often holds beliefs that align with the bourgeoisie, obscuring their class interests.

Key Works:

The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: This seminal work outlines the class struggle and the potential for false consciousness among the proletariat, emphasizing the need for class consciousness and revolution.
Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses by Louis Althusser: Althusser extends the concept by discussing how state institutions, such as education and media, contribute to the reproduction of false consciousness.
Repressive Tolerance by Herbert Marcuse: Marcuse explores the concept of false consciousness within the context of oppressive tolerance in society, where dissenting voices are marginalized and co-opted by the dominant ideology.

Arguments:

Misalignment of Interests: Theorists of false consciousness argue that it represents a misalignment of individuals’ class interests, where they inadvertently support the very system that oppresses them.
Ideological Manipulation: False consciousness underscores the role of ideological manipulation by the ruling class through various institutions to maintain the status quo and prevent social change.
Class Consciousness: The concept serves as a call for the development of class consciousness among the working class, encouraging them to recognize their own exploitation and collectively challenge the capitalist system.

False Consciousness in Literary Theories

Representation of Ideologies: Literary works represent the ideologies of their time. In literature, it occurs when these ideologies are uncritically accepted and perpetuated within the text, potentially misrepresenting social relations, power dynamics, and class struggles.
Characterization and Social Classes: Characters in literature embody false consciousness when their beliefs and actions align with the dominant ideologies of their society, even when those beliefs are contrary to their own class interests. This leads to complex character development and conflicts within the narrative.
Social Critique: Literary theorists often use this concept as a tool for social critique. They examine how literature unveils and critiques the false beliefs and illusions that individuals or societies hold, shedding light on the hidden contradictions and injustices in the real world.
Narrative Strategies: Narratives themselves construct to reveal or challenge. Authors employ narrative techniques to expose the disconnect between characters’ perceptions and the objective reality, prompting readers to critically engage with the text.
Class Struggle and Alienation: Marxist literary theory, in particular, emphasizes the role in depicting class struggle and the alienation of the working class. Literary works depict characters who are alienated from their own class interests due to false beliefs or who become aware of their true class consciousness.
Authorial Intent: Literary critics also consider the author’s intent in relation to it. They examine whether the author intends to reinforce or subvert dominant ideologies through their work and how this impacts the interpretation of the text.
Reader Response: The concept of false consciousness extends to reader response theory, where readers’ interpretations of literary texts are influenced by their own beliefs and biases. Readers also grapple with false consciousness when interpreting characters and themes in literature.

False Consciousness in Literature

Work (Author, Year)	Detailed Summary of False Consciousness Critique
*The Circle* by Dave Eggers (2013)	In Dave Eggers’ novel The Circle, critics have examined how the characters, especially Mae Holland, exhibit it as they enthusiastically embrace the invasive technology and surveillance culture of the Circle corporation. They believe in the company’s mantra of “All that happens must be known” without fully realizing the loss of privacy and the erosion of personal freedoms.
“The Hollow Men” by T.S. Eliot (1925)	T.S. Eliot’s poem “The Hollow Men” remains relevant today, and critics have analyzed how the hollow men in the poem represent individuals with false consciousness. They are spiritually empty, clinging to empty rituals and beliefs, and unable to confront the existential void at the core of their existence.
“The Lottery in Babylon” by Jorge Luis Borges (1941)	Although not a recent work, Borges’ short story “The Lottery in Babylon” continues to provoke discussions on it. The citizens of Babylon blindly accept a lottery system that determines their fates, even though it is inherently unjust and arbitrary. Their false consciousness is evident in their unquestioning obedience to the lottery’s rules.
“Clybourne Park” by Bruce Norris (2010)	Bruce Norris’s play Clybourne Park serves as a modern reinterpretation of Lorraine Hansberry’s “A Raisin in the Sun.” It explores issues of race, property, and gentrification. Critics have noted how the characters’ attitudes toward race and property rights reflect various forms of false consciousness, as they struggle to confront their own biases and prejudices.

Aporia/Aporetic in Literature & Literary Theory

Etymology of Aporia

The term “aporia” has its origins in ancient Greek philosophy and rhetoric. It comes from the Greek word “ἀπορία,” which is pronounced as “aporia” and is transliterated into the Latin alphabet as “aporia.” The word can be broken down etymologically as follows:

“Apo” (ἀπο): This prefix in Greek often signifies negation, perplexity, or difficulty.
“Oria” (ὀρία): This part of the word is related to “horos” (ὅρος), which means a boundary or limit. In the context of “aporia,” it suggests a state of being at a limit or an impasse.

Here are some possible meanings of Aporia:

Meanings of Aporia

Aspect	Meaning
Philosophical Meaning	In philosophy, it refers to a state of perplexity or an insoluble problem or paradox. It often arises when one encounters contradictory or conflicting ideas or arguments that seem to defy resolution. Philosophers use aporia to explore the limitations of human knowledge and the complexity of certain concepts.
Rhetorical Meaning	In rhetoric, it is a figure of speech where a speaker or writer expresses doubt or raises a question about a particular topic. It creates suspense, engages the audience, or highlights the complexity of an issue. It often involves the speaker presenting themselves as uncertain or perplexed, even if they know the answer.
Literary Meaning	In literature, it refers to a narrative or dramatic device where a character or narrator expresses confusion, doubt, or uncertainty about a situation or decision. This deepens characterization, builds tension, or conveys the complexity of the plot.
Mathematical and Logical Meaning	In mathematics and logic, “aporia” refers to a situation where a problem or proposition seems to lack a solution or leads to contradictory results. Mathematicians and logicians use the concept of aporia to explore the boundaries of their fields and uncover potential limitations or unresolved issues.
Ethical Meaning	In ethics, aporia refers to a moral dilemma or quandary in which a person faces conflicting moral principles or choices, and it is unclear which course of action is morally right.
Cultural and Linguistic Meaning	In some contexts, it refers to linguistic or cultural expressions of doubt or uncertainty. It is used to analyze how language and culture shape our understanding of the world.

Definition of Aporia as a Theoretical Term

In theoretical discourse, “aporia” denotes a condition marked by inherent, unresolvable contradictions or paradoxes, obstructing the emergence of a definitive resolution within a defined conceptual framework.

It serves as a symbol of epistemic uncertainty and intellectual perplexity, challenging the conventional boundaries of comprehension. Within academic contexts, it signifies a critical point where the limitations of existing knowledge become apparent, necessitating further exploration and inquiry.

Aporia: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Jacques Derrida: Derrida explored the idea in deconstructionist philosophy, emphasizing the inherent contradictions and uncertainties within language and texts.
Plato: In Plato’s dialogues, the concept of aporia arises as characters grapple with philosophical dilemmas and contradictions in their discussions.
Emmanuel Levinas: Levinas used aporia to describe the ethical encounter with the Other, highlighting the irreducible ambiguity and challenges in ethical relationships.

Works:

“The Pharmakon” by Jacques Derrida: Derrida’s essay “The Pharmakon” discusses the notion of aporia in relation to the Greek concept of “pharmakon” as both remedy and poison.
“Meno” by Plato: In Plato’s dialogue “Meno,” Socratic questioning leads to aporia as Meno and Socrates search for a definition of virtue.
“Totality and Infinity” by Emmanuel Levinas: Levinas explores aporia in the context of ethical responsibility in this influential work.

Arguments:

Deconstruction and Aporia: Derrida’s argument is that deconstruction reveals aporia in texts by exposing their inherent contradictions, challenging traditional interpretations.
Socratic Elenchus: Plato’s Socratic dialogues use aporia as a pedagogical method, demonstrating that questioning can lead to intellectual impasse and deeper inquiry.
Ethical Aporia: Levinas argues that ethical encounters with the Other often involve aporia, as the Other’s infinite alterity resists easy comprehension or assimilation.

Aporia and Literary Theories

Theory	Use of Aporia
Deconstruction	Jacques Derrida uses it to emphasize the presence of internal contradictions and paradoxes within texts. He argues that these aporias cannot be resolved but can be employed to expose the limitations of language and thought. It, for Derrida, represents the experience of the undecidable, the unstable, the impossible, and the unforeseeable (Derrida, 1981).
New Criticism	The New Critics employ the concept of Aporia to identify moments of uncertainty or ambiguity in texts. They view these moments as essential for interpreting a work because they allow multiple contradictory meanings to coexist within the same text. John Crowe Ransom, for example, asserts that it is the essence of poetry, creating the essential vitality of the art (Ransom, 1941).
Psychoanalysis	In psychoanalysis, Aporia describes the inherent contradiction between the conscious and unconscious mind. It represents the moment when repressed material resurfaces, leading to confusion and uncertainty. Prominent psychoanalyst Jacques Lacan uses it to signify the moment when the subject realizes the impossibility of resolving their desires.
Feminist Theory	Within feminist theory, Aporia exposes the limitations of language and thought when addressing issues of gender and sexuality. It refers to moments when dominant discourse fails to account for the experiences of marginalized groups. Judith Butler, for instance, discusses how Aporia manifests when dominant norms of gender and sexuality fail, forcing us to confront the limits of our language and thought (Butler, 1990).
Postcolonial Theory	In postcolonial theory, Aporia is used to illuminate the inherent contradictions and tensions within the discourse of colonialism. It signifies moments when the colonized subject cannot reconcile their own experiences with the dominant discourse of the colonizer. Homi Bhabha argues that it is the moment when the colonized subject realizes the contradictions within the discourse of colonialism and begins to create their own counter-discourse (Bhabha, 1994).

Examples of Aporia in Literary Criticism

The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger: In J.D. Salinger’s novel, the protagonist, Holden Caulfield, grapples with a sense of alienation and the contradictions of adulthood. Literary critics have examined how Holden’s unresolved feelings and his inability to reconcile with the adult world represent aporia in the context of adolescent identity.
Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston: Zora Neale Hurston’s novel explores the character Janie’s journey to self-discovery and love. Literary criticism often delves into Janie’s complex relationships and her struggle to define her identity within the societal constraints of race and gender, highlighting moments of aporia in her narrative.
Absalom, Absalom! by William Faulkner: William Faulkner’s novel is filled with narrative intricacies and multiple perspectives on the Sutpen family saga. Critics have discussed how the fragmented narrative and the elusive nature of truth in the story contribute to an aporetic reading experience, where the past remains elusive and contradictory.
Native Son by Richard Wright: In Richard Wright’s novel, the protagonist Bigger Thomas faces a world marked by systemic racism and oppression. Literary critics explore how Bigger’s actions and inner turmoil reveal the aporia inherent in navigating a society that denies him agency and humanity due to his race.
Song of Solomon by Toni Morrison: Toni Morrison’s novel features a protagonist, Macon Dead III, who embarks on a quest for self-discovery and identity. Literary analysis often focuses on Macon’s journey and the ambiguity surrounding his family’s history, illustrating moments of aporia as he seeks to reconcile his past with his present.

Unreliable Narrator in Literature & Theory

An “unreliable narrator” is a theoretical term in literary criticism and narratology that designates a narrator within a literary work whose credibility and veracity are questionable or compromised.

Etymology of Unreliable Narrator

The term “unreliable narrator” originated in the field of literary criticism and narratology to describe a narrative perspective characterized by a narrator whose credibility and trustworthiness are questionable or compromised.

The etymology of the phrase can be traced to the mid-20th century when literary theorists began to formally identify and discuss instances in literature where the narrators’ accounts of events, perceptions, or interpretations were intentionally distorted, biased, or self-deceptive.

This concept gained prominence through the work of literary critics such as Wayne C. Booth and was further popularized in his influential book The Rhetoric of Fiction (1961).

The term “unreliable narrator” encapsulates the idea that readers should approach a narrative with skepticism and critical awareness, recognizing that the narrator’s unreliability may introduce ambiguity, irony, or thematic complexity into the text.

It has, since, become a fundamental concept in literary analysis, enriching discussions about narrative perspective and the interpretation of literary works.

Meanings of Unreliable Narrator

Aspect	Meaning
Narrative Perspective	In literature and literary theory, an unreliable narrator refers to a narrative perspective characterized by a storyteller or narrator whose credibility and trustworthiness are questionable.
Distorted Perceptions	Unreliable narrators often present distorted or biased perceptions of events, characters, or circumstances within a narrative.
Self-Deception	These narrators may engage in self-deception, unintentionally misrepresenting facts, or deliberately manipulating the narrative to suit their purposes.
Literary Device	The concept of the unreliable narrator is employed as a literary device to introduce ambiguity, irony, or thematic complexity into a story.
Reader Engagement	Encountering an unreliable narrator prompts readers to approach the narrative with skepticism and encourages critical thinking about the text.
Narrative Ambiguity	The use of an unreliable narrator allows authors to explore themes related to subjectivity, truth, and the fallibility of human perception.
Key Literary Tool	Recognizing and analyzing an unreliable narrator is a fundamental aspect of literary analysis and adds depth to discussions about narrative perspective in literature.
Prominent Examples	Literature offers numerous examples of unreliable narrators, such as Holden Caulfield in J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye and Humbert Humbert in Vladimir Nabokov’s Lolita where the narrators’ unreliability is central to the narrative’s impact and themes.

Definition of Unreliable Narrator as a Theoretical Term

Such narrators present a narrative perspective characterized by distorted perceptions, self-deception, or intentional manipulation of events, challenging the reader’s trust in the narrative’s accuracy.

The concept of an unreliable narrator serves as a fundamental literary device used by authors to explore themes related to subjectivity, truth, and the complex interplay of narrative perspectives in literature.

Unreliable Narrator: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Wayne C. Booth: A prominent literary critic who contributed significantly to the understanding and formalization of the concept of the unreliable narrator in his influential book The Rhetoric of Fiction (1961).

Works:

The Rhetoric of Fiction by Wayne C. Booth: This seminal work by Booth discusses the concept of unreliable narrators and their narrative techniques, providing a framework for the analysis of this literary device.

Arguments:

Narrator’s Lack of Credibility: The primary argument is that the unreliable narrator lacks credibility, either due to deliberate deceit, cognitive limitations, or subjective bias, which challenges the reader’s ability to trust the narrator’s account.
Narrative Ambiguity: Unreliable narrators introduce ambiguity into a narrative, prompting readers to question the accuracy of events and interpretations presented, leading to multiple possible readings.
Exploration of Subjectivity: Authors use unreliable narrators to explore themes related to subjectivity, memory, truth, and the fallibility of human perception, deepening the complexity of narrative engagement.
Reader Engagement: The presence of an unreliable narrator engages readers in critical thinking, encouraging them to actively evaluate the narrator’s credibility and participate in the interpretation of the text.

Unreliable Narrator and Literary Theories

Narratology, the study of narrative structure and storytelling techniques, often explores the use of unreliable narrators as a narrative strategy. This theory focuses on how narrators shape the reader’s perception of the story and how their unreliability can lead to complex narrative effects.
Reader-response theorists, including Wolfgang Iser and Stanley Fish, emphasize the role of the reader in constructing meaning from a text. The presence of an unreliable narrator invites readers to actively engage with the narrative, making reader-response theory particularly relevant in analyzing the impact of unreliable narrators on interpretation.
Postmodern literature frequently employs unreliable narrators to challenge traditional notions of authorship, authority, and truth. Postmodern literary theory explores how these narrators disrupt linear narratives and blur the boundaries between reality and fiction.
Psychoanalytic theory, especially as developed by Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan, is relevant when analyzing unreliable narrators who exhibit psychological complexities. Such narrators may reveal insights into their unconscious desires, conflicts, and motivations.
Structuralist and semiotic theories examine the signifying systems at play in literature. The unreliable narrator can be seen as a semiotic device that disrupts the conventional signification process, raising questions about language, representation, and meaning.
Postcolonial theorists often explore the power dynamics inherent in storytelling and representation. Unreliable narrators can shed light on issues of colonialism, cultural imperialism, and the manipulation of narratives for control or resistance.
Feminist literary theory examines the portrayal of gender and power dynamics in literature. Unreliable narrators can be analyzed through a feminist lens to uncover how gender biases and stereotypes influence narrative perspectives.
Existentialist and absurdist theories address the human condition and the search for meaning in a seemingly irrational world. Unreliable narrators may embody existential angst or reflect the absurdity of existence in their narratives.

The presence of unreliable narrators in literary texts adds layers of complexity and invites critical engagement with these and other literary theories. Depending on the specific characteristics and motivations of the unreliable narrator, various theories can be applied to deepen our understanding of the narrative’s themes, effects, and implications.

Unreliable Narrator in Literary Criticism

Work	Critique
The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe:	In this classic short story, the unnamed narrator insists on their sanity while recounting their murder of an old man with a “vulture eye.” However, their erratic behavior and increasingly frenetic narrative style reveal their psychological instability. The unreliable narrator’s distorted perceptions and insistence on their rationality contribute to the story’s tension and horror.
Gone Girl by Gillian Flynn:	In Flynn’s psychological thriller, the novel is divided into two unreliable narrators, Nick and Amy Dunne. Each presents their version of events surrounding Amy’s disappearance. As the story unfolds, it becomes evident that both Nick and Amy manipulate their narratives to deceive not only other characters but also the reader. The novel masterfully explores the complexities of truth, deception, and the unreliability of perspective.
The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger:	Holden Caulfield, the novel’s teenage protagonist and narrator, is often regarded as an unreliable narrator due to his cynical and disillusioned perspective on the adult world. Holden frequently contradicts himself, embellishes stories, and displays emotional instability. Readers are challenged to decipher the authenticity of his narrative, making it a quintessential example of an unreliable narrator in a coming-of-age narrative.
Fight Club by Chuck Palahniuk:	The unnamed narrator in Fight Club is a prime example of an unreliable narrator who grapples with dissociative identity disorder. His narration shifts between multiple personas, and he is unaware of his violent alter ego, Tyler Durden. The unreliable narration mirrors the narrator’s mental state, creating a disorienting reading experience. Palahniuk’s novel explores themes of consumerism, masculinity, and identity through the lens of an unreliable narrator.

Undecidability in Literature & Literary Theory

Undecidability, as a theoretical term, refers to a condition where it is impossible to establish a definitive or unequivocal solution or outcome within a given context, often due to inherent complexity, paradox, or ambiguity.

Etymology of Undecidability

The term “undecidability” derives its etymology from the Latin word “decidere,” meaning “to decide” or “to determine,” with the prefix “un-“ signifying negation.

In an academic context, undecidability refers to the concept that certain problems or propositions within mathematics, logic, or other formal systems cannot be definitively resolved or determined as either true or false due to inherent limitations or paradoxes within those systems.

Meanings of Undecidability

Aspect	Meaning
Narrative Ambiguity	Authors leave elements open to multiple interpretations, engaging readers.
Reader Response Theory	Literary meaning depends on individual interpretations, leading to various readings.
Intertextuality	Undecidability arises from references between texts, reliant on reader recognition.
Open Endings	Unanswered questions in novels create undecidability, encouraging reader speculation.
Postmodernism	Challenges stable meanings, emphasizing language’s inherent uncertainty.
Derridean Deconstruction	Language’s fundamental undecidability, where binary oppositions remain unresolved.
Symbolic Ambiguity	Symbols and metaphors possess multiple, contradictory interpretations, adding complexity.
Reader-Writer Relationship	Authors engage readers by leaving aspects open to interpretation.
Paradox and Irony	Employed to challenge expectations, urging readers to grapple with contradictions.
Experimental and Metafiction	Blur fiction and reality, inviting exploration of undecidable storytelling.

Definition of Undecidability as a Theoretical Term

It commonly arises in fields such as mathematics, logic, and philosophy when propositions or problems lack a determinate answer or resolution, challenging traditional notions of certainty and determinism.

Undecidability underscores the limits of formal systems and highlights the need for nuanced approaches to understanding problems that resist simple solutions or conclusive answers.

Undecidability: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Jacques Derrida: Jacques Derrida is a central figure in literary theory known for his development of deconstruction, a critical approach that emphasizes the instability of meaning in language and texts. Derrida’s work is closely associated with the concept of undecidability in literature.
Roland Barthes: Roland Barthes, a prominent literary theorist, explored the idea of undecidability in his essay The Death of the Author He argued that the author’s intentions should not determine a text’s meaning, and that meaning is open to interpretation by readers.
Julia Kristeva: Julia Kristeva’s work on intertextuality and the semiotic aspects of language contributed to the idea that texts are interconnected and open to multiple interpretations, adding to the notion of undecidability in literature.

Works:

Of Grammatology by Jacques Derrida: In this work, Derrida delves into the concept of deconstruction and its implications for language and writing. He argues that language is characterized by undecidability and a play of differences.
The Death of the Author by Roland Barthes: Barthes’ essay challenges the traditional notion of authorial authority and argues that meaning is constructed by readers. It highlights the idea that interpretations are open-ended and undecidable.
Kristeva’s works on intertextuality: Julia Kristeva’s writings on intertextuality, such as Desire in Language explore how texts are interconnected, and how meaning emerges from the interplay of various texts, contributing to undecidability.

Arguments:

Derrida’s Argument: Derrida’s theory of deconstruction posits that language is characterized by undecidability, where meaning is never fixed but is always subject to reinterpretation and play of differences.
Barthes’ Argument: Roland Barthes argues against the notion of the author as the sole authority on a text’s meaning. He contends that texts are open to multiple interpretations, and readers play a crucial role in constructing meaning.
Kristeva’s Argument: Julia Kristeva’s concept of intertextuality emphasizes the interconnectedness of texts and the ways in which meaning is generated through the interaction of multiple texts. This highlights the idea that interpretations are multifaceted and undecidable.

Undecidability, in the context of literary theory, underscores the complexity and ambiguity of texts, challenging traditional notions of fixed meaning and authorial authority. These theorists, works, and arguments collectively contribute to our understanding of undecidability in literature and literary theory.

Undecidability and Literary Theories

Deconstruction:
- Deconstruction, a critical approach developed by Jacques Derrida, is deeply concerned with undecidability. Derrida argues that language is characterized by a play of differences, and meaning is never stable or fixed but is always in flux. He emphasizes that texts contain undecidable moments where meaning eludes definitive interpretation. Deconstructionists examine these moments of ambiguity, contradiction, and paradox to reveal the inherent instability of language and the limits of fixed meanings.
Reader-Response Theory:
- Reader-response theorists, including Wolfgang Iser and Stanley Fish, explore how readers actively engage with texts and construct meaning. Undecidability is relevant in this context because it underscores the idea that different readers can arrive at multiple, often conflicting interpretations of the same text. Reader-response theorists argue that the undecidability of meaning is a fundamental aspect of literary texts, and it is the reader who ultimately decides the meaning through their interpretation.
Intertextuality:
- The concept of intertextuality, popularized by Julia Kristeva, emphasizes the interconnectedness of texts. Undecidability is relevant to intertextuality because it highlights the idea that meaning is generated through the interplay of various texts. A text’s meaning is undecidable without considering its relationship to other texts. Intertextual connections contribute to the richness and ambiguity of literary interpretations.
The Death of the Author:
- Roland Barthes’s essay “The Death of the Author” challenges the authority of the author in determining a text’s meaning. Barthes argues that the author’s intentions should not dictate interpretation and that readers play a crucial role in constructing meaning. Undecidability is relevant here as it underscores the idea that multiple interpretations are possible, and the author’s intent is not the final word on a text’s meaning.
Postmodernism:
- Postmodern literature and critical theory often embrace undecidability as a central theme. Many postmodern works deliberately blur the boundaries between reality and fiction, play with narrative structures, and engage in metafictional techniques that challenge the notion of a single, fixed interpretation. Authors like Jorge Luis Borges, Italo Calvino, and Thomas Pynchon explore undecidability in their works.
Narrative Theory:
- In narrative theory, undecidability can be relevant when examining texts that employ unreliable narrators or ambiguous narrative structures. The uncertainty surrounding the reliability of a narrator or the sequencing of events can lead to undecidability regarding the text’s true meaning or the nature of its narrative.

Undecidability, as a concept, underscores the idea that meaning in literature is not fixed but is open to multiple, contradictory, or uncertain interpretations. It challenges traditional notions of authorial authority and invites readers and critics to engage with the inherent ambiguity and complexity of literary texts. It is a central theme in many poststructuralist and postmodern approaches to literary analysis.

Undecidability in Literary Criticism

Work	Author	Description
*The Trial*	Franz Kafka	Kafka’s novel The Trial exemplifies undecidability through its surreal and absurd narrative. The central question of Josef K.’s alleged crime remains undecidable, reflecting existential anxiety and alienation.
*House of Leaves*	Mark Z. Danielewski	Danielewski’s House of Leaves explores undecidability through its complex structure, featuring narratives within narratives. The format leaves the reality of events undecidable, inviting readers to grapple with interpretation.
*The Turn of the Screw*	Henry James	Henry James’ novella is renowned for its ambiguity and undecidability regarding supernatural elements. It never definitively answers whether the ghosts are real or a product of imagination, creating unease and mystery.
*If on a winter’s night a traveler*	Italo Calvino	Calvino’s postmodern masterpiece explores undecidability through its fragmented structure. The narrative remains undecidable as readers encounter interruptions, false starts, and shifting perspectives, resisting a fixed interpretation.

In these novels, undecidability serves various purposes, from creating a sense of existential anxiety and unease to inviting readers to actively engage with the text and consider multiple interpretations. The authors use ambiguity and open-endedness as literary devices to challenge traditional narrative conventions and encourage readers to embrace the complexity of meaning in literature. Undecidability adds depth and richness to these narratives, making them ripe for critical analysis and interpretation.

Temporal Relativity in Literature & Theory

Temporal relativity, as a theoretical term in literature and cultural studies, refers to the flexible manipulation and interpretation of time within narratives.

Etymology of Temporal Relativity

Temporal relativity is a concept that pertains to the relativity of time, primarily rooted in the theory of special relativity formulated by Albert Einstein in the early 20th century. The etymology of “temporal relativity” can be broken down as follows:

“Temporal” comes from the Latin word “tempus,” which means “time.” In this context, it refers to the dimension of time.
“Relativity” is derived from the word “relative,” which denotes something considered in relation to something else. In physics, it indicates that the observed properties of physical phenomena depend on the observer’s motion and frame of reference.

The concept of temporal relativity, as introduced by Einstein, posits that time is not an absolute and uniform entity but is instead relative and can vary depending on an observer’s motion relative to other objects. This theory challenges the classical Newtonian notion of absolute time and space.

Concept of Temporal Reality

Time Dilation: According to special relativity, time dilation occurs when an observer in one inertial reference frame perceives time passing differently from an observer in another frame. This effect becomes significant at high velocities, causing time to slow down for a moving object relative to a stationary one.
Spacetime: Einstein’s theory merged space and time into a single four-dimensional construct known as spacetime. The curvature of spacetime is influenced by the presence of mass and energy, giving rise to the theory of general relativity, which explains gravitational effects in terms of spacetime curvature.
The Equivalence Principle: The theory of general relativity introduces the equivalence principle, stating that gravitational forces are equivalent to the effects of acceleration. In other words, an observer in a gravitational field cannot distinguish it from acceleration in free space.

Temporal relativity has profound implications for our understanding of the universe and has been experimentally confirmed in various ways, including the famous experiments with atomic clocks on fast-moving satellites. It forms the basis for modern physics and our understanding of the behavior of objects in the cosmos, particularly in the presence of strong gravitational fields or when traveling at relativistic speeds.

Meanings of Temporal Relativity

Aspect	Meaning
Narrative Chronology	Manipulation of the chronological order using techniques like flashbacks, foreshadowing, or nonlinearity.
Subjective Perception of Time	Variation in how characters or narrators perceive time, influencing the narrative’s temporal elements.
Time as a Literary Theme	Exploration of time itself as a central theme, often in philosophical, existential, or metaphysical contexts.
Temporal Realities and Parallel Universes	Incorporating parallel universes or alternate timelines to explore different outcomes.
Temporal Distortion and Ambiguity	Intentional creation of ambiguity regarding the sequence of events for dramatic effect.
Temporal Shifts in Postmodern Literature	Challenging traditional temporal structures in postmodern works.
Temporal Symbolism	Using time as a symbol for concepts like mortality, transience, or cyclical existence.
Temporal Layering and Intertextuality	Incorporating multiple temporal layers and references to create multidimensional narratives.
Temporal Liminality	Evoking a sense of in-betweenness, often with characters in transitional states between past and future.
Temporal Conflict	Using temporal elements as a source of tension or conflict within the narrative.

Definition of Temporal Relativity as a Theoretical Term

Temporal relativity, as a theoretical term in literature and cultural studies, refers to the flexible manipulation and interpretation of time within narratives. It encompasses techniques and themes that challenge the conventional linear progression of events, allowing for nonlinear storytelling, varied subjective perceptions of time, and philosophical explorations of temporal concepts.

This concept acknowledges that time can be a dynamic and multifaceted element within literary works, often serving as a tool for conveying deeper meanings and complexities.

Temporal Relativity: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists	Works	Arguments
Virginia Woolf	Mrs. Dalloway, To the Lighthouse	Woolf’s stream-of-consciousness narrative style emphasizes the subjective and fluid nature of human experiences of time. Her works delve into characters’ inner thoughts and perceptions, challenging the conventional, linear understanding of time.
William Faulkner	The Sound and the Fury, As I Lay Dying	Faulkner employs nonlinear narrative structures, presenting events from multiple perspectives and timeframes. His narratives emphasize the fragmented and subjective nature of memory and human experience, questioning the linearity of time.
Julia Kristeva	Desire in Language	Kristeva explores intertextuality and temporal shifts in literature. She argues that texts are interconnected across time, engaging in dialogues with other works. Temporal references and blurred boundaries play a crucial role in understanding literary works.
Herman Hesse	Steppenwolf, Siddhartha	Hesse’s novels often explore spiritual and existential themes. He questions the linear progression of time and the boundaries between past, present, and future. His works emphasize the coexistence of different temporal dimensions and the potential for transcendence.
Gérard Genette	Narrative Discourse	Genette is a key figure in narratology. He discusses narrative time and temporal manipulation in literature, introducing concepts like anachrony and prolepsis. His work provides a framework for analyzing the complexities of narrative time.
Kurt Vonnegut	Slaughterhouse-Five	Vonnegut’s novel challenges linear time and questions the human construct of time. The narrative features time-traveling and a non-linear structure, reflecting the senselessness of war and human existence. It underscores that time is a flexible, human-made concept.

Temporal Relativity and Literary Theories

Narrative Theory: Narrative theorists examine how temporal elements, such as the sequence of events and the use of flashbacks or foreshadowing, contribute to the structure and meaning of a narrative. Temporal relativity allows for the exploration of how time is manipulated to create suspense, reveal information, or challenge linear storytelling conventions.
Postmodernism: Postmodern literature often embraces temporal relativity as a stylistic choice. It blurs the boundaries between past, present, and future, challenging traditional notions of time. Postmodern narratives frequently employ nonlinear structures and intertextual references that disrupt the conventional understanding of temporal progression.
Feminist Theory: Temporal relativity can be relevant in feminist literary theory when analyzing how women’s experiences and narratives have been historically marginalized or excluded. Examining the temporal dimensions of a text can shed light on the silencing or distortion of women’s voices and experiences throughout history.
Historical Criticism: Temporal relativity is essential in historical criticism to situate literary works within their historical context. Understanding the temporal setting and the cultural, social, and political influences of a particular era is crucial for a comprehensive analysis of a text’s themes and meanings.
Psychoanalytic Theory: Temporal relativity can be used to explore the temporal dimensions of a character’s psychological development. Psychoanalytic literary theorists may analyze how characters’ past experiences, memories, or traumas influence their present actions and behaviors.
Reader-Response Theory: Reader-response theorists examine how readers’ experiences of a text are influenced by the temporal dimensions of their own lives. Temporal relativity allows for the exploration of how readers’ personal experiences and the timing of their engagement with a text affect their interpretations and emotional responses.
Postcolonialism: Temporal relativity is relevant to postcolonial literary theory when analyzing the impact of colonialism on temporal perspectives. It can help in understanding how colonial powers imposed their concepts of time on colonized societies and how postcolonial literature may challenge or subvert these temporal impositions.

Temporal Relativity in Literary Criticism

Work	Critique
One Hundred Years of Solitude	In Márquez’s magnum opus, temporal relativity is a defining feature. The novel’s nonlinear narrative structure, blending past, present, and future, emphasizes the cyclical nature of history and the idea that time is not linear but constantly repeating. This technique allows Márquez to explore the interconnectedness of generations and the inescapable repetition of human behaviors. Critics applaud Márquez for his skillful manipulation of time, which enhances the novel’s themes of solitude, memory, and the blurred boundaries between reality and fantasy.
Ulysses	Joyce’s Ulysses is celebrated for its intricate temporal relativity. The novel unfolds over the course of a single day, but it delves into the characters’ memories, dreams, and stream-of-consciousness thoughts, creating a complex temporal web. This innovative approach mirrors the multifaceted nature of human consciousness and challenges the traditional linear narrative structure. Literary critics praise Joyce for his ability to capture the fluidity of time and thought, providing a profound insight into the characters’ inner worlds.
Cloud Atlas	Mitchell’s Cloud Atlas weaves together six interconnected stories spanning different time periods, from the 19th century to a post-apocalyptic future. Temporal relativity is at the heart of the novel’s structure, as it explores the idea that actions in one era can influence subsequent generations. Critics admire Mitchell’s ability to create a narrative that transcends conventional temporal boundaries, allowing readers to see the repercussions of choices and events across time. The novel serves as a reflection on the consequences of human actions and the interconnectedness of all life.
Midnight’s Children	In Midnight’s Children, Rushdie employs temporal relativity to create a narrative that spans the history of India, mirroring the country’s journey to independence. The protagonist, Saleem Sinai, is born at the stroke of midnight on the day of India’s independence, and his life becomes intertwined with the nation’s tumultuous history. Rushdie’s use of magical realism and nonlinear storytelling allows him to explore the complex relationship between individual and national histories. Critics laud the novel for its inventive manipulation of time, which highlights the role of historical events in shaping personal destinies.

These novels demonstrate the diverse ways in which temporal relativity can be employed in literature to challenge traditional narrative structures, explore the fluidity of time, and emphasize the interconnectedness of human experiences across different temporal dimensions. Critics and readers alike appreciate the innovative and thought-provoking narratives created through the skillful use of temporal relativity in these works.

Subjectivity of Time in Literature & Literary Theory

The subjectivity of time, as a theoretical concept, refers to the idea that time is not an absolute and universal entity but is perceived and experienced differently by individuals based on their emotions, perspectives, and circumstances.

Concept of Subjectivity of Time

The concept of the subjectivity of time in philosophy and physics suggests that our perception and experience of time are not absolute but are influenced by individual perspectives, contexts, and psychological factors.

It challenges the notion of a universal, objective time and underscores that time can be experienced differently by individuals, depending on their relative motion, psychological state, and cultural background. This subjectivity of time has implications for our understanding of reality and our philosophical discussions on the nature of temporal experience.

Meanings of Subjectivity of Time

Aspect	Meaning
Temporal Perspective	Different characters or narrators experience time uniquely based on emotions, perceptions, and circumstances.
Narrative Techniques	Authors employ techniques like flashbacks and nonlinear storytelling to convey diverse time experiences.
Psychological Time	Examines how mental states, memories, and expectations can alter characters’ time perception.
Cultural and Historical Context	Highlights how cultural and historical contexts shape characters’ views of time.
Stream of Consciousness	Captures characters’ inner thoughts and their subjective experience of time.
Existential Exploration	Explores questions of mortality, the passage of time, and the search for meaning in a temporal world.
Time as a Theme	Authors make time a central theme, examining its impact on decisions, relationships, and personal growth.
Literary Theory	Theoretical analysis of how authors manipulate time to convey meaning and its role in narrative and storytelling.

Definition of Subjectivity of Time as a Theoretical Term

It acknowledges that temporal perception is inherently personal and can vary across cultural, psychological, and narrative contexts. This concept has profound implications for philosophy, literature, and the understanding of how individuals relate to and interpret the passage of time.

Subjectivity of Time: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists	Notable Work	Argument
Henri Bergson	Creative Evolution	Bergson emphasized the subjectivity of time through the concept of “duration” and the distinction between measured, objective time and the individual’s lived experience of time.
Martin Heidegger	Being and Time	Heidegger’s existentialist philosophy delves into the subjectivity, emphasizing how individuals experience time in their existence and the concept of “Dasein.”
Paul Ricoeur	Time and Narrative	Ricoeur explored the narrative construction of time, emphasizing how stories and narratives shape our subjective experience of time.
William James	The Principles of Psychology	James contributed to the understanding of the subjectivity in/of time by discussing the stream of consciousness and how the individual’s inner experience of time differs from clock time.
Virginia Woolf	Mrs. Dalloway	Woolf’s literary works, particularly “Mrs. Dalloway,” exemplify the subjectivity in/of time through her stream-of-consciousness narrative style, showcasing the fluid and individual experience of time.
Jean-Paul Sartre	Being and Nothingness	Sartre’s existential philosophy explores the subjectivity in/of time, emphasizing how individuals are condemned to be free and create their own subjective experience of time.

Subjectivity of Time and Literary Theories

Modernism:
- Relevance: Modernist literature often explores the subjectivity of time through fragmented narratives, stream-of-consciousness techniques, and a focus on individual perception. Authors like James Joyce and Virginia Woolf exemplify this exploration in works like “Ulysses” and “Mrs. Dalloway.”
Narratology:
- Relevance: Narratologists examine how the subjectivity of time affects the narrative structure. Concepts like “anachrony” (non-linear narrative) and “prolepsis” (flashforward) highlight the influence of temporal subjectivity on storytelling.
Psychological Realism:
- Relevance: Literary theories emphasizing psychological realism delve into the interior experiences of characters, which includes their subjective perception of time. Authors like Fyodor Dostoevsky and Henry James explore characters’ mental time through introspection.
Postcolonial Literature:
- Relevance: Postcolonial literature often portrays the subjectivity in the context of colonialism’s impact on cultural identities and temporal perspectives. Authors like Salman Rushdie and Chinua Achebe explore how colonialism disrupts traditional temporalities.
Feminist Literary Theory:
- Relevance: Feminist literary theory examines the subjectivity in/of time, particularly in how female characters’ experiences of time and temporality may differ from male characters. Authors like Virginia Woolf’s “Orlando” challenge conventional gendered temporalities.
Magical Realism:
- Relevance: Magical realist literature integrates elements of the supernatural into everyday life, often bending this subjectivity in time. Writers like Gabriel García Márquez employ magical realism to disrupt linear time and create unique temporal experiences.
Postmodernism:
- Relevance: Postmodernist literature embraces non-linear narratives, intertextuality, and metafiction, reflecting the subjectivity of time and the collapse of traditional temporal structures. Authors like Italo Calvino and Jorge Luis Borges explore these themes.

Subjectivity of Time in Literary Criticism

One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez: Critique: García Márquez employs the subjectivity of time to create a narrative that blends the past, present, and future, challenging the conventional linear progression of time. This subjectivity underscores the novel’s magical realism and the cyclical nature of history in Macondo. The novel’s portrayal of time as fluid and non-linear emphasizes the characters’ eternal existence, creating a dreamlike, timeless atmosphere.
Mrs. Dalloway by Virginia Woolf: Critique: In Mrs. Dalloway, Woolf’s use of stream-of-consciousness narrative delves deeply into the subjectivity of time within the characters’ minds. It highlights how individual consciousness experiences time as a continuous flow of thoughts, memories, and emotions, rather than as objective, measured time. The novel’s temporal subjectivity amplifies the psychological depth of the characters and their intricate relationships with time.
The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner: Critique: Faulkner’s novel The Sound and the Fury is a masterpiece of narrative experimentation that explores the fragmented subjectivity. By employing multiple narrators, each with their own temporal perspectives and emotional states, Faulkner captures the disjointed experience of time within a single family. This subjectivity underscores the disintegration of traditional temporal structures, mirroring the characters’ inner chaos.
One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn: Critique: Solzhenitsyn’s novel portrays the subjectivity of time in the context of a single day in a Soviet labor camp. It underscores how the experience of time varies for the prisoners, as they count moments, endure suffering, and seek small pleasures. The novel’s focus on the subjectivity of time highlights the prisoners’ resilience and the significance of individual moments in their harsh reality.

In these novels, the subjectivity of time enriches the narratives, offering readers a unique perspective on temporal experiences and challenging traditional, linear representations of time. Each author’s approach to time contributes to the thematic depth and emotional resonance of the works.

Non-Linearity in Narrative in Literature & Theory

Non-linearity in narrative, as a theoretical term, refers to the deliberate disruption of the chronological order of events within a literary work.

Concept of Non-Linearity in Narrative

Non-linearity in narrative refers to a storytelling technique where the events of a narrative are not presented in a strictly chronological order, disrupting the conventional flow of a story. Instead, non-linear narratives may employ techniques such as flashbacks, foreshadowing, parallel storylines, or fragmented timelines to challenge the linear progression of events.

This approach enables authors to craft intricate narratives, delve into the complexities of memory, perception, and character development, and engage readers in deciphering the puzzle of the narrative structure. Non-linearity invites exploration of the subjective and multifaceted nature of human experiences, reflecting the idea that time itself can be a malleable element within a story.

It is a narrative strategy that encourages readers to actively participate in assembling the story’s temporal puzzle and often underscores the interconnectedness of events across different temporal dimensions.

Meanings of Non-Linearity in Narrative

Aspect	Meaning
Disrupted Chronology	Deliberate disruption of chronological order, using flashbacks, time leaps, or anachronies to challenge linear storytelling.
Temporal Complexity	Exploration of the subjective experience of time by characters and readers, adding depth to character development and themes.
Multiple Perspectives	Incorporation of various viewpoints to offer a richer understanding of events from different angles and character perspectives.
Parallel Storylines	Employment of concurrently running but non-chronological storylines, contributing to narrative depth and complexity.
Reader Engagement	Actively involving readers in deciphering the non-linear narrative structure, turning them into participants in understanding temporal intricacies.
Exploration of Memory	Delving into the non-linear nature of memory, portraying how individuals recollect and relive events out of sequence as a thematic element.
Character Development	Unique character development by presenting fragmented stages of a character’s life or emotional journey, revealing insights into their evolution.
Temporal Symbolism	Symbolic use of temporal elements to represent concepts like life’s cyclical nature, time’s relativity, and interconnected events.
Temporal Significance	Emphasizing the importance of specific temporal moments, making them stand out within the overall chronology.
Narrative Experimentation	Challenging conventional storytelling norms through non-linearity, encouraging readers to explore new narrative dimensions.

Definition of Non-Linearity in Narrative as a Theoretical Term

Non-linearity in narrative, as a theoretical term, refers to the deliberate disruption of the chronological order of events within a literary work. This narrative technique employs methods such as flashbacks, anachronies, and temporal complexities to challenge the conventional structure of storytelling. It introduces a thematic exploration of temporal relativity, memory, and character development, encouraging readers to actively engage with the story’s intricate temporal structure.

Non-Linearity in Narrative: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Gerard Genette: Genette’s work on narrative theory, especially in his book “Narrative Discourse,” discusses various narrative structures, including non-linear ones. He introduced the concept of “analepsis” (flashback) and “prolepsis” (flashforward) as narrative devices that disrupt chronological order.
Roland Barthes: Barthes, a prominent literary theorist, explored non-linear storytelling in works such as “S/Z” and “The Pleasure of the Text.” He examined the ways readers engage with texts and how non-linear structures can disrupt traditional reading practices.
Julia Kristeva: Kristeva, in her work on intertextuality and the semiotic, has discussed the non-linear nature of language and its impact on narrative. Her ideas have influenced discussions of fragmented narratives.

Works:

“One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel Garcia Marquez: This novel employs a non-linear narrative, moving back and forth in time. Marquez’s use of magical realism adds an extra layer of complexity to the story.
“Memento” (film) directed by Christopher Nolan: This film’s narrative structure is famously non-linear, with scenes presented in reverse order. The story revolves around a man with short-term memory loss trying to solve a mystery.
“Slaughterhouse-Five” by Kurt Vonnegut: This novel uses a non-linear narrative to reflect the protagonist‘s experiences of “unstuck” time, moving between different moments in his life, particularly during World War II.

Arguments and Discussions:

Challenging Linearity: One of the primary arguments for non-linearity in narrative is that it challenges conventional, linear storytelling. By doing so, it can mirror the complexities of human memory and perception.
Reader Engagement: Non-linear narratives often require readers or viewers to actively engage with the text, filling in gaps and making connections between non-sequential events. This active involvement can lead to a more immersive and participatory storytelling experience.
Emotional Impact: Non-linear narratives can be used to create emotional impact. By revealing key events or information out of order, authors or filmmakers can generate surprise, suspense, and a sense of revelation.
Themes of Time: Non-linearity is often used to explore themes related to time, memory, and the passage of events. It allows creators to play with the concept of time as a fluid and subjective experience.
Narrative Stability: Some argue that non-linear narratives can be disorienting or confusing, potentially alienating audiences. It can be a challenge to maintain coherence and ensure that the non-linear structure serves a meaningful purpose in the narrative.

Non-linear storytelling continues to be a subject of interest and experimentation in literature, film, and other narrative forms, offering a rich field for exploration of different modes of storytelling and the impact on the audience’s engagement and understanding.

Non-Linearity in Narrative and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Narratology	Gerard Genette’s “Narrative Discourse” discusses non-linear elements like analepsis and prolepsis, which impact temporal order in narratives.
Structuralism	Roland Barthes’ “S/Z” explores non-linear narrative structures that disrupt traditional expectations and create multiple layers of meaning.
Postmodernism	Postmodern Narrative Theory often embraces non-linearity to challenge conventional linear narratives, as seen in the works of authors like Italo Calvino and Jorge Luis Borges.
Reader-Response Theory	Wolfgang Iser and Stanley Fish’s theories are relevant when discussing non-linear narratives that require readers to actively engage with the text.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Sigmund Freud and Jacques Lacan’s theories align with non-linear storytelling, as it mirrors the workings of memory and the unconscious mind.
Intertextuality	Julia Kristeva’s theory of intertextuality is relevant to understanding the complex layers and references in non-linear narratives.
Feminist Theory	Hélène Cixous and Luce Irigaray explore non-linear narratives as tools to challenge traditional male-dominated narrative structures and empower female voices.
Deconstruction	Jacques Derrida’s deconstructive approach to literature can be applied to non-linear narratives that challenge traditional narrative structures and hierarchies.

Non-Linearity in Narrative in Literary Criticism

“One Hundred Years of Solitude” by Gabriel Garcia Marquez:
- Critique: Marquez’s use of non-linear narrative, with its cyclical and fragmented structure, has been praised for capturing the cyclical nature of history. However, some critics argue that its complexity may confuse readers and distance them emotionally from the characters.
“Slaughterhouse-Five” by Kurt Vonnegut:
- Critique: Vonnegut’s non-linear narrative, which reflects the protagonist‘s experiences of “unstuck” time during war, adds depth to the theme of trauma. Yet, the disjointed structure has faced criticism for potentially disrupting the narrative’s flow and reader engagement.
“House of Leaves” by Mark Z. Danielewski:
- Critique: “House of Leaves” is celebrated for its complex, multi-layered narrative, but its use of footnotes, marginalia, and multiple perspectives can be excessively convoluted, potentially alienating readers seeking a more straightforward narrative.
“If on a winter’s night a traveler” by Italo Calvino:
- Critique: Calvino’s postmodern novel with its non-linear structure, which alternates between multiple stories, is acclaimed for its metafictional exploration. However, its fragmented nature has been criticized for potentially confusing readers and disrupting the traditional narrative flow.
“The Garden of Forking Paths” by Jorge Luis Borges (Short Story):
- Critique: Borges’ short story masterfully employs non-linear narrative as it explores labyrinthine and interconnected narratives. While celebrated for its intellectual depth, some readers may find it challenging to navigate the intricate narrative layers.

In these works, non-linear narratives serve diverse purposes, from enriching themes to challenging conventional storytelling. However, the critiques often revolve around the balance between complexity and reader accessibility.

Books:

Barthes, Roland. S/Z. Hill and Wang, 1974.
Calvino, Italo. If on a winter’s night a traveler. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981.
Danielewski, Mark Z. House of Leaves. Pantheon Books, 2000.
Genette, Gerard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Translated by Jane E. Lewin, Cornell University Press, 1983.
Marquez, Gabriel Garcia. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Harper & Row, 1970.
Vonnegut, Kurt. Slaughterhouse-Five. Delacorte Press, 1969.

Short Stories:

Borges, Jorge Luis. “The Garden of Forking Paths.” Ficciones. Translated by Anthony Kerrigan, Grove Press, 1962.

M	T	W	T	F	S	S
				1	2	3
4	5	6	7	8	9	10
11	12	13	14	15	16	17
18	19	20	21	22	23	24
25	26	27	28	29	30

Etymology of Determinism

Meanings of Determinism

Definition of Determinism as a Theoretical Term

Determinism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Works:

Key Arguments:

Determinism and Literary Theories

Determinism in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Angst

Meanings of Angst

Definition of Angst as a Theoretical Term

Angst: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Key Works:

Key Arguments:

Angst and Literary Theories

Angst in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Agent

Meanings of Agent

Definition of Agent as a Theoretical Term

Agent: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Works:

Key Arguments:

Agent and Literary Theories

Agent in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Etymology of False Consciousness

Meanings of False Consciousness

Definition of False Consciousness as a Theoretical Term

False Consciousness: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Key Works:

Arguments:

False Consciousness in Literary Theories

False Consciousness in Literature

Suggested Readings

Books:

Articles and Essays:

Etymology of Aporia

Meanings of Aporia

Definition of Aporia as a Theoretical Term

Aporia: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Works:

Arguments:

Aporia and Literary Theories

Examples of Aporia in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Unreliable Narrator

Meanings of Unreliable Narrator

Definition of Unreliable Narrator as a Theoretical Term

Unreliable Narrator: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Works:

Arguments:

Unreliable Narrator and Literary Theories

Unreliable Narrator in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Read more on Theoretical Terms below:

Etymology of Undecidability

Meanings of Undecidability

Definition of Undecidability as a Theoretical Term

Undecidability: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Works:

Arguments:

Undecidability and Literary Theories

Undecidability in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Temporal Relativity

Concept of Temporal Reality

Meanings of Temporal Relativity

Definition of Temporal Relativity as a Theoretical Term

Temporal Relativity: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Temporal Relativity and Literary Theories

Temporal Relativity in Literary Criticism